Researchers detect a number of major reasons for eucalyptus decline in Australia. These reasons are climatic extremes, improper management, agricultural pollution and a variety of pathogen organisms. It is necessary to add that some types of eucalypt are more vulnerable, for instance, E. sieberi or E. marginata. At that, the decline of these types may lead to the decline of other types of eucalypt growing in the area.
As far as the reasons for the decline are concerned, climatic extremes are seen as the primary cause of eucalypt decline as recent droughts in Australia had a negative impact on the trees. Apart from droughts, frost and waterlogging are dangerous weather conditions which may lead to eucalypt decline. Trees growing in low areas where there is soil with poor drainage are especially vulnerable. The change of soil tends to lead to chronic abiotic stress in trees and their further decline. The trees which are impaired are affected by a number of species of pests which cause further decline. It is necessary to note that human activity negatively affects eucalypt as improper land management results in soil deterioration. The use of chemicals also has negative effects on eucalypt. The chemical composition of soil and its properties change as a result of agricultural activities and become unfavourable for the trees.
In conclusion, it is necessary to note that the reasons for the decline mentioned above tend to occur in combinations. Therefore, it is essential to pay attention to all the hazards to diminish eucalypt decline.
Definition of Green in relation to hospitality industry
The green phenomenon is a technology that has been acquired and being implemented in the hospitality industry with the aim of saving on the general expenses of the industry and at the same time conserving the environment (Yudelson, 2007). This is a movement that advocates for the use of the locally available materials in establishing and maintaining the social amenities like hotels, motels tourist resorts, restaurants and the likes. In utilizing such resources, it gives the building a natural look at the same time saving on the general expenses of the hotel. The green phenomenon gains its support from the fact that when a building and the facilities there in are designed in a natural form, they create a similar feeling to the guests making them even more comfortable.
The green phenomenon is also a term that is used to assure the public that the measures being taken to process a certain product are safe to them and to the environment. It is all about giving a product a certain description of what it is made of and how it is the best for use (Vallero, 2008). This came of importance when it was discovered that some products may be harmful to the human system due to the substances that have been mixed. The consumers hence became particular with the contents of the products that they were buying which motivated the inception of the green labels.
The green phenomenon has raised a lot of debate among the various organizations and individuals. There seems to be a lack of understanding on what exactly the term means. To many it is all about doing much for less, being able to manage a large premise with minimum resources (Goldbeck, 1995). With the current high living standard accompanied by a series of economic instability among various nations, businesses are hungry for any advices that will enable them increase their savings as they minimize on the use of resources. Going green is therefore a term that has been so much exaggerated by others. The going green movement was not meant in any way to compromise on the quality of services being provided by hospitality industries as many are currently using it. It was in the real sense to add an economical beauty to the establishment.
Greening is a phenomenon that was developed in the mid sixties after it was discovered that a lot of facilities are being wasted in hotels. This was also affecting the environment and the ecosystem making it even more expensive (Fuad, 2002). This was also done with the aim of boosting the hospitality industry and making sure that people enjoy absolute comfort at a minimal price. Since its inception, several hotels have sought to seek the green recognition from the various registrars. There has however been inadequate supervision in ensuring that the required terms and conditions are followed which raises questions on exactly what the management does to reduce on their total expenditure.
Most people have criticized the viability of this phenomenon terming it as a compromise on the quality of services being offered. To most people it is all about reducing the overhead expenses or luring the unsuspecting consumers to use certain product which may lead to compromise on the wellbeing of the customers (Callenbach, 1993). When it was established, its aim was to encourage the hospitality industry management to consider using locally available techniques that are easily available and less costly. This was due to the fact that, the hotels sought to furnish their buildings with sophisticated wares some which had to be imported and ignoring the locally available ones. Such importation leads not only to cultural degradation but also a threat to the ecosystem.
The area of greatest concern was the amount of energy that was used in the hotels. It was discovered that a lot of power was used to light up and also to heat and cook. There has been a massive waste of resources that can be recycled and used again (Ryan, 1997). Hotels have not been careful in observing the green label marks with the assumption that their guests may non bother much whether they are environment friendly or not. After all they are serving them just for a shorter while. Even those with the green label status have not displayed them to their guests.
The use of eco-friendly facilities and equipments will minimize on the risks involved in using some of the chemically refined products. Such products have been in the past related to be among the high contributors of some infections. Chemically refined products go through a series of mechanical processes that may prove to be harmful to the human organs. The high numbers of cancerous infections have been related to some of the food chemicals that are usually added to the products to either preserve them or improve their quality (Morris, 1997). Some of the imported food products may also not be suitable when used in other countries; this is because of the different makeup of the people and the varying nutritional needs. The green phenomenon advocates for the use of natural products that are located in the country of origin. This will not only minimize on the expenses that will be incurred on importing them but it will ensure that all the products consumed are fresh and safe.
The green phenomenon gave rise to higher preference of the herbal products both domestically and industrially (Greenberg, 2007). There has been a high demand for products that came with the herbal label. This was generally due to the awareness that the chemically manufactured products were risky to the human body. There still rose many questions on the purity of such substances since the same companies that were manufacturing the chemical ones still advertised new ones with a greener label. It was common in the eighties and early nineties to see herbal toothpastes, soaps, creams and so forth (Rosenberg, 2002). The herbal industry was quit a boom but later on subsided. This was due to the immergence of some other fake industries that did not in the real sense follow the necessary procedures in producing the products; they were mainly taking advantage of the consumers interest and giving them substandard products that harmed them instead.
Application in industry
There are yet more emphasis to encourage industries and individuals to use green products and equipments. There has been an influx of energy saving lamps that ensure a good value for the pocket at the same time minimizing on the pressure that was earlier on exerted on such resources (Lilienfeld, 1998). The green movement also advocates for the use of recyclable materials to avoid wasting them after use. Such products have mainly included plastic and paper instead of metals and glasses. The advantages that the plastics have over paper are that they are chemically manufactured and can be melted and used again. Metals have to be mined, smelted and then remoulded into appropriate shapes. The smelting process of metals is slightly expensive and consumes more energy compared to the process of melting plastics.
When it comes to environmental conservation, it is clear that using plastics is less costly to the environment. Metals have to be mined, a procedure that is not only costly but affecting the other ecosystem in the ground. Depressions are also left on the ground causing danger to passers by and leaving ugly marks (Wrigh, 2008). There has also been a report for the extinction of such minerals leaving us with no alternatives but to adjust to using alternatives. Technology has made it possible for plastic to be given different shapes colours and designs that make the products even more attractive, metals may have a limit to how they are designed but plastics are very flexible.
In the earlier days, plastic was minimized for use only on kitchen utensils such as plates and cups. Industrial revolution has seen the invention of plastic furniture. The use of such furniture in hotels will minimize on the number of trees that are being cut for timber (Gillis, 2008). Plastics can also be used for flower vases instead of ceramic. Plastics should be preferred in hotels and restaurants instead of glasses because of their nature that makes them not to break easily. Glass is an expensive and fragile material that may also lead to many accidents if not well maintained. Hotels, restaurants and other hospitality industries have had too incur a lot of costs in replacing broken glasses, although the materials are recyclable, it is not always easy to collect the broken pieces and take them to a recycle company (Gibbons, 1996). When the glass drops down and breaks into tiny pieces, it becomes an environmental hazard especially to the children who like to play freely.
Most packaging industries have come in support of the green movement to improve the ecosystem by using plastic materials for packaging. Most packs come in form of plastic instead of the earlier tin preference (Glavinich, 2008). Plastic is less bulky and can be safely handled by all including the children. It is also less costly and the containers can be improvised and used for storage and recycled.
It has been fundamental for the companies that are aimed at protecting the environment and the welfare of consumers to include it on their packages to assure the consumers of their caring nature (Jones, 2008). This is usually with the hope of attracting customers who are mostly selective on the kind of products that they use and to assure them that they are indeed safe. It is common to see food items with detailed information of their composition, the nutritional value and the percentages there in have been clarified to make the consumers confident of what they are taking.
Companies and industries have been encouraged to use eco-labels. An eco-label is a short description about a certain product or set up to signify that it meets all the eco-friendly procedures. Such labels include; energy efficient, natural, herbal, no chemicals added, pure fruit, inorganic, recyclable, nontoxic, environmentally friendly and so forth. Inclusion of such labels on the product does a lot in enhancing the consumers attitude towards the product (Hennessey, 2008). They become more confident when purchasing and using the products.
There has however been a trend by some companies who do not follow the required environmental procedures but use the eco-labels to lure the public into purchasing their products. They take advantage of the fact that the consumers are not able to follow the detailed procedures of finding out whether the information displayed to them is true or not (Weinberger, 2003). Different governments have therefore come up with measures of ensuring that the consumers are protected from such frauds. They have come up with standardization marks for both the locally manufactured products and the imported ones. Consumers are hence forth advice to look up for such marks to assure them of their quality. There has however been a reported case of faking such marks, a process that is still being reviewed to curb the trend.
Industry implications
It has been suggested by most hospitality industries that the green label use should be intensified. The green labels have different meanings among different groups. It will be appropriate if a definite meaning with international recognition be identified to instil such confidence in consumers worldwide (Feireiss, 2008). Correct procedures should also be followed in ensuring that the products that have such labels are doing it in honest and sincerity. What has made the public to loose confidence in the green labels and view it as a normal trend used by industries to increase their sales is because of the increased number of fake labels. If only the procedures are strictly followed and the consumers given such an assurance, then the labels will be back in place.
There has always raised a question on how the hotel industry can posses a green label when their activities are not directly associated with environmental conservation. Such a thought is not reasonable as the hotels compared to other established institution are leading in consumption of certain resources such as water and electricity (Seo, 2001). Hotels could be among the leading in consumption of water and electricity. It has been usually assumed that hotels serve temporal customers who are required to meet all the expenses and are therefore not required to follow the green label procedures.
The hotel industry needs to acquire the green label status by making good use of the energy saving equipments for heating water and lighting. They can also ensure that their customers are protected from harmful products by using those that have a green label. Such commodities include; toiletries, food stuffs and so forth. They also use such facilities that are in connection with the ecosystem: construction materials, fixtures, cleaning materials, furnishings, air conditioners, furnaces, computers and elevators (Stern, 2008). The hotels should make it part of their advertising criteria to assure their customers that the services being provided to them follow the right procedure to guarantee them protection. This will go a long way in attracting even more customers especially those that are sensitive with the environment. Provision of such services will create a confidence in their mind that the hotels are not only aimed at making higher profits but that they care about their wellbeing (Reames, 2005). When such procedures are implemented by the hotels, they will distribute the savings to their clients and thus giving them quality services at a reasonable price.
The consumers on the other hand should be in a position to accept and appreciate the green labels. They should be more attracted to the hotels that bear such labels and encourage the management in campaigning for such (Jones, 2008). The consumers who had no understanding on how the hotel industry participates in conserving the ecosystem will now have a proper understanding that will in turn motivate them to make informed decisions. Most hotels do not have the courage of declaring themselves green due to certain attitudes that have been developed in the minds of their customers concerning the same.
Hindering and facilitating factors
The green label phenomenon received enormous support during its earlier days of inception. Later on the trend lost its support from the consumer who felt they were being manipulated into buying products that were contrary to their green label description. The manufactures took advantage of the consumers trust on the green labels and put the labels without necessarily changing the contents (Von, 2008). This is one of the greatest challenges that faced the green label movement, it has to some extend created a negative attitude on some specific consumers who have no regard for the green labels.
Despite this, the green label movement continues its campaign in encouraging the hospitality industries to acquire the green status emphasizing on their role in conserving the environment and protecting consumers. The public on the other hand is being encouraged to trust the green labels as measures are being put forth to ensure that the labels are genuine. Different governments have defined measures that can be taken by companies to register their products for them to acquire the green label status (Calkins, 2008). The requirements are different from hospitality industries to manufacturing industries. For a hotel to acquire the green label status, it is required to meet certain kind of laid down conditions. After it has been certified, it is given some labels and stickers for identification. The hotel will receive regular updates on how they can apply the current eco-friendly methods to their services. The registration companies also carry out regular inspections of these hotels to ensure that they are meeting the recommended standards.
More intensive measures need to be taken by the different governments to ensure that the products that bear the green label mark are genuine. With advanced information technology, many counterfeit labels are coming up, putting the consumers at a high risk (Berthold, 1994). The registration companies should come up with more sophisticated labels that will make duplication impossible. The labels should not be designed and placed in an obvious manner that will make the consumers doubt their viability (Smith, 2003). The registrars must make sure that the right procedures are indeed followed by the industries that desire the labels.
With such measures in place, the consumers can now have the confidence of looking out for the green label products. All they need is the assurance that the products that they are using have not counterfeited the green labels to lure them into purchasing the products (Klutz, 1999). There are several programs around the world that advocate the use of eco-labels, some of them include:, Frances NF Environment, Japans Eco Mark, Koreas Environmental Labelling Association, Indias Ecomark Scheme, International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Singapores Green Label Scheme, Nordic Swan Eco-label, Swedens Good Environmental Choice, Australias Environmental Choice and the United States Green Seal.
However, it is unfortunate that some of the consumers are not well informed about green labels. They usually buy products without necessarily bothering to find out how safe they are. It is therefore important for the different governments to explain to the public what a green label is and how necessary it is for them to look out for it before making purchasing decisions. The consumers that had also lost their confidence in the labels also need to be reassured that counterfeit labels will be handled accordingly (Jones, 2008). Labels that are eligible need to be made known and any counterfeit label identified should be reported and serious action taken to punish the defaulters.
Conclusion
It is clear from the various findings that the green label program is not near from giving up on its campaign. Despite the various challenges that are facing the movement there is still hope that it will be trusted and accepted just as it was when it was incepted. Various product industries still trust the green label phenomenon as the main marketing procedure that they can employ to increase on their sales. All they need to do is to buy back their customers trust by ensuring that they follow the required measures and ensure that the descriptions that they are making on their products are genuine and sincere (Guenther, 2008). The definition of the term green should be reviewed and given a uniform meaning which will prevent controversial meanings among the consumers. Different people have specific meaning to the term which has been the main contributing factor towards lack of trust.
The government is the main body that can restore the confidence among the consumers who look up for the green labels. The private sector has been for a long time been known to do anything to grab the attention of the consumers. They will apply any measure to their products as long as they are assured of an increased market share (Klutz, 2001). The competition for the green label recognition has made many of these sectors go to the extreme in the name of making higher profits. They are generally less concerned about the well being of the consumers and even the ecosystem. There is a need for both the industries and the consumers to take interest in conserving the environment and themselves. If we do not make good use of the natural ecosystem then we will experience environmental complications, all the natures beauty will be unheard of and life will become more of artificial than natural. Let the industries make good use of the green labels as the consumers insist on using such products.
References
Berthold A. Clean and Green: Ceres Press, 1994 pp. 25-28
Calkins M. Materials for Sustainable Sites: John Wiley & Sons: New Jersey, 2008 pp. 15-19
Callenbach E. Living Cheaply With Style: Ronin Publishing, 1993 pp. 13-17
Feireiss L. Architecture of Change: Zumtobel Lighting: Dornbirn, 2008 pp. 18-21
Fuad A. Ecodesign handbook: Thames & Hudson, 2002 pp. 27-30
Gibbons G. Recycle: Sagebrush, 1996 pp. 52-56
Gillis C. Wind Power: Schiffer Publishing: Pennsylvania, 2008 pp. 24-27
Glavinich E. Contractors Guide to Green Building Construction: John Wiley, 2008 pp. 27-30
Goldbeck N. Choose to Reuse: Ceres Press, 1995 pp. 11-16
Greenberg D. Visionary Bamboo Designs for Ecological Living: Bamboo Technologies: Hawaii, 2007 pp. 13-18
Guenther R. Sustainable Healthcare Architecture: John Wiley & Sons: New Jersey, 2008 pp. 24-28
Hennessey J. Nomadic Furniture: Schiffer Publishing: Pennsylvania, 2008 pp. 34-38
Jones L. Energy Efficient Homes for Dummies: John Wiley & Sons: New Jersey, 2008 pp. 22-26
Jones L. Environmentally Responsible Design: John Wiley & Sons, 2008 pp. 26-29
Jones V. The Green Collar Economy: HarperCollins, 2008 pp. 24-27
Klutz R. Windowsill Gardening: Klutz, 1999 pp. 19-25
Klutz J. Squashing Flowers Squeezing Leaves: Klutz, 2001 pp. 56-59
Lilienfeld M. Use Less Stuff: Ballantine Pub. Group, 1998 pp. 37-41
Morris J. Green Goods: Coronet Books Inc, 1997 pp. 19-24
Reames R. Arborsculpture: Solutions for a Small Planet: Arborsmith Studios, 2005 pp. 24-28
Rosenberg A. The Art of Painted Furniture: Sterling Publishing Co. 2002 pp. 19-23
Ryan C. Stuff: Contemporary Arts Council, 1997 pp. 12-16
Seo D. Conscious Style Home: St. Martins Press, 2001 pp. 23-26
Smith H. Awesome Things to Make with Recycled Stuff: Lark Books, 2003 pp. 29-32
Stern Z. Green tailing and Other Revolutions in Retail: John Wiley & Sons, 2008 pp. 34-38
Vallero D. Sustainable Design: The Science of Sustainability and Green Engineering: John Wiley & Sons, 2008 pp. 13-19
Von H. Ecological Houses: Fusion Publishing: New York, 2008 pp. 25-29
Weinberger S. The Handbook of Hospitality Management: Xlibris Corp, 2003 pp. 40-44
Wright D. The Passive Solar Primer: Schiffer Publishing: Pennsylvania, 2008 pp. 35-37
Yudelson J. Green Building A to Z: New Society Publishers: British Columbia, 2007 pp. 24-26
Goods have to be packed so that the producers could deliver them to the retail or wholesale stores and other buyers (Salazar, 2009). There are three major levels of packaging including primary, secondary, and tertiary packaging. If the primary packaging is used to place the very good into a shape so that the good could be sold in a retail store and the consumer could bring it home from the store (David and Stewart, 2007, p. 18), the secondary packaging is, according to Salazar (2009) and ECR (2006), is the means of delivering the goods from point A to point B (Salazar, 2009) with the greater level of comfort and without any damage to the goods.
The types of secondary packaging range from carton boxes and tapes to void filling material and pallet stretch film (Salazar, 2009). Moreover, David and Stewart (2007) and Salazar (2009) consider corrugated shipping containers as another, more updated, secondary packaging type. Secondary packaging types, as ECR (2006) states, should be uniform in their environmentally friendly character, be recyclable and/or reusable, easy to use and discard (p. 2). As well, the secondary packaging means, including the boxes and containers, should be strong not to allow any damage to the goods or environment during the delivery.
The major areas of use of the secondary packaging types mentioned above include trade and logistics (David and Stewart, 2007, p. 13). The secondary packaging types under consideration allow the producers to deliver their goods over long distances and load them to the stores and other premises of their distributors at the highest degree of comfort and security.
Tertiary Packaging
Accordingly, tertiary packaging is the process of grouping the secondary packaging units, i. e. carton boxes, and corrugated shipping containers, into larger ones to allow more compact and convenient storage and transportation of the goods (Seideman, 2009). Thus, the tertiary packaging is the most general, i. e. the highest, level of packaging as it helps form the largest goods units and deliver them from point A to point B, ship and load these goods when necessary (ECR, 2006, pp. 1 2).
The main tertiary packaging types, as Seideman (2009) and Salazar (2009) argue, include forming the units of goods in bales, barrels, crates, containers, and edge protectors. Moreover, ECR (2006) considers the use of flexible intermediate bulk containers, insulated shipping containers, pallets, slip sheets, and stretch wraps as other tertiary packaging techniques that can be used equally with bales, barrels, etc (p. 2). The materials used for tertiary packaging purposes are different, but the most widely used ones range, as Seideman (2009) argues, from glass and metal to paper and plastics, while for moving tertiary packaging units a forklift or pallet jack are used (Seideman, 2009).
The main areas of the use of tertiary packaging are determined by the main objective of this kind of packaging, which is, according to the ideas by Seideman (2009), to aid in the automated handling of larger amounts of products . Accordingly, David and Stewart (2007) and Seideman (2009) argue that tertiary packaging is used mainly in large-scale, international trade where large amounts of goods are to be transported for long distances. As well, tertiary packaging techniques are used for delivering large amounts of goods to retail and wholesale stores, which makes tertiary packaging a widely used packaging type.
References
David, Pierre, & Stewart, Richard (2007). International Logistics. Mason, OH: Thomson.
ECR. (2006). Secondary and Tertiary Packaging. Efficient Consumer Response, pp. 1 2.
Salazar, D. (2009). What is Secondary Packaging? Web.
Seideman, S. (2009). Introduction to Food Packaging. Web.
The natural resources in Ontario are to be protected to ensure their prudent use across the province as well as sustain the needs of future generations. The management of the ecological, societal, and economic welfare of the city of Ontario is dependant on the combined efforts put by the various key players in meeting this goal (Ministry of Natural Resources, 2009, para.1) The Ontario government passed legislation in 2001 that instituted a plan on land use and management of resources for the conservation efforts of the 190,000 hectares of land situated inside the Moraine. This is in line with the provincial land-use arrangement criteria within which municipalities are in charge of putting into operation provincial policy throughout their official arrangements and in times of making decisions on issues of development. This endorsed planning takes priority over the plans that the municipalities may have.
The policy of woodland protection in Ontario
The initial significant woodland (SW) Criteria lacked the definition of woodland. At this time, the definition is very important as the basis of defining the significance. Section 15.4.5 of the official Plan defines it as Woodlands are complex ecosystems of different tree species, shrubs, ground vegetation and soil complexes that provide habitats for many plants and animals. The significance of woodlands is determined in terms of natural features and ecological functions, provision of important ecological functions that are uncommon to the planning area, the woodland provides distribution of open space amenities and recreational activities, it provides habitat for endangered species, and it contains unusual natural communities or landforms. (Hussey, 2008, p.3).
The proposed amendment considered woodland to be Significant it achieves a minimum of one high or five medium criteria scores as determined by application of the Guideline Document for the Evaluation of the Ecologically Significant Woodlands (Hussey, 2008, p.4)
The Oak Ridges Moraine Conservation Plan (ORMCP) gives additional defines woodland as a means treed area, woodlot or forested area, other than a cultivated fruit or nut orchard or a plantation established for Christmas trees. (ORM Significant Woodlands, 2004, p.2)
The identification of woodland is based on various factors. The area must have a tree cover of over 60% but it is considered a forest in the Ecological Land Classification (ELC) for Southern Ontario. If it has a tree cover of 10%, it is considered a tread area in the ELC for Southern Ontario. It, therefore, must have 1,000 trees of any size per hectare, or 750 trees measuring over five centimeters in diameter, per hectare, or 500 trees measuring over 12 centimeters in diameter, per hectare, or 250 trees measuring over 20 centimeters in diameter, per hectare. The diameter of the tree is measured at a breast height of 1.37 meters from the ground in fields that are regenerating and are only counted after reaching that height (Hussey, 2008, p.3).
For woodland to be considered for delineation, the following criteria are applied. To start with, if the compatible openings do not exceed 40 meters across is present amidst two or more woodlands, then the woodlands is considered as a woodland area. Nevertheless, where two woodlands that exceed 40 meters separately are wholly or incompletely connected by a band of trees with a standard width of not exceeding 40 meters, then the woodland would be regarded as two separate woodlands and the connecting band of trees will be excluded in the computation of either woodland area. Secondly, if the compatible openings inside a woodland area are not exceeding 0.5 hectares in area and do not exceed 25% of the qualifying treed portion, then they are to be recognized as part of the woodland. In addition, where roads cross the woodlands, having a path of 21 meters or less, in the possession and maintenance of a road authority, then only the separated treed parts are to be put together and calculated as single woodland. Lastly, woodland areas situated out of the Plan Area are to be incorporated in the area calculations for computing significance. This takes care of the truth that the ORMCP policies apply only to parts of the woodland within the Plan Area (ORM Significant Woodlands, 2004, p.4-5).
Issues
The Oak Ridges Moraine is an important landform feature situated in southern Ontario. It comprises an uneven ridge that expands for about 140 kilometers, amidst the Niagara Escarpment towards the west and the County of Northumberland towards the east. It is believed to have formed due to the recent retreating of ice glaciers. It possesses complicated geology that is made up of porous materials that accumulate, keep, and discharge water. Numerous streams that flow to the north and the south of Lake Ontario start from here. The Moraine is vital on the local and international scale since its a habitat for wildlife and diverse plant life. Hydrologic and hydrogeologic features are highly concentrated in this area. This national heritage has been the source of development pressures in recent years since its an important source of drinking water and flood control. The region is vulnerable to outcomes of development (Diamond et al, 2002, p.8).
The Oak Ridges Moraine Conservation Plan clearly distinguishes four land designations as Natural Linkage Areas, Countryside Areas, and Settlement Areas. New developments are strictly prohibited in the Natural Core Areas and only inadequate developments are allowed in Natural Linkage Areas, by varied different specific criteria. In the countryside areas, some prescribed activities are allowed in places that are left for Rural Development in a local Official Plan (Meridian, 2002, 10).
The city of Ontario has well-laid plans put in place to conserve its environment for future generations. The Oak Ridges Moraine Conservation Plan is supreme over any official plans, a zoning by-law, or policy statements laid down under the Planning Act. The act mandates various municipalities to modify their Official Plan to apply the Conservation Plan for a period of one and half years after enforcing the Plan.
The city of London adopted the Official Plan Amendment 403 (OPA 403), on September 18, 2006, to institute, in the Official Plan, a standard for recognizing significant woodlands. The suggested standard is connected to an assessment procedure established in a guideline document that was endorsed by the City one month earlier and was not appealed. The appellants oppose attempts to pass the guideline document as it is a technical manual that lacks transparency and is immune to appeal. The 2006 guideline document has rules for assessing significant woodlands which the Appellants argued to be short of meeting their intended purposes.
To foster conservation efforts, eighteen issues were presented in the Ontarios Board Procedural Order. Issue number 18 was deleted upon consent by the board members. The remaining 17 issues are therefore considered under 5 broad headings: consistency with Provincial Policy Statement, municipal approaches, community values, appropriateness, and conformity with the official plan (Ontario Municipal Board, 2008).
The first issue deals with the consistency of the OPA 403 with the Provincial Policy Statement (PPS). If in any case the guideline is adopted, is it possible for section 15.4.5 of the Official Plan as suggested to be amended by OPA 403, be consistent with the PPS (2005)? The PPS clearly defines the purpose for recognizing significant woodlands. Will the adoption of OPA 403 be able to achieve this same purpose?
The second issue deals with municipal approaches. The citys policies in engaging in the preservation of significant woodlands based on sound research and in line with acceptable norms in the region are to be critically evaluated. In cases whence a municipality utilizes its official plan from a municipal approach to the assessment of woodlands, the issue of the applicability of the provincial criteria, which depicts a dissimilar approach, is to be considered. But, if in any case the municipal approach is adopted, is it a show of the harmony between the provincial and the municipal approaches? If this is not the case, does it suggest that the OPA 403 supports an approach that can achieve or surpass the laid provincial objectives? In situations whereby the council has adopted the OPA 403, are considerations made for the proper valuation of significant woodlands for the city of London?
The third issue entails community values. The character of the existing community ought to be protected at all costs. The communitys nature has a say in the good quality of life that is now deemed as beneficial by the many inhabitants of the community. All new improvements must take care of this susceptible character. The enactment of the woodland protection act should reflect ethical community values. The issue of incorporating community values in the municipalitys official plan is to be carefully considered.
The fourth issue revolves around the matter of appropriateness. Is OPA 403 suitable in the real sense to be incorporated in the Official Plan? Critical considerations are to be made if the policy and the procedure for naming and preservation of significant woodlands form reliable and environmentally friendly land use planning. The attempt of OPA 403 to hand over the Official Plan policy roles to a mere guideline document which is not a component of the City of London is to be questioned. Rather, is OPA 403 competent enough to be adopted? For some time now, different lands have been assessed by the use of different policies. Would OPA be applied too in evaluating these lands? Is OPA 403 capable of being applied to pieces of land within and outside the urban growth frontier? More so, is it appropriate to apply the documented guidelines contained in OPA 403 to evaluate lands that are within the urban growth frontier? The public interest has to be adhered to in implementing the changes. The key stakeholders had deemed the One High Approach as appropriate. Adopting OPA 403 to incorporate the prevailing Three High Approach will constitute a down designation of the lands that are not justified in the public interest.
The last category of issues entails conformity with the Official Plan. Are the standard guidelines consistent with the Official Plan policies that esteem other guideline documents, particularly, Policy 19.2.2? Considerations are to be made if the OPA 403 brings in a policy that disregards the other policies of the Official Plan or the norm illustrated in Section 15.4.5 of the Official Plan. If in any case OPA 403 is to be adopted, will it offer a reliable planning procedure for planning different land uses?
Recommendations
The proposed OPA 403 is consistent with the PPS, corresponds to the City of Londons Official Plan, and replicates the values of the community and the aims of the city in preserving woodlands (Ontario Municipal Board, 2008, p.16). The guidelines used in the assessment to agree on significance are objective, applicable, and a product of sound research. Furthermore, the suggestion at issue is in the interest of the public, and it keeps with different approaches applied in other municipalities. It is in line with provincial directives for the excellent utilization and management of Natural Heritage Resources and preservation of the nations woodlands. It comprises apt and environmentally friendly ways to engage in land-use planning.
The methodology and standards illustrated in the 2006 guideline were not conceived in isolation. The city-based its guidance on the recommendations in the NHRM and widely made adequate consultations with various stakeholders, such as planners of the environment, scientists, and other organizations and municipalities. The Province did all these under the latest policy guidelines. All this evidence proves that the 2006 guideline is founded on best practices and is rooted in sound scientific principles.
The 2006 Guideline, the Official Plan, and the PPS both have a common thread that cuts across all of them. The procedure that was used to assess by the City of London is in line with those employed by other municipalities. The suggested threshold proposal is in line with the threshold employed in other municipalities situated in the Thames watershed.
Different stakeholders, private individuals, and public corporations, adequately scrutinized the policy to bring down the threshold. The public was promptly notified and given an adequate chance to engage in the process. Those who raised the issues formed part of those invited to contribute to the process.
Evidence, to imply that the City has not been practical in its approach to establishing the kinds of woodlands that are significant, is lacking. In any case that the land has not been designated properly, the landowner will now be endowed with the responsibility of challenging such a verdict since the threshold will be included in the Official Plan.
It is a standard practice universally that guideline documents be used to accomplish official plan policies. In using the 2006 Guideline a protocol for assessment, the City identification of significant woodlands is deemed consistent with the Official Plan Policies that esteems guideline documents, particularly, Policy 19.2.2. This system has been used without complaints for many years and has been a great benefit to the public. The policy functions and the worth of the community are therefore not appropriately allotted to the guiding document.
Therefore the suggested application is exemplary as it conforms to the Provincial Planning Statement and is consistent with the Official Plan and fulfills the obligations of the Planning Act in signifying elaborate planning.
Reference List
Diamond et al. (2002). Natural Heritage Systems in Urbanizing Settings: Sustainable Practices for the Oak Ridges Moraine. Web.
Hussey, K (2008). Decision Delivered by K.J. Hussey and Order of the Board. Ontario: Ontario Municipal Board.
Meridian (2002). Executive summary. Web.
Ministry of National Resources (2009). About the Ministry of Natural Resources. Web.
ORM Significant Woodlands (2004). Identification and Protection of Significant Woodlands on the Oak Ridges Moraine. Oak Ridges Moraine Conservation Plan (ORMCP).
During the past few decades, there have been several scholarly arguments concerning the universal dilemma of great importance for the future of our planet earth (Correa, P.13). The most significant discussion topics have been on population growth, climate change, food shortages, economic inequality, ecological destruction, and greenhouse emissions. Despite the current civilization apprehension of these problems, attempts to understand their effect on living a sustainable life and there has been hardly any design of urban or rural systems (Correa, P.13).
Population and Life Sustainability
There was robust population growth in the 20th century due to improved food production, sanitation, and medicine, which improved the sustainability of human life. The human population grew rapidly while food production only grew in small amounts (Kunstler, P.6). Therefore the population growth faced severe and predetermined natural restrictions. We are already experiencing the effects of hyper-population growth and the use of fossil fuel in the form of environmental devastation (Kunstler, P.8).
The present is a result of our past actions and therefore the future should be the projection of what we presently do or avoid doing. Great responsibility lies in us whose lives have been affected by the unprecedented experience of land destroyed by the growing human population. We require a clear-cut vision and several goals to be achieved indefinite accuracy (Correa, 13).
Our current illustrations, thoughts, and our valuable modern belief structures will yield ecological flexibility, ease of form, and difference in small and large development growth and its reasonable solutions to problems affecting our modern society. Living a sustainable life is not a new idea but a hint of good things to come. In our current dilemma, every flamboyant theory of sustainable life on the planet seems to be failing while people are finding themselves in an extraordinary environmental emptiness (Correa. P.14). Because of this, the human population is beginning to realize that the good practices of the past do not solve the immediate problems of life sustainability. What used to be viewed as important technological or social progress are just less important tools that are inappropriate to living a sustainable life.
Creating Sustainable Communities
The usage of cheap fossil fuel and climate change must be transformed for the human race to curb the environmental degradation crisis and sustain their life. We have to create the future by taking immediate action to reverse global climate change (Correa, P.15). To achieve life sustainability, we need to find answers to the causes of our present crisis and in what ways we can restore our community order without causing further destruction to the integrity of our environment (Correa, P.15).
General life sustainability has its deep environmental roots threatening our existing society. Nature was ruined by the past human generations leaving us today to live in an exhausted ecological condition (Correa, 17). There is a growing human population that is decreasing biologically productive space through overconsumption of resources. Many people dont have the resources to grow their food conversely, the profit-making agricultural technology is generating millions of tons of harmful waste, which poison the environment including the crops they are growing not sparing the water sources. Overusing water has seen the water tables running low leading to growing desertification as well as a scarcity of drinking water and inadequate sanitation (Correa, P.17).
The global demand has exceeded the capacity of the natural system to produce what is needed to sustain the current living standards. Society is meeting its current demands through uncontrolled utilization of natural resources leading to their decline and subsequent collapse. The radical transformation of the existing production technologies and community development methods will be the only complete solution to the current dilemma (Correa, P19). It is time that food, energy, water, and materials for clothing and sheltering be produced in an environmentally friendly way; an environment where precise carbon rationing is brought in to reduce travel volumes while rising their demand for mass transportation. Finally create communities where common sense, stability, class, and beauty are their main focus. Any ecological change is cumulative and disastrous (Correa, P.20).
The global warming we are currently experiencing is the result of greenhouse gases emitted in the early years. The current generation is bound to build a new world with a closed-loop system of production. A practical production model that gives demonstrates the importance of diverse biological processes where there is local production that can be reused, recycled, or returned to nature to complete its natural cycle (Correa, P.23). Create an environment of small communities where nature is highly valued imitating the natural environment where food can be simply processed and produced locally. A generation that aims to live a sustainable life where there is the use of renewable sources of energy, multi-modal public transportation systems, a democratic world with simple prosperity, and natural entrepreneurship (Correa, P.23).
To achieve all the above goals, we have to set up a system to self-support the community that can settle people in villages so that they can help one another in one way or another. Make the communities work together with a common goal (Correa, P.24). The construction of settlements and urban villages should be based on the traditional building methods, which require regional building materials that are easily obtainable and assembled for constructing houses. This will help us to overcome the post-industrial era in which have seen environmental degradation since the emergency of the industrial revolution (Correa, P.24). Industrial growth is the main source of pollution on the planet though; industrial activities can be less harmful if they are located in areas that do not affect the population. Factories should have a mechanism of treating their waste before disposal to the rivers, which provide water for domestic and irrigation (Lengen, P.62).
To transform the future into a sustainable living environment, the human population must accept its destructive behaviors and change to environmentally friendly practices for the better. Change is not easy but to achieve sustainable living, we need to shift our consciousness and work for the highest good of everyone (Correa, P.24). The sustainability revolution is simply changing our roles on the planet for sustainable living. This has seen people replacing diesel generators with small-scale hydro generators. We should improvise ways in which we can tap our local streams to produce clean water and affordable electricity to sustain our communities (Edwards & Orr, P.1). By introducing the society literacy curricula in our institutions, we will be able to achieve ecological health, bring back co-housing building projects to restore community ties and the large groups in the communities will work together in the restoration of the environment (Edwards & Orr, P.2). The sustainability revolution is spreading fast and its impact is shaping everything from where we live and work to the foods we eat. This is evident as there is an increase in hybrid cars, wind turbines, and even solar panel installations (Edwards & Orr, P.2).
The sustainability revolution gives an option, which supports economic viability and ecological health through modifying the human consumption patterns and implementing a more reasonable social structure. In facilitating the sustainability revolution, personal computers and the internet are playing a significant role to ensure there is the frequency distribution of information through media outlets (Edwards & Orr, P.6). There is a need for more innovative projects such as coming up with renewable energy, free collateral loans for the poor to improve their living standards. The worldwide awareness of issues like climate change, pollution, and habitat destruction requires a combined effort by all nations to resolve. The sustainability revolution developed as a reaction to the industrial revolutions degradation of the environment and human well-being. Some governments came up with environmental programs such as the clean air act, clean water act, and endangered species act to prevent the damaging effects of the industrial revolution (Edwards & Orr, P.6).
Sufficient planning of urban centers must be well-thought-out and construction of the streets laid out in a way that requires the least amount of earth displacement with good drainage systems. Urban centers should be constructed in areas with the superb landscape and pleasant breezes having easy access to the public. Factories and other substantial activities that have changes to the environment should be located in less interesting areas. It is important as it will prevent the concentration of stores in a commercial area (Lengen, P.63). Conservation of forests and trees, in general, is very important. The trees provide shades and their roots protect the soil besides forests acting as water catchments. Before designing houses, we must assess the local climatic conditions to ensure that the materials that will be used can stand the climatic conditions of that area (Lengen, P.64). As Beatley and Wheeler state that there must be a balance between city and nature, a more equitable society, and sustainable economic growth (Beatley & Wheeler, P.8).
Developing a Green City (Example of Dongtan City)
China has accomplished great economic development raising most of its people above the poverty line. It is has become an industrial powerhouse tremendously. Conversely, that development has coasted their environment terribly. China is becoming the most polluted country in the world. There are massive plans to tackle chinas emerging crisis through green buildings, green cars, and the use of wind power and solar among many others (Steffen, Para.1).
The green city of Dongtan is set to be ready for its first residents by the year 2050 (popular science, P.81). Dongtan was designed to be an ecosystem city with its planning done through integrated thinking. Transportation and health care were the main considerations of its design. In this city people will mainly walk, there will be less pollution and health care will be more affordable. The buildings were designed in a way that will save on air conditioning. Every block will be designed in response to chinas environmental predicament. The planning team of Dongtan city is comprised of economists, water engineers, graphic designers, property consultants, and a philosopher (popular science, P.82). The starter section of Dongtan city will be made of three separate villages which will be bisected by waterways, walking and biking paths. All this will be surrounded by public transport loops and green space (popular science, P.82) .
Water taxis will use their canals and only vehicles using electricity or hydrogen will be allowed into the city with no sound pollution or poisonous emissions (Popular science, P.83). Residents will approximately take three minutes to a park and less than seven minutes from any public transportation to their place of stay. Streetlights will be solar-powered and wastewater will be treated and recycled. Dongtan will run on renewable energy that will come from a plant powered by rice husks (popular science, P.83). The plant will burn plant substance to drive a steam turbine that will produce electricity (Popular science, P.83). The construction of a twin water supply network will enable residents to get access to clean drinking water and treated wastewater for their household use. Trees will be planted to enable air conditioning, invite cooling summer breezes and block winter winds. The building of Dongtan city takes place five times faster than in China. It will be responsibly developed as an eco-island (Popular Science, P.84). Dongtan city example is an illustration of the separation of economic development from environmental degradation.
Works Cited
Correa, Jaime. Self-Sufficient Urbanism: A Vision of Contraction for the Non-Distant Future. North Carolina: Lulu.Com, 2008, Print.
Edwards, Andres. & David, Orr. The Sustainability Revolution: Portrait of a Paradigm Shift. Gabriola Island, BC: New Society Publishers, 2005, Print.
Kunstler, James. The Long Emergency: Surviving the Converging Catastrophes of the Twentieth Century. New York, NY: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2005, Print.
Lengen, Johan. The Barefoot Architect: A Handbook for Green Building. Bolinas, CA: Shelter Publications, 2008, Print.
Wheeler, Stephen. & Beatley, Timothy. The Sustainable Urban Development Reader. New York, NY: Routledge, 2004, Print.
Popular Science. The future of the Environment is Now. New York, NY: Bonnier Corporation, 2007, Print.
Steffen, Alex. World Changing: Bright Green: Dongtan and Greening China. Worldchanging, CC: 2006. Web.
Marginal concepts can be defined as the relationship between the cost of production and the value of end result or product (Froeb & McCann 2010). For example, it is only reasonable to engage in farming if the amount produced is greater than the overall costs incurred during production. In a way, coal is the largest source of energy in the world. It is used to generate electricity and other forms of energy.
However, coal has become outdated in the 21st century. It emits a lot of carbon dioxide, not forgetting that the mode used in the extraction of this mineral is not environmentally friendly. Many people believe that at this time and age, not a single cent should be spent on coal mining. Instead, the oil should be used in cooking, fueling, lubrication, and other functions.
However, just like coal, oil has its own limitations. One of them is the cost of production. The demand for oil is high. Considering the costs incurred in extracting this mineral, many countries are forced to import this product from other markets (Frank, Bernanke & Squalli 2012). In the current paper, the author is going to look at the various marginal concepts in relation to the destruction of rainforests and coal mining today.
Factors that may lead to the Revival of the Coal Industry
One of the most obvious reasons is the rising demand for energy in the world. In any case, most people prefer using oil to coal. The development has increased the demand for oil. The amount of money needed to produce this form of energy makes it hard to exploit oil mines fully. However, a number of nations are able to produce this mineral for domestic consumption (Froeb & McCann 2010).
To meet the demands for power, some countries may reconsider re-opening their coal mines. Oil is a non-renewable source of energy. As such, it is likely to get depleted with time. The realization creates the need for alternative sources of energy (Froeb & McCann 2010). Coal is cheaper to mine compared to oil. As such, it may serve as the default alternative to oil (Frank et al. 2012).
The exportation of coal is another factor that Britain may take into consideration. To this end, abandoned mines may need to be made operational again. The exportation of coal may serve as a source of revenue for the government (McKenzie & Lee 2010). In addition, the country has huge deposits of this mineral. As such, many people will find it cheaper to use coal compared to oil.
Compared to coal, oil is scarce in the UK. In fact, it is approximated that the volume of coal reserves in this country is ten times that of oil (McKenzie & Lee 2010). As such, re-opening the old coal mines and exploiting these deposits is a good idea. Relying on oil imports is a bad idea, given the volatilities of the world market. As far as marginal concepts are concerned, oil extraction is not advisable (Froeb & McCann 2010). The reason is that the amount of money made from one barrel of this mineral is less than that used in extraction.
It is important to note that coal mining has a major disadvantage. Extraction and use of this mineral are not friendly to the environment. The process is associated with emissions of carbon dioxide into the environment (Froeb & McCann 2010). The main method used in mining involves the removal of the top layer of earth. Explosives are used to expose the mineral below the surface. In cases where forests are present, they have to be cleared. Animals have to find new homes, and benefits coming out of these natural resources are not realized (McKenzie & Lee 2010).
The relevance of Marginal Concepts in the Destruction of Rainforests
In some situations, it is worthwhile to destroy rainforests through logging and mining in efforts to exploit these natural resources (Froeb & McCann 2010). Marginal concepts are applied in making these decisions. Rainforests record-high amounts of rainfall throughout the year. They are beneficial to the environment and to humans. A large number of trees helps in regulating the climate. Some people are engaging in the destruction of these forests (Frank et al. 2012).
Increased demand for wood has led to high rates of logging. Governments and other stakeholders involved in the protection of the environment are making efforts to address this issue (Froeb & McCann 2010). Farmers also exploit forests to increase their output. In this case, mining is our point of interest.
The availability of coal deposits in forests has led to their destruction. The development has negatively affected the environment. Animal habitats have also been destroyed. As already indicated, explosives may be used to open up the mines. However, in some cases, manual labor is used, especially considering the high cost of these explosives. The process exposes the miners to danger (Froeb & McCann 2010).
It is important to note that coal mining has a number of benefits. It will help address the increasing demand for energy. However, a critical analysis of this process from the perspective of marginal concepts reveals that the costs far outweigh the benefits (McKenzie & Lee 2010).
As such, it is not advisable to destroy the rainforests to extract coal. It is more beneficial to harness the potential of these resources than to exploit the coal deposits found in them. Experts believe that it is possible to cater for the natural resources by preserving forests (McKenzie & Lee 2010). As such, governments should put in place measures to preserve these forests. Deforestation should not be justified on the basis of meeting energy demands.
Marginal Concepts in Relation to the Conservation of Natural Resources
Marginal concepts emphasize more on the conservation of natural resources than on their destruction (Froeb & McCann 2010).
The government and other stakeholders should increase their efforts to preserve rainforests. One way of doing this is to increase the costs associated with deforestation. People will find it expensive to clear forests. Subsequently, anyone engaging in deforestation will incur losses irrespective of the reasons behind their activities. In the past, conservation of rainforests has been associated with a number of challenges. Some of them include limited resources and economic factors arising from deforestation (McKenzie & Lee, 2010). Farmers living around these regions may cut down trees to expand their land. They view deforestation as a way of improving their economic status (Froeb & McCann 2010).
Conclusion
Marginal concepts in relation to coal mining and preservation of rainforests should be applied by all nations. Britain has the potential to produce large amounts of coal. There are a number of factors that should be taken into consideration before re-opening the mines. They help in decision making and in comparing the overall results and the costs incurred.
The application of this logic helps in the conservation of rainforests. Such efforts favor the nation and its economy. Deforestation has negative impacts on the natural balance and accelerates environmental degradation. In light of this, the government should increase efforts to preserve rainforests. Coal mining is not the best option with regard to addressing the demand for energy in the world. It is associated with a number of environmental hazards bearing in mind that it is an outdated source of energy.
References
Frank, R, Bernanke, B & Squalli, J 2012, Principles of economics- MEE, McGraw-Hill Education (UK) Ltd., London. Web.
Froeb, L & McCann, B 2010, Managerial economics: a problem-solving approach, 2nd edn, South-Western Cengage Learning, Mason, OH. Web.
McKenzie, R & Lee, D 2010, Microeconomics for MBAs: the economic way of thinking for managers, 2nd edn, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Web.
Water has conventionally been managed within administrative rather than natural boundaries, in a fragmented rather than holistic manner and in technocratic rather than participatory way (The University of Sydney 2006, p. 1).
Management of catchment and coastal areas remains a multifaceted task. Catchment and coastal zone needs an integration of social, culture and ecological alongside economically viable elements of these factors to ensure sustainable management (Stocker, Kenchington & Wood 2012, p. 29). Moreover, major stakeholders and other interest groups should cooperate on various issues to realise sustainable development objectives for catchment and coastal zone. Prior to launching an integrated management initiative, it is imperative to understand why water management is critical in Australia.
A number of activities took place after the settlement of Europeans in Australia. There was massive clearing, grazing, cropping, drainage and dredging for mineral resources. These activities had far-reaching implications on the hydrological and environmental attributes of the countrys waterways (Pigram 1986, p. 77). The observed changes brought about water issues under scrutiny in Australia. Australia is classified among the driest continents on the Earth due to the amount of rainfall received and its runoffs relative to other states.
In addition, Australia has experienced several cases of severe droughts with long-lasting rainfall scarcity, for instance, the droughts of 1979 to 1983, which had led to calamitous impacts on the environment, people and the economy (Pigram 1986, p. 33). Nevertheless, Australia has emerged as the second best country after the US in terms of water consumption per capita (930Kl/capita) (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2014). In addition, the country has the best water storage capacity per person, which is necessary for sustainable agricultural activities and water supplies for domestic consumption, particularly during prolonged dry seasons (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2014).
Water is necessary to sustain life. For centuries, water has been a fundamental tool in develop and advancement of human civilisation (Pigram 1986, p. 3). It is estimated that that the Earth has approximately 14 million cubic meter as the total volume of water (USGS 2014). Despite water abundance on the Earths surface, a small percentage of fresh water is available for human consumption while a greater percentage is found at wrong places (Pigram 1986, p. 3).
Back to basics: Management
We understand that water is necessary for life and it is only available in small quantity. Water, however, is a renewable resource (Smith 1998, p. 83). Oceans are responsible for supplying water to inland waterways through hydrological processes such as evaporation and precipitation. Hence, factors that influence water availability, including coastal and catchment zones are imperative for sustainability.
At the beginning of the industrial period, pollutants from various industrial sources started to affect the environment negatively. Climate change has been identified as a critical issue in the degradation of coast and catchments. In addition, there are noticeable changes such as extreme weather, rise in sea level, lose in water runoff and less rainfall among others because of effects of climate change and human activities on water bodies. To overcome these challenges for future developments, there is a need to adopt sustainable management (Smith 1998, p. 83).
As stated earlier, management of catchment and coastal zones is a multifaceted task because of various reasons. First, water itself is flexible and may travel and meander across land and into lakes, rivers and oceans in a complex way. Second, the complexity of waterways results in a lack of ownership, responsibilities and collaboration. Catchments and water bodies provide habitat and food resources to millions of species, but human interference for several centuries with natural resources have negatively impacted coastal and catchment areas. Today, these areas remain under serious threats from human activities.
There is a global water crisis. People need water for survival and only sustainable management can guarantee water for future consumption. The major issue has been the meaning of sustainable management. Water is a shared resource among humanity and therefore, sustainable management of water refers to an integrated approach that involves all stakeholders in water management in a manner that ensures that water bodies and other resources receive the most benefits.
Sustainable management of water is not a simple task because of the complexity of several variables that influence social, economic, political and environmental factors associated with water resources. Water sustainability management, therefore, is a broad and complex topic and it is necessary to focus on specific major issues on catchment and coastal management of Australia.
This section covers an integrated catchment management (ICM) and integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) related to Australia. In addition, it also focuses on factors, which lead to failure of catchment and coastal management and presents solutions and alternatives to overcome the gaps of integrated management.
Integrated Catchment Management (ICM)
The MurrayDarling Basin Commission referred to integrated catchment management (ICM) as a process through which people can develop a vision, agree on shared values and behaviours, make informed decisions and act together to manage the natural resources of their catchment (MurrayDarling Basin Commission 2007, p. 1).
Australia has several rivers across its states. Water bodies that run across different states have resulted into catchment management issues. Different states and territories have developed distinct systems of catchment management (Williams 2012, p. 1). Hence, effective management of catchment requires integration between states. The ICM provisions consider river systems as a whole and require effective sustainable management of catchment resources with regard to water supply, fishery management, waste disposal and nature conservation (Noakes 2010, p. 14).
The Basic Principals of ICM are:
Take a holistic approach to the management of land, biodiversity water and community resources at the water catchment scale
Involve communities in planning and managing their landscape
Find balance between resources use and resources conservation (Williams 2012, p. 1)
Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)
There is no a single definition and approach to ICZM, but generally is has been described as a dynamic and continuous process of administering the use, development, and protection of the coastal zone and its resources towards common objectives of national and local authorities and the aspiration of different resources user groups (Paisley et al. 2004, p. 196).
Australia is synonymous with its coastal areas. Nearly 85% of the countrys population live around coastal areas and it is highly dependent on the available resources. Hence, Australia is a coastal society (Commonwealth of Australia Department of Climate Change 2009). All the states except ACT have a greater responsibility to manage coastal and catchment zones.
Water knows no boundary and therefore integrated coastal management remains the best approach for Australias coastal sustainability. The country has rights and responsibilities over a large area of water relative to its land. As a result, Australia is the worlds third largest ocean management country (Wang et al. 2011, p. 6) Australia developed the integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) in 2006 to handle management challenges.
Failure in Integrated Catchment and Coastal management
Dynamic physical, economic, social, environmental and political situations influence planning and management of catchment and coastal zones. These factors shape and inform water policies, priorities and statutory interventions for water bodies (Sewell, Handmer & Smith 1985, p. 67). Several countries have adopted integrated management concept to manage water bodies (Feeney & Gustafson 2009, p. 1). Australia, specifically, has experienced failures or ineffective management of coastal and catchment zones because of several factors, which include:
Insufficient research.
Poorly defined policy, management and property rights.
Difficulty in roles and responsibilities.
Inadequate funding.
Discussion
First, the major cause of failures in integrated management is a lack of research and understanding. There are significant changes associated with environmental data, including time. Hence, past data for decision-making may not yield the intended outcome. At the same time, management plans have resulted into poor outcomes. For example, the current Australian national research priorities have critical disconnects (Lazarow et al. 2006, p. 111).
High costs associated with research have created disconnects between researchers and stakeholders, which cause resource degradation. Second, there is a lack of scientific research on important issues of catchment and coast management. This has resulted in the development of poor policies and poorly defined policies, which create conflicts with related policies in land management and property rights. Third, roles and responsibilities are highly complex in an integrated management approach. Australia has three distinct levels of government (Federal, state and local) and the countrys constitution has stated that crown land management and planning is the responsibility of individual states and territories (Lazarow et al. 2006, p. 29).
Moreover, at the state level, there are various roles, policies, departments and responsibilities, which have resulted into difficulties in managing national issues on a state-by-state approach. Finally, insufficient funding has resulted in poor management or absolute lack of management of coastal and catchment zones. Humanitys main interest is in the quantity and quality of fresh water in its liquid state within reach on the Earths surface (Pigram 1986, p. 3). Such interests have guided stakeholders to act in the best interest of the public.
Conclusion
Coastal and catchment zones are intertwined and lack specific boundaries. Nevertheless, human interests have resulted in the creation of boundaries, which have caused greater damages. Management bodies must formulate policies that focus on the national water resources in order to overcome conflicts related to management challenges. Federal government must therefore take initiatives to manage national resources.
With regard to integrated approach, all states and levels of governments must play equal roles to save coastal and catchment areas instead of sharing responsibilities based on sectors. Funds are required to facilitate studies that would allow stakeholders to understand causes of disruptions at coastal and catchment zones. Outcomes will be used to formulate effective policies.
Integration may be simple. However, diverse interests and priorities of stakeholders have complicated integrated management strategies. Conflicts related to water resources have persisted for centuries because of accessibility, as was the case in the past. Conversely, today, people have greater access to water resources, but they have degraded them to the extent that it is difficult to find clean water.
Clearly, human activities have degraded water quality and bodies. However, humanity can still collaborate and restore water resources to their natural statuses. This process requires ongoing research and mass education to protect coastal and catchment zones continuously. Australia needs a single department to manage important national resources rather than sharing roles across various state departments. This should be implemented immediately due to rapid degradation of the environment. Otherwise, policymakers might fail to formulate effective policies at later stages.
Finally, humanity must understand the role of environment for survival of species. Educating people on water resource conservation is an important approach and a possible solution to the current water crisis. This requires promotional campaigns to inform the public about human impacts on the environment. With regard to integration, communities remain important stakeholders that can ensure that various levels of the government work in an integrated way to protect water resources.
Regrettably, Australians have demonstrated rare unity during severe droughts and soon forget when the wet seasons arrive. There is no serious thought on future preparation. This explains the existence of the gap among researchers, policymakers and other stakeholders. In most cases, funding research happens after a public outcry on the prevailing situations. Education for masses, therefore, can act as a stool of overcoming gaps in integrated management strategies.
Commonwealth of Australia Department of Climate Change 2009, A First Pass National Assessment: Climate Change Risks to Australias Coast, vol. 1, p. 6. Web.
Lazarow, N, Souter, R, Fearon, R, & Dovers, S 2006, Key institutional and governance issues for coastal natural resource management and planning: Coastal management in Australia, vol. 1, p. 29. Web.
Noakes, T R 2010, Understanding the catchment concept: Sustaining River life, vol. 1, p. 14. Web.
Paisley, R, Curlier, M, Leon, C, Graizbord, B, & Bricklemyer, E Jr. 2004, Integrated Coastal Management (ICM): A Brief Legal and Institutional Comparison among Canada, the United States and Mexico, vol. 1, p. 196. Web.
Pigram, J J 1986, Issues in the Management of Australias Water Resources, 1st edn, Longman Cheshire, Melbourne.
Sewell, D, Handmer, W, & Smith, I 1985, Water Planning in Australia, 1st edn, Australian National University, Australia.
Smith, D I 1998, Water in Australia, 1st edn, Oxford University Press Australia, Australia.
Stocker, L, Kenchington, R, & Wood, D 2012, Sustainable Coastal Management and Climate Adaptation, 1st edn, CSIRO, Collingwood, Australia.
The University of Sydney 2006, Catchment Management. Catchment Management Frameworks and Issues of Scale, vol. 1, p. 1. Web.
USGS 2014, The Worlds Water. Web.
Wang, X H, Xu, X, Pearson, S, Xue, G, Morrison, R, Liu, D & Shi, P 2011, Integrated Coastal Zone Management Research In Australia and China, vol. 11, p. 16. Web.
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Sewage contamination of beach waters is not a new phenomenon. It has always been a growing threat especially with the expansion of urban cities towards coastal beaches. Sewage and urban run-offs especially after a heavy downpour have been identified as the major contaminants. While urban run-offs can be minimized with proper sanitation in the respective towns and cities, sewage contamination is attributed to downright negligence in the construction and maintenance process or just sheer ignorance of the guilty parties. Sewage is usually carried by a network of pipes to the sewage treatment plants. Occasionally, these pipes do leak or just burst either due to overcapacity or damage by storms. The leaking effluent can flow directly into the ocean waters or may be carried by underground streams and other surface run-offs. (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2007).
Points of Contamination
This effluent is highly hazardous and contains bacteria and pathogens. These pathogens are ingested by humans and animals in a variety of ways when they come into contact with sewage-contaminated water. Ingestion can occur orally when a swimmer or surfer unintentionally gulps the ocean water. Also, eating contaminated seafood that wasnt properly cooked can expose one to these pathogens. Dermal contamination occurs when one has some open wounds on his skin and the contaminated water seeps through. In aerosol, one inhales water droplets such as those from breaking waves. (Ambient Student, 2009).
Resulting Illnesses
The most common type of illness due to contaminated ocean water is gastroenteritis infections. The mode of exposure is usually oral but isolated cases of aerosol have been reported. Gastroenteritis diseases affect the gastrointestinal tract. The patient suffers from bouts of vomiting, stomachaches, and diarrhea. In extreme cases, there is a fever and the patient is massively dehydrated. Cases of hepatitis disease have also been reported whereby the patient has the symptoms mentioned above plus yellowish or jaundiced skin. Looking at dermal contamination, the patient suffers from an itchy rash and as the situation worsens, he can develop swollen red patches that secrete a thick yellowish discharge. (Ambient Student, 2009) Other people do develop eye and ear irritations but they usually ignore them hoping that the irritations will simply disappear. (Santa Barbara County Environmental Health Services, 2007).
Monitoring and Managing Beach waters
The safety of beach waters can only be confirmed by taking regular water samples and analyzing them for pathogens. Through strict regulations in the handling of sewage waste and other urban sanitary requirements, the amount of discharge reaching the beach waters can be massively reduced. Furthermore, beachgoers can be warned when the ocean is highly contaminated to minimize the risk of infection. Quite a several beaches around the country have been able to implement these strategies and we will use the Health Care Agency in Orange County as an example. In the last 40 years, they have been sampling the ocean waters of Orange County for bacteria and other disease-causing organisms. The results are analyzed and if the contamination levels are too high, signs are placed where the samples were taken to warn the swimmers and surfers. They collect close to 150 samples in the ocean, surrounding rivers and storm drains that border the beaches. The time, date, weather conditions and location of the collection are also recorded. (Ocbeachinfo.com, 2009) The samples are taken at least weekly to five times per week along the Orange County coastline. (Ocbeachinfo.com, 2009).
If contamination is detected at a specific location, the frequency of sampling increases at that particular area until the source of contamination is identified. After analysis of the bacterial levels in the samples which are done daily, the County has come up with a scale to classify the status of the ocean waters. This scale is written in simple language so that the public can understand it. Open means the bacterial levels are below the safety standards. Closed means the ocean water has been polluted by sewage discharge and beachgoers should not at any moment come into contact with the ocean water. Warning means bacterial contamination is above the authorized levels and beachgoers should avoid coming into contact with the water 150 feet on either side of the sign. Advisory means stormwater run-off after a rainstorm makes the coastal waters unsuitable for swimming for at least 72 hours. (Ocbeachinfo.com, 2009).
Works Cited
Ambient Student, (2009) Effects of Sewage-Contaminated Water on Human Health .
Ocbeachinfo.com, (2009) Ocean water Protection Program .
Santa Barbara County Environmental Health Services (2007). Ocean Monitoring Program: FAQ.
Environmentalists have often accused the Australian mining industry of contributing to environmental degradation through pollution (Abbott 2013). The government has responded to these concerns by introducing punitive taxes to discourage local companies from emitting greenhouse gases (Manufacturing Australia 2014). This strategy has revolved around the carbon tax proposal. However, it has created a new debate about its viability to introduce sustainable change and the potential for adopting alternative strategies of environmental protection, such as the direct action strategy and the emissions trading scheme, in its place. The Mineral Council of Australia is an instrumental stakeholder in the mining sector. It has encouraged the government to adopt these alternative strategies.
Whom Does your Stakeholder Represent?
The Mineral Council of Australia represents the interests of mining companies in the Australian mining industry. Its operations are both domestic and international because it is the top industry body in the mining industry that promotes the ideals of sustainable development in the sector (Manufacturing Australia 2014).
What is their Perspective on the Carbon Debate?
The Australian government introduced the carbon tax, in 2012, after proposing a set of taxes for companies and institutions that emit greenhouse gases. It said the carbon emission tax should be $23 for every tonne emitted (Lubcke 2013). The revenue generated from the taxes would serve several purposes, including compensating affected industries, income tax reduction, and welfare payments (among other factors). The Mineral Council of Australia did not support imposing a carbon tax because it believed the measure could not meet its environmental goal carbon reduction. Instead, the body perceived the carbon tax as an unnecessary tax burned on Australian mineral-producing companies. In its view, paying such taxes would simply increase the cost of doing business for their members, thereby making it difficult for new and existing companies to profit from their activities (Lubcke 2013).
What are the Implications for Your Stakeholders if Australia adopts Direct Action?
The direct action plan strives to cut carbon emissions through a quasi-voluntary method, which encourages companies and institutions to adopt sustainable operational processes (Roosa & Jhaveri 2009). This approach differs from the carbon tax strategy, which penalizes companies for emitting carbon gases. The direct action plan has many implications for the Australian economy and the business community alike. For example, it has a huge financial cost, of $2.9 billion annually (Miller 2014). If implemented, the Mineral Council of Australia will have to make sure that its members adopt an additional reporting procedure for documenting their carbon emissions. This process will be a requirement for mineral companies to receive the incentives associated with the direct action method. Overall, this strategy means that all members of the Mineral Council of Australia will have to contend with additional compliance standards (Miller 2014).
What are the Implications for Australia, as a Nation, in adopting Direct Action as opposed to an Emissions Trading Scheme?
The direct action plan mainly hinges on a carbon sequestration strategy, which uses proactive measures, such as funding industrial improvements, to promote sustainable development (Miller 2014). This strategy hinges on the successful establishment of an emission reduction fund, which should finance proactive measures for reducing carbon emissions. The projected cap for this fund is $750 million (Lubcke 2013). Experts expect this figure to rise to $1 billion in 2015 (Lubcke 2013). The main implication of this plan, to Australian citizens, is the reduction of cost of living because companies will not impose an extra charge for their services (to finance carbon taxes).
An emission-trading scheme would not yield much productivity for Australians because the process of reducing the countrys greenhouse gas emissions depends on the nations willingness to adopt a radical shift of social structures. This change would make sure that fossil fuel use declines significantly (to negligible levels). However, carbon emissions trading schemes negate this goal because they reward heavy polluters with carbon credits if they emit greenhouse gases, below their historic levels (Lohmann 2006). Therefore, the emissions trading scheme easily gives heavy polluters an avenue for continuing to pollute the environment through the purchase of carbon credits from other companies. There is little opportunity for undertaking long-term structural changes for reducing carbon credits this way because companies can get cheaper sources of carbon credits. For example, it is easy for multinational companies to get cheap carbon credits from companies that operate in less developed countries. Lohmann (2006) has affirmed this view in his popular magazine titled, New Scientist. Leonard (2010) also affirms the same view through a 2009 documentary titled, The Story of Cap and Trade. He said giant multinational companies could easily benefit from free permits if companies adopt the emissions trading scheme (Leonard 2010). Similarly, he highlighted the possible opportunities for companies to cheat using this model. Therefore, the direct action method is a more viable option of promoting sustainable development in Australia. It is less prone to manipulation and bias, unlike the emissions trading scheme. Furthermore, it provides a standard approach to emissions reduction by funding environmentally sustainable projects throughout the country. Therefore, instead of relying on companies to reduce their emissions, through tax incentives and such like approaches, it directly funds productive environmental programs throughout the country.
Will Repealing The Carbon Tax Legislation Lead To Sustainable Carbon Emissions Mitigation?
Repealing the carbon tax legislation will contribute to sustainable carbon emissions mitigation. One way of doing so is by sourcing low-cost emission reductions. Dennis et al. (2013) say this strategy would work by adopting carbon-farming initiatives through a direct action plan. An Emission Reduction Fund (ERF) would finance this strategy. It would make sure that Australia reduces its greenhouse gases, thereby making the mining sector more environmentally sustainable. According to Abbott (2013), repealing the tax legislation would lead to reduced carbon emissions, through targeted funding for urban trees planting and supported installations of more than a million solar roofs. Nonetheless, repealing the carbon tax legislation is a dicey issue if a direct action plan should replace it. This is because the latter has many intrinsic market motivators that may prevent it from attaining its goals. In other words, adopting the direct action plan could easily decouple carbon emissions from economic growth.
Conclusion
Promoting sustainable development is an important concept for the Australian mining industry. The government proposed imposing carbon taxes as the main strategy for reducing the industrys carbon footprint. However, this strategy could easily increase the cost of doing business in Australia and similarly increase the cost of living for the citizens. These reasons prompt this brief to support direct action, as an alternative strategy for reducing the countrys carbon emissions. Unlike the carbon tax, it is a more practical approach for promoting environmental awareness in Australia.
References
Abbott, T 2013, Our Plan: Real Solutions for all Australians, Liberal Party of Australia, Sydney.
Dennis, G, Bateman, B, Thomas, N, Farmer, R and Cashmere, T 2013, Simplicity and incentive? What the Direct Action plan means for business. Web.
Leonard, A 2010, The Story of Stuff: How Our Obsession with Stuff Is Trashing the Planet, Our Communities, and Our Health-and a Vision for Change, Simon and Schuster, New York.
A major topic of discussion in the last decades has been on conservation biology where the topic of reduced populations of endangered species resulting to a major increase in genetic problems has been addressed. A reliable conclusion also has to be reached in order to determine whether genetic bottlenecks are the core reason to reduced genetic diversity which may lead to increased susceptibility of certain species to diseases. The essay that follows will look at these two issues in summary so as to determine the possible conclusion to the mentioned problems in both papers. It will give a brief summary of the genetic problems that affect small populations and the suggested effects of genetic bottlenecks in both papers (Caro & Laurenson, 1994, p. 485)
This paper addresses the issue of small populations which have in effect brought about problems in genetic constituents of the species that exist in small populations. A theory based on genetics proposes that inbreeding brings about negative impacts in the allelic constitution of an organism such that there is formation of recessive allelic genes. These recessive allelic genes also have negative impacts on the general life of the species such as reduced productivity, high death rates in infants and also the rate of growth is reduced. The study shows that the combined effects of this can result to extinction. The homozygous state of the offspring also reduces the species chance of adapting to environmental changes and there increased susceptibility to extinction (Cara & Laurenson, 1984, p.485).
However, the blame laid on inbreeding as a cause of reduced genetic diversity and consequently a way for reduced populations is questionable. Although inbreeding evidently has negative impacts on species, it does not necessarily prove that it is the core reason why there is reduced wild population. There is no supporting evidence that shows that the loss of heterozygous condition has led to extinction. Demographic and environmental problems are far much more detrimental to the survival of wild species. The environmental impact on wild species caused by human activities for example poaching and pollution are more likely and much swifter in bringing extinction to the wild population than inbreeding. More ecological study therefore has to be conducted in order to determine the environmental impacts on reduced population. Ecological studies might take longer durations and are much more labor intensive than genetic research but they might be the key to understanding population decline and therefore help conservatives to derive ways in which the endangered species can be protected from extinction (Cara & Laurenson, 1994, p. 486)
This paper addresses the issue of genetic bottlenecks and reduced genetic diversity which has in turn made animals prone to diseases. This increased susceptibility to diseases has increased the species possibility to becoming extinct. The issue being addressed is of great importance since an understanding has to be reached so as to know the cause of reduced genetic diversity. Enough evidence is present that shows the harmful effect of inbreeding between closely related species but there is room for doubt for the fact that consistent genetic bottlenecks are the root cause of reduced genetic diversity. This can be questioned on the grounds that population is not a static item. The data that is in support of the bottleneck issue is also not reliable (OBrien, 1989, p. 176).
The heterozygosity retainable by an individual species is purposed to be 1-12 of the population that is genetically effective. There are other risks that can lead to extinction for example demographical accidents can bring extinction to the bird population alone for over a period of 10 years. Environmental disparities also are a contributive factor to extinction and not necessarily genetic bottlenecks. Bird densities are almost static with a small variation of 0.1 to 0.5 there they are the least species that can become extinct (OBrien, 1989, p. 177).
Variations in population densities for a given species are enough to make the population extinct for a period of a dozen generations without considering the issue of reduced genetic variability. Sluggish speed in population growth and the disparity in population density can easily bring about extinction of a rare species. There are two other possible reasons as to why decrease in genetic variability can be arrived at and not necessarily genetic bottlenecks. One of them is that animals have different mating habits one of them being polygenous which means that a few males can be responsible for mating and this will greatly reduce genetic diversity. The second reason is that a spatial structure would actually lead to a new generation with low genetic diversity (OBrien, 1989, p.178).
Due to all this, a conclusion can be reached that the hypothesis on genetic bottlenecks is inadequate to explain the decrease in genetic variability. This hypothesis is supported by feasible explanations. Since the review is a debate between two writers a reliable conclusion has not been reached as to what might be the reason for reduced genetic variability which exposes animals to diseases and ultimately lead to extinction. Because of this, more research has to be conducted on both studies to make the reviews reliable.
Reference List
Caro, M and Laurenson, K. (1994).Ecological and Genetic Factors in Conservation: A Cautionary Tale. Science, New Series, 263 (5146), 485-486
OBrien, S. (1989) Plausible Alternatives to Bottlenecks to Explain Reduced Genetic Diversity. Tree, 4 (6), 176-178
