Category: Environment

Aside from worrying about the increasing costs of fossil fuels there is another problem that plagues this planet. The continuous use of fossil fuels is creating significant amounts of air pollutants. Cities will soon become uninhabitable if nothing is done to curb dependence non-renewable and carbon emitting fuels.

While pollution is an urgent concern and scientists are working hard to develop renewable sources of energy that produce zero emissions, others are thinking of other types of solutions. One of which is to develop green communities. This means that communities will be established based on the goal of reducing carbon footprint and at the same time for people to live in a healthy environment free from unwanted pollutants that can negatively affect peoples health.

This study will take a closer look at two communities established in the United States that claimed to be a green community. It will be determined at the end if indeed these communities are practicing the ideals of building an environmentally friendly community or if they are simply doing so because there is a great demand for this kind of living space.

There are two reasons why there is a need for green communities or eco-friendly houses. The first reason is to devise strategies to lessen dependence on fossil fuels. The second reason is to create communities with minimal carbon footprint and this means reduction of carbon dioxide gases released to the atmosphere. This is easier said than done, especially in societies that cannot live without cars, computers, TV, freezers, and other modern appliances that require a great deal of energy to run 365 days a year.

This is why there is a demand for green communities. Those who are well aware of the need to take care of the environment, especially those who are well-educated are the people who will pay a premium to be given the chance to live in this type of communities. Aside from that those who are knowledgeable about this issue are the same people that can afford to pay more for something that is more exotic.

Therefore, contractors and builders are racing against time to supply this demand because they realize the profitability of this type of ventures. It is therefore important to know if there is way to find out if a project is truly a green community or it is just made to appear as an eco-friendly community for the sake of profits. Thus, it is important to understand that the most ideal green community must exhibit the following features:

It is not sufficient to green just the building. The concept of green building needs to extend beyond the four corners of a structure, and a building should not be considered to be green unless it is location  and transportation  efficient, as well as resource- efficient.

Among other things, green building should contribute to reduced land conversion through more compact development and greater emphasis on infill and redevelopment of existing buildings and communities. It also should decrease greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution and energy consumption by reducing driving  ideally by being located in a mixed use, walkable community served by transit (Pollard, 2009, p.137).

It has to be pointed out that this is the ideal green community and thus it would be a challenge to find one. This level of commitment to building green communities perhaps exist only in a few cities all over the world. Nevertheless, it is important to take a look at some examples of a green community and determine how close these examples are compared to the ideal community described by Pollard.

Del Sur Green Community

The first green community that will be examined is located in San Diego, California. It is called the Del Sur Green Community (Green Eco Community, 2009, p.1). The company that built this community said that it is just 20 miles from downtown San Diego. The reason why it is called a green community is based on the fact that it builders were conscious about recycling and conservation techniques from the beginning of the construction process. Wastes were recycled and used somewhere else.

As a result the community was recognized as of the Americas Greenest by the The National Association of Home Builders and it also won five awards including Sustainable community of the year as well as the Recycler of the Year by the City of San Diego Environmental Services Department in 2007 (Green Eco Community, 2009, p.1).

Del Sur has a certification from the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design and this is due to the fact that at least 20% of Del Surs homes incorporate solar power with many neighborhoods installing solar in as many as 40% of homes (Green Eco Community, 2009, p.1).

Del Sur saves on water because landscapers used drought-resistant plants in almost half of their landscaping needs. In addition the community also utilized low toxin paints and glues. The builders also complied with the mandatory scheme of recycling and conservation that forced them to reuse 92% of materials that was supposed to be headed to the landfill.

Altura

Del Sur will be compared to another developing community that is also marketed as a green community. This one is located in Asheville, North Carolina and it is called the Altura. The builders said that it is a mere eight minutes away from the downtown area. However, it is far from major cities like Charlotte and Atlanta that it requires at least two hours travel to reach the said destination.

In the company official website there is a logo of a green leaf suggesting that this project is all about healthy living and caring for the environment. Thus, the builders asserted that it is a nice place for people who wanted to get away from the hustle and bustle of the city. They also remarked that the residents will feel close to nature and that they can be assured of a sustainable philosophy that permeates their construction process. At first glance it seems that Altur is indeed an example of a green community but there is no hard evidence to prove that claim.

Analysis

Using the standard given by Pollard it is clear that it is difficult to achieve perfection. Even the Del Sur community does not receive extraordinary high marks if one will use the standards of Pollard. Nevertheless, what was accomplished in Del Sur is nothing short of amazing if compared to other construction sites. It is rare to find a company that mandates recycling and conservation schemes that forced builders to re-use 92 percent of materials and waste that was designated for the landfill. This has a major environmental impact.

Del Surs water conservation strategies should also be admired and finally the use of solar energy to power for as at least 20% of the houses is also impressive. However, the only problem with Del Sur is that it is 20 miles from the nearest city. If this is a sub-urban enclave then this means that the residents had to drive a long way home. According to Pollard this is not an acceptable feature of a purely green community. Furthermore, the property is not mixed used and there are no stores that are accessible simply by walking.

Nevertheless, this is way better than what was featured in Altura. It seems that the company that handled Altura were only interested in marketing their property as a green community but has no commitment to use standards that will make it a real green community. There is no evidence of recycling and water conservation. The only thing that they have in terms of an eco-friendly feature is the construction of houses far away from the city and therefore near trees, mountains etc.

Conclusion

It takes a lot to be considered a green community. Pollards standard is one of the best way to understand what is required for a project to be considered a green community. In this regard it can be argued that Del Sur is one example of how a builder has tried to create something that is gentle on the environment and one that is sustainable. There a few problems but it way better compared to Altura. The other community cannot show any feature that will make it a worthy example of a green community.

References

Farrell, P., 2009. Climate Change Action in Connecticut. Journal of Environmental Law. 27, 281-291

Green Eco Community. Del Sur Green Community. [online]. Web.

Pollard, T., 2009. Building Greener Communities: Smarter Growth and Green Building. Virginia Environmental Law Journal. 27, 125-145

Schmidt, C., 2008. Bringing Green Homes within Reach. Environmental Health Perspectives, 8, 248-250.

Hypothesis

There has been an argument about the efficiency of green buildings and whether they are indeed sustainable. In this case, green buildings have proved to be much better than other buildings and this is as far as environmental aspects are concerned. As a matter of fact, it should be known that new technologies are being developed and this is the way to go. People are being encouraged to develop green structures and this is aimed at reducing the environmental impact that other buildings have had on the society.

Abstract

It is undeniable that the world is going green and this will ultimately involve everything. As a matter of fact, the idea of green buildings has been greatly embraced by different people in our society and this trend is expected to continue as time goes by. Generally, these buildings are being developed to be in line with the current technology and advancements but the overall objective of green buildings is to reduce the environmental impact (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 4).

The most outstanding benefit of green buildings is the reduction in wastes and this is something that other developments have not taken care of. Gases that are emitted from materials like formaldehyde have had a serious impact on the occupants health and this is something that needs to be solved through green buildings.

As a matter of fact, indoor air quality is greatly enhanced through green buildings. This should reduce air impurities and other organic compounds that can be distributed and found in air. Many materials that have been used in other buildings emit toxic gases and that is why we can say that green buildings are better in indoor air quality.

Green buildings enhance maintenance optimization and this is something that argues well in their favor (Langdon 12). Green is a term that has become popular in recent years and this is as far as buildings are concerned. In this case, it has been used to describe the design and construction of buildings. These are buildings that have a minimal impact on the environment.

Introduction

Green buildings revolve around a structure that is environmentally friendly. In addition, the structures are supposed to be resource efficient. This is as far as the buildings life cycle is concerned. All this should be catered for from the time the building will be set up to the time that it will be demolished.

The maintenance and operation of the building should also be green oriented as far as the aspect of green building is concerned (Langdon 27). It should be known that the general practice of green buildings complements various and distinct design concerns. In this case, we can look at the buildings economy and its general comfortability.

As a matter of fact, it is also good to look at the buildings durability for long term sustainability. Generally, these buildings are being developed to be in line with the current technology and advancements but the overall objective of green buildings is to reduce the environmental impact (WBDG Sustainable Committee 7).

The built environment can also have an impact and effects on human health and this is what green buildings seek to demystify. We should take care of our natural environment through various initiatives and green buildings are one of them.

Discusion

It has been proven that green buildings reduce the environmental impact on human health and this is undeniable. All in all, these buildings are designed to enhance the efficient use of other resources like energy, water and others. In a broad perspective, green buildings have a positive impact on employee productivity and that is why they are being advocated for.

It has also been proven that green buildings are in a better position to protect the health of various occupants (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency13). This therefore is a good reason as per to why green buildings should be advocated for. Most green buildings are designed to reduce pollution that other buildings have had on the environment. In this case, environmental degradation is effectively taken care of.

The most outstanding benefit of green buildings is that they reduce waste and this is something that other developments have not taken care of. In a broad perspective, the concept of green buildings has also been replicated in natural buildings. These buildings are more concerned with the use of natural materials.

In this case, they are used because they are naturally available than other materials that have to be imported or bought from other places (Langdon 32). The general retrofitting of homes and houses is not addressed by green houses in any way and this is a fact that we should comprehend with. We all agree that many buildings have always been constructed on large parcels of land.

Wholesomely, the general idea of green buildings is aimed at taking care of the environmental impact that any new construction can have. People and the whole society have been encouraged to come up with sustainable developments and this is as far green buildings are concerned.

Our construction practices are supposed to be energy efficient and this is where this concept and aspect comes in. In a broad perspective, green buildings have both economic and social impacts on our environment (WBDG Sustainable Committee 9). For long term sustainability, there have been efforts to come up with good designs that will be used for new structures. In this case, a good and sustainable design will take care of the buildings life cycle.

Most green building practices have been designed and used to create the synergy that is needed. Green buildings lay more emphasis on renewable resources and techniques. Other aspects like the use of trees and plants can be seen in the aspect of green roofs. This is mostly aimed at reducing any rainwater run-off that might be anticipated for.

Replenishment of water has also been taken care of through green buildings and this will continue as time goes by through good technological advancements (Langdon 29). This technology has been changing as time goes by and there are differences depending on the region that one comes from. This can be explained from the fact that every region can not have the same materials and capabilities.

There are some general practices that can not be avoided and this is as far as green buildings are concerned. It should be known that there are various optimization principles of green buildings that are supposed to be taken care of. All this technologies can be used to produce and come up with a good cumulative effect that is desired by all.

Buildings should be designed to be in harmony with the surrounding environment. A good building should be able to generate renewable energy and this is a fact that needs to be catered for (Pushkar 18). The structure and design of green buildings is supposed to reduce costs that come with other buildings. In this case, the design should look at the life cycle stages of the whole project.

The idea of green buildings can not replicate itself and this means that they will always vary. Any variations in the design of the building should be looked at because they affect the environment. Green buildings are energy efficient and this is the main aim of coming up with such structures. As much as there might be efforts to minimize the use of energy, the generation of renewable energy is highly advocated for. This will therefore reduce the impact that such a building might have on the environment.

The only problem will be seen in the generation of power and this because such an activity is very expensive (Langdon 17). Green buildings are supposed to reduce the consumption of water in a broad way. In this case, the facility should rely on water that is collected from the site. This is normally preferred against the idea of relying on piped water that is not sustainable.

It should be known that the idea of conserving water should be advocated for through the general life cycle of the building. In this case, the recycling of water should be emphasized for long term sustainability. Re-usage of water on-site should be advocated for from the initial design stages of the building.

Heating and water treatment should be encouraged because it will ultimately enhance the quality of water. Other aspects like on-site irrigation should be encouraged through recycling (Pushkar 23). This can therefore reduce the demand for local water supplies. Green buildings are efficient as far as materials are concerned. In this case, renewable materials like bamboo are mostly encouraged. Such materials can be sustainably managed as time goes by and this is good.

Most of these materials like wood plates and stones can be found locally and this can therefore reduce on costs. Recycling of industrial goods should be encouraged because this will reduce the impact that such materials have on the environment. A perfect example is the use of demolition debris that can be found on various sites.

To reduce the energy that is used in the transportation of materials it will be good if they are assembled locally and on site (Perlman 27). As a matter of fact, they should be extracted and manufactured within the locality for long term sustainability. In a broad perspective, this will minimize waste and thereby maximize the benefits that are supposed to be got from the use of local materials.

Indoor quality enhancement is also catered for through green buildings. In this case, they are supposed to enhance comfort and the general productivity that should be expected from the occupants. Such aspects should be catered for through the design stages of the building. As a matter of fact, indoor air quality is greatly enhanced through green buildings.

This should reduce air impurities and other organic compounds that can be distributed and found in air (Pushkar 29). Indoor air quality should be the main concern as far as the design of green buildings is concerned. Green buildings are built with good construction materials that can minimize emissions that have an impact on the quality of air. The general interior finishing has also focused on low emissions and that is why green buildings have always improved the quality of air.

Many materials that have been used in other buildings emit toxic gases and that is why we can say that green buildings are better in indoor air quality. Gases that are emitted from materials like formaldehyde have had a serious impact on the occupants health and this is something that needs to be solved through green buildings.

All in all, the productivity of the occupant is greatly compromised through other building materials that do not focus on green buildings (Perlman 43). Therefore, such materials should be avoided to enhance indoor air quality. Lighting is also catered for through green buildings and this is something that has been ignored by other buildings.

Green buildings enhance maintenance optimization and this is something that argues well in their favor. As a matter of fact, the personnel that will be in charge of operations and maintenance should be incorporated in the planning process to ensure that the idea is properly executed.

Waste reduction is greatly advocated for through green buildings and houses (Pushkar 23). If the buildings are designed well, they will reduce waste and give on-site solutions. This is as far as the occupant is concerned because they play a large role and part in such aspects. A perfect example of an on-site solution is composite bins that need to be everywhere. Rainwater collectors should be installed on every building to collect water that can be used in the building.

Conclusion

Green is a term that has become popular in recent years and this is as far as buildings are concerned. In this case, it has been used to describe the design and construction of buildings. These are buildings that have a minimal impact on the environment. This is as far as the negativity that has been associated with other buildings is concerned (Perlman 36).

As a matter of fact, people are being encouraged to go green all over the world and this is based on various challenges that have been seen and witnessed as time goes by. This is because the global environment has become a major issue of concern and such issues can only be solved through green initiatives. Green means being earth friendly and this involves a lot of aspects.

Works Cited

Langdon, Davis. The Cost of Green Revisited. California: Stanford University Press, 2007. Print.

Perlman, Jeff. The Cost and Financial Benefits of Green Buildings. New York: Cornell University Press, 2008. Print.

Pushkar, Becker. A methodology for design of environmentally optimal buildings by variable grouping: Building and Environment. New York: Routledge, 2005. Print.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Green Building Basic Information. 2010. Web.

WBDG Sustainable Committee. Design Guidance. 2011. Web.

Introduction

Back in 1973, the country was hit by oil crisis that left all individuals in a quagmire. This was a wake up call for various stakeholders to take necessary action that amounted to imposing National Maximum Speed Limit, down sizing automobile categories and enacting National Energy Acts among other (Juhasz 237). However, it is still evidence that more needs to be done to help arrest the problems of energy in the country.

This is because the need for energy not only in the country but globally is growing exponentially calling for a review of the policies in place as well as coming with new ones. Considering the current trend on energy consumption especially from oil, there is need to conserve it or else we risk coming to a stand still in terms of economic growth due to lack of energy.

Needs section

As suggested by Juhasz 42 tremendous increase in human population has an automatic effect on increased amount of energy need. A larger population will need energy for lighting their houses, during construction of new buildings, a larger amount of energy is consumed, and there is increased need for transport among others. All these put pressure on the available energy resources. Unfortunately the problem facing BP since last year has made it a challenge for oil products to be available (Brune 207).

The environment has been negatively impacted as a result of the oil spill forcing the company into legal suits where they have parted with lots of money that could have been used to better oil conservation, processing and storage. Political instability in a number of OPEC countries has negatively impacted on availability of oil forcing prices to sky rocket due to short supply. For instance countries such as Egypt and Libya have experienced political instability which has seen to it that oil supply has declined.

There are studies that have shown that there is a decline in oil reserves. The amount of oil resources underground has been deemed to decline at an alarming rate and in the near future, there will be no more underground reservoirs of oil. It is no doubt that this has been influenced by the raising demand of the energy source (Brune 37). Another area of concern when it comes to oil conservation is the manner with which the rich in the society have absolute control on the resource.

In the major countries that are top suppliers of the product, there are a few rich individuals who dictate how the product is to be priced, supplied, transported among other attributes. This negatively influences impact on the consumers. Lastly, oil as a source of energy compared to other sources is heavily depended on. This kind of over-reliance is a threat to it being available in the future (Madison par. 4).

Policy section

Having in mind that the demand for energy will continue growing; to help propel the growth of the economy there is need to come up with steps that will help conserve oil. One major way to do this is to solicit for alternative sources of energy. Despite the fact that 80.0% of transport and industrial sector depend on oil, having in place other sources of energy especially from bio fuel, solar energy, nuclear and more so the renewable sources is called for. This will not only help ease the pressure on oil as a source of energy but also save our environment from carbon emission which depletes the ozone layer (Jochem & Dadi 26).

Although there are areas that can be a challenge to curb energy consumption as a result of increased human population, it can be rational if American would embark to utilize public transport (Hakes 83). Additionally bikes can be used. This proposal has been refuted by some of the American on the grounds that their comfort is interfered with. If adopted, this will cut down on the amount of oil consumed (Madison par. 2).

Additionally, policy aimed at encouraging manufacturing of vehicles that are energy efficient as well as those that can use electricity will help in efforts of conserving oil. This can be attained in various ways; for instance government providing the manufacturers with incentives which will in turn make such vehicles cheap and affordable to the citizen (Maass 74). Similarly tax incentives for those who buy these kinds of vehicle will encourage Americans to purchase them.

Provision of funds by the government to be invested in areas such as alternative energy sources for instance solar, building more oil storage will go an extra mile in helping conserve oil energy. A part from giving incentives to manufactures of cars to develop energy efficient ones, the funds can also be used in capacity building on how best to conserve energy. Funds can also be pumped in the field of research aimed at coming up with strategies to conserve energy especially from oil.

There is also need to preserve the oil resources that are under our water bodies. There is also room for the relevant stakeholders such as suppliers and distributers to adopt most efficient channels of supplying the product. This will help in ensuring that there is no wastage and the products reach the consumers on time. Lastly, Americans need to re-introduce breed reactors (Maass 61).

Benefits section

According to Jochem & Dadi 91 there are a number of benefits associated with the policies brought forth in this paper. One major one is that oil as a source of energy will be made available in the future to continue support the economic growth of the country. It is worth to note that the future generations will also have an opportunity to utilize the same product.

Similarly, with other alternative sources of energy such as bio-fuel and solar energy pressure on oil will ease (Brune 121). Additionally, there will be efficient use of energy resources hence minimizing waste. Another advantage of conserving oil is the protection of the environment. With other sources of energy emission of green gas will be minimized hence curbing the concern of global warming.

Conclusion

From the review of oil conservation, it is evident that there a number of problems such as population increase, war and political instability in countries constituting the OPEC among others.

With these issues, there is need to come up with policies that will help conserve oil such as encourage use of public transport or using bikes, come up with other alternative sources of energy, government providing funds to help in capacity building and incentive to car manufactures to mention but a few. The benefits of the policy include efficient energy consumption, conservation of environment and future availability of the resource to the future generation.

Works Cited

Brune, Michael. Coming Clean: Breaking Americas Addiction to Oil and Coal. Oxford University: OUP, 2008. Print.

Hakes, Jay. A Declaration of Energy Independence: How Freedom from Foreign Oil Can Improve National Security, Our Economy, and the Environment. New York: Wiley & Sons, 2008. Print.

Jochem, Eberhard & Dadi, Zhou. Realizing the Potential of Energy Efficiency: Targets, Policies and Measures for G8 Countries, 2007. Web.

Juhasz, Antonia. The Tyranny of Oil: The Worlds Most Powerful Industryand What We Must Do to Stop It. New York: Sage, 2008. Print.

Maass, Peter. Crude World: The Violent Twilight of Oil. New York: Wiley & Sons, 2010.Print.

Madison, Lucy. As Republicans Push for More Offshore Drilling, Democrats Plan Vote on Repealing Tax Breaks for Oil Companies, 2011. Web.

Introduction

Environmental degradation is on the increase, and it is likely to affect the human race in the future. In light of this challenge, many environmental scientists have made several recommendations on how we can prevent destruction of our environment. In this case, several mechanisms can be used to keep the environment clean and safe from destruction.

Poor waste disposal is regarded as one of the key causes of environmental degradation. Waste disposal is not only limited to the disposal of industrial waste materials, but it also involves the items we use and discard daily. There are three basic strategies that can be used to reduce waste disposal and they include the following.

Waste Disposal Strategies

Reduce it, is the first strategy for reducing waste disposal, and it is the most important of the three strategies. This is because if people can decrease the rate at which they use various products, the amount of things to be recycled or reused will also go down considerably. Moreover, reduction of consumption will also make people to cut back on their expenditure on various products, and this can help in mitigating environmental pollution.

In addition, we should try to decrease the toxicity of waste products that are dumped in landfills. Source reduction involves reducing waste at the source by designing, producing, and using items that are less toxic for the waste system (Scott, 2007). This method of reduction can assist in conservation of resources, and decrease pollution. For example, goods can be produced and used in away that they do not affect the environment.

Reuse of materials is the second method of minimizing waste products. Apart from reducing consumption, we can also find alternative uses for the things that we have used. Besides this, we can also turn used items to other things, rather than recycling or discarding them. Reuse has the following benefits. First, it makes waste management easier since it reduces waste production.

Secondly, the environment benefits because reusing items leads to less production, which reduces emission of pollutants, and resource harvesting (Woods, 2010). People should try to be more creative in order to reduce waste materials. For example, a person can use old garments for cleaning or even mending other garments instead of discarding them. One shopping bag can also be used on many shopping occasions.

Recycling is the third strategy, and involves making of new products from the used ones. Unlike reusing, recycling requires many procedures. For example, the items to be recycled are collected and then taken for reprocessing. Recycling also demands energy, money, and other materials.

This makes it to be the least preferable method of waste reduction. Nonetheless, recycling decreases the use of landfills, and it also minimizes pollution. Rs will not eliminate environmental degradation, utilizing them will lead to a healthier environment (Scott, 2007).

Solving Environmental Problems

Solving environmental problems has not been simple because of these factors. First, many individuals are ignorant about how to manage the environment. Secondly, poverty also makes environmental management complicated. This is because some people destroy resources such as vegetation, and trees in order to get income. The third impediment in this process is the high cost of implementing environmentally-friendly strategies.

Conclusion

Environmental degradation can be minimized through the three strategies, reduce, reuse, and recycle. The solutions to all our environmental problems do not lie in the capitalistic mindset, the Judeo-Christian value system, or the male-dominated, white cultures of modern man (McConnell & Abel, 2007).

The solution is embedded in the values that the indigenous individuals have, and their interaction with the earth. But more importantly, the solution lies in aligning ourselves with the values of the millions of other species with whom we share this planet (McConnell & Abel, 2007).

References

McConnell, R., & Abel, D. (2007). Environmental Issues: An Introduction to Sustainability. New York: Prentice Hall.

Scott, N. (2007). Reduce, Reuse, Recycle: An Easy Household Guide. New York: Chelsea Green Publishing.

Woods, K. (2010). Human Rights and Environmental Sustainability. London: Edward Elgar Pub.

Introduction

Desertification, usually fuelled by climatic fluctuations, refers to the continuous change from a useful land into a desolate region unfit for habitation. As the issue continues to worsen day-by-day, Africa seems the most hit, with many regions almost vacant as people migrate in search for conducive environments.

For instance, Eritrea, an African country, is among the recently founded countries found in the northeastern region of the continent with a land size of roughly 124,430 square kilometers. The country provides the best illustration of countries severely hit by environmental problems ranging from &desertification and soil erosion through deforestation and overgrazing to significant loss of lands resulting from the many land mines present in the country (Swift, 1992, p.23).

However, the current Eritrea differs significantly from the same Eritrea a century ago when a luxurious flora and fauna dominated the country. The dramatic change, as people claim, arose from the then environmental negligence during the colonial era, which marked the dawn of intermittent famine followed by a momentous slump of the then available natural resources.

Although the activities taking place in Eritrea differ from place to place and culture to culture, all seem to contribute positively towards the desertification evident in the country. As the paper unveils, the repercussions brought about by desertification have forced the Eritrean government to intervened thereby implementing strategies that have successfully arrested the situation.

The paper singles out the issue of desertification, among the many environmental issues in Eritrea, expounding on the Eritrean flora, the reason behind its desertification and further pointing out the major strategies that the government has put in place to make its fight against desertification a success as it stands.

Vegetation in Eritrea

In terms of ecological partitions, Eritrea bears six natural zones based on factors like vegetation and altitude among others founded on the works of different researchers and scholars not only from Eritrea but also from other countries in Africa. The central highlands form part of the zones covering a land area of approximately 2.6 million hectares with the northern highlands inclusive.

The zone covers the plateau regions together with the slopes in the western and eastern parts of the country. Rainfall in the western escarpment is quite unpredictable with only two months, July and August, registering the highest amounts unlike the eastern slopes, which receive rainfall virtually every month.

Therefore, the highland is composed of mixed natural forest such as Juniperus Procera, Olea Africana and Juniperus Procera (Kiflom, 2008, p.4). Dry and hot conditions characterize the western escarpments regions with rainfall levels significantly falling right from the peak of the mountains towards the lowlands in the western parts of the country.

Therefore, the foliage is much spread and pitiable dominated by acacia that almost resembles shrubs. However, the country too features a distinctive zone: the green belt zone, characterized by pure and uninterrupted woodland flora with rainfall going up to 1000mm per year. The forests in this zone assume a vast area covering the entire plateau region through the mountainous areas until the starting point of the eastern lowlands. The zone forms part of tourist attraction sites.

The southwestern lowlands feature vast grasslands, scarcely settled and thus harboring an undisturbed species composition. On the other hand, sand dominates the entire coastal zone. However, desertification has paved its way into this vegetation. The paper further seeks to unravel the mystery behind the cause of desertification in Eritrea for instance, its land tenure system.

Causes of Desertification in Eritrea

As Collins (2001) points out, There are three types of land owning system in Eritrea but one, the Dessa system, has a negative contribution at water and soil conservation (Para. 6). The system, carried out by villagers, has a rotation period; too short, that the vegetation cannot have sufficient time to improve.

Therefore, even if the villagers grow trees, carry out agro-forestry or rather employ soil preservation techniques, the allocated rotation period of 5-8 years proves short, as no change has taken place before the villagers resume the lands, hence over using the land. Worse, despite the 1994 policy set to address the issue of land ownership, it has never been put to work and hence the continued desertification.

In addition, most of the trees available in Eritrea like eucalyptus and cacti introduced by missionaries hinder the growth of more vegetation and at the same time harming the already existing one. For instance, although the people use the cacti for food, the plant absorbs too much water to the level of making the resource insufficient for other species, which on the other hand respond by dying thus further worsening the conditions.

The tarmer-musa, the worst of all plants, neither can one use it for food nor firewood, originally came from Sudan spreading through Ethiopia to Eritrea. The spreading of the plant is so tremendous that despite its being new in Eritrea, it has managed to cover over 70% of the southwestern lowland zone. Despite the governments efforts o burn it up, its effects continue to worsen day-by-day.

The issue of farming in Eritrea has significantly contributed towards the transformation of the forested areas into deserts. The areas receive plenty amounts of rainfall, which on the other hand has attracted the huge number of people, who wish to settle for farming activities.

As a result, the settlement has seen the clearing of the forests in their endeavor to create arable lands and gradually converting them into deserts. Similarly, the inhabitants of the woodland areas receiving less rainfall or no rainfall at all cut most of the trees for charcoal and firewood without replacing them with new ones, hence transforming it into a desert. However, just as pride precedes a fall, an environmental issue like desertification too must precede a success story.

Success Story behind Eritrean Desertification

Following the deteriorating capability of the Eritrean land to sustain life of both plants and animals including the people, the Eritrean government has implemented effective strategies, which have significantly changed its environmental status.

Among the policies are The National Environmental management Plan of 1995, The National Biodiversity strategy and Action Plan of 2000 and the 2001 National Action Program to Combat Desertification and Mitigate the Effects of Drought (Srikanth, 2003, p.69). In response to the clause 26 of the UNCCD (United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification), Eritrea has extended its electricity to its upcountry people as a way of fighting deforestation.

However, for the few who continue to utilize stoves for cooking, the Eritrean government has improvised a working power saving stove called Adhanet, which takes long before exhausting its fuel and thus saving the forests, though indirectly. It has gone further to distribute them to all the rural people, who have in turn welcomed the innovation positively and hence the success behind desertification.

In addition, following the efforts to introduce environmental education in the school curriculum, the targeted recipients have heeded to the call with all the Eritrean schools treating the unit as compulsory right from the O-levels. In 2003, the entire country participated in a campaign that sought to address the issue of desertification, addressing the current weird state of Eritrea and the probable state and repercussions of the same, should people fail to corporate in arresting desertification in the country.

The campaign message reached many people whose response explains their good share of the success behind Eritrean desertification. Kiflom (2008) further adds, As a member of Intergovernmental Authority for Drought and Development (IGAD), Eritrea has participated actively in the development of IGAD sub-region environmental education and training programs (p.11).

With the governments efforts still in progress, Eritrea might pass for the most luxuriant country in Africa in terms of vegetation, despite its past desertification dominated stories. Today, it is very encouraging to witness natural vegetation re-generating and the wildlife coming back to its habitat (Kiflom, 2008, p.15). The country is visually appealing with a stranger unable to tell whether it was initially a desert.

Conclusion

Eritrea, a small country in North-Eastern Africa featured recommendable natural vegetation a century ago, which was later completely affected during its colonial period turning the country into a desert. The condition followed from the then evident deforestation, overgrazing and lack of information concerning the effects of desertification to people.

However, as the effects unfolded, the Eritrean government intervened by implementing strategies and policies, as afore-discussed, which have significantly changed the country from a scary desert into home of choice for many people, not only from Africa but also the world at large.

Reference List

Collins, J. (2001). Desertification. Web.

Kiflom, M. (2008). Desertification in Eritrea: Causes, Status Report, Solutions, and Current Outlook. Eritrea: Euclid University.

Srikanth, R. (2003). Challenges of Environmental Management in Eritrea-A Case Study. AJEAM-RAGEE, 6 (2), 62-70.

Swift, R. (1992). Identification, Propagation and Management for Agricultural and Pastoral Communities. Kenya: University of Nairobi Publishing.

Introduction

It is notable that environmental problems, diseases and criminal activities affect the development process in a country. Indeed, an environmental problem, which distorts peoples ability to gain livelihoods eventually, affects their well-being. Similarly, the prevalence of diverse diseases in Egypt limits the citizens ability to attain sound health. This eventually causes the demise of monumental proportions of citizens or their reduced productivity. It emerges that criminal offences in Egypt is elevated thus affecting progress.

These crimes emanate from individuals and forces taking advantage of compromised security to execute various activities. These affect Egypt directly or obliquely. Investigating the diverse predicaments in Egypts environmental status, disease prevalence and crime activities constitute this paper. Consequently, the paper offers an overview of these aspects. It equally focuses on the concerns and identifies the probable effects on Egypt development. It ends by summarizing different vital issues.

Overview of Environment, Disease and Crime in Egypt

Environmental predicaments in Egypt entail mainly water insufficiency and degradation of land. It is observable that the Nile water in Egypt has persistently continued as an opinionated problem for many decades. Soil salinity causes diminished productivity thus necessitating adoption of unreasonable farming tactics that escalated land degradation (Rubio, 2009).

Undoubtedly, the climate change vagaries also worsen the environmental predicaments suffered in Egypt. The diseases, which appear a humdrum in Egypt, include certain transferable diseases. Furthermore, diverse food related diseases and waterborne maladies also exist (CDC, 2011). Egypt faces limited vector borne maladies including Rift Valley fever. Additionally, Egypt citizens also suffer ailments, which emanate from gaining contact with water.

In terms of criminal activities, it emerges that Egypt faces escalated criminal occurrences. Criminal actions including bombings, murders, gun battles, and religious wars affect the country. Most offences occur on streets and at remote countryside. Furthermore, it appears that a certain wave of transgressions has hit Egypt because of police absence thus augmenting insecurity (Kirkpatrick, 2011). It is obvious that these challenges facing Egypt hampers progress thus stalling her economy.

Environmental Concerns in Egypt

The environmental predicaments facing Egypt includes water scarcity. It appears that Egypt is needy on the Nile, which they use diverse purposes. Water insufficiency emanates from the notion that the dry conditions in Egypt limit peoples ability to access this precious resource (Rubio, 2009).

This has augmented water-related maladies among the citizens. It is also notable that land degradation affects Egypt expansively. The degradation originates from diverse unreasonable farming techniques, which apparently humiliates land. These techniques include over utilization of fertilizer and reliance on irrigation (Rubio, 2009).

The sandy nature of Egypts soils causes salinity, which necessitate continued application of fertilizers thus degrading land further. Great erosions also occur causing more degradation (Rubio, 2009).

This occurs because wind carries the soil transporting them to diverse regions. Water erosion also occurring in the Northern regions of Egypt causes unprecedented degradations to land. The peoples livelihoods are profoundly affected by these ecological concerns. Climate change also appears to affect Egypt because of the observable water insufficiency (Rubio, 2009).

This originates from continued drought conditions apparently caused by alterations occurring in the climate. Lands, which appear cultivable, continue to shrink because of the biting climate changes. Egypt also faces predicaments of sea level elevations, which causes occasional flooding thus affecting property (Pallister, 2004).

Egypt also suffers pollution related environmental predicaments created by individuals and companies compromising water quality atmospheric air health. The acts of disposing substances emanating from diverse manufacturing industries significantly lower the aesthetic value of land (Pallister, 2004).

This scenario has augmented chances of attracting environmental diseases, which affects well-being of citizens. Peoples interaction with their surroundings predisposes them to harmful and noxious substances, which appears dangerous to their existence (Pallister, 2004).

Diseases Concerns in Egypt

Egypt contains food-related together with water borne ailments attracted through eating diverse foods and consuming polluted water. They include strains of hepatitis and typhoid, which cause the demise of citizens (CDC, 2011).

The countrys vector borne ailments, which affect people occasionally causes deaths. Malaria cases appear to cause citizens deaths under untreated conditions. Dengue fever is common in urban surroundings. Yellow fever also exists in the country resulting to the demise of citizens (CDC, 2011). Egypt has African trypanosomiasis and plague, which also endangers lives of citizens.

Diseases, which emanate from contact with water, include leptospirosis, which distress people and animals. It arises from contact with animal urine. Schistomiasis also caused by snails affects people urinary together with intestinal tracts. Animal contact ailment rabies, which also impinges on the cerebral part of peoples body, emanates from animal bites (CDC, 2011).

Criminal Activities Concerns in Egypt

Egypt enjoyed almost a crime free environment over long periods before the peoples power rebellion of ousted former president Mubarak. It is notable that originally serious crimes centered on bombings, which terrorists executed (U.S Department of State, 2011). Egypt has sustained criminal bombings occurring in different areas in the country thus causing the demise of magnanimous proportions of citizens.

The most notable bombings emanate from religiously instigated attacks executed by Islam loyalists targeting Christians. These bombings eventually ends lives of non-Egyptians found at bombed locations (U.S Department of State, 2011). It also appears that kidnappings escalate in Egypt with possible killing of victims, confiscating possessions, and paying ransoms. Terrorist attacks directed at crowds also increases notably during holidays.

The observed escalating lawlessness created opportunities for executing criminal activities. This lawlessness resulted from police absence because after the rebellion of leadership offered by former president Mubarak. Criminal occurrences increased sharply thus affecting sections of the citizens (Kirkpatrick, 2011).

Huge proportions of escapees from prisons access deadly weapons, which they use to bully people within Egypt. The surfacing of vigilante groups, which terminate peoples lives, causes more crimes. Religious clashes also escalate crimes as Muslims battle Christians for with intents of filling vacuums in leadership (U.S Department of State, 2011). The criminal activities associated with the revolution include robberies, killings, kidnappings, shootings, and destroying belongings.

Effects of Environment, Disease and Crime Concerns on Development in Egypt

It is prominent that environmental problems limit development in Egypt to lesser levels. Egypt, which contains water insufficiency and land humiliation problems still, continues to develop (Pallister, 2004). Egypt uses the Nile waters to implement expansive irrigation initiatives, which apparently enable her raise magnanimous harvests. This facilitates her efforts to avail food for the betterment of her citizens livelihoods.

The problems originating from environment have enabled Egypt to shift focus on facilitating progress through motivating productions from diverse sectors. Similarly, Egypt contains attractive resources, which gains use in spurring economic progress (Pallister, 2004). The country ought to establish equilibrium between the escalating travelers marketplaces with her citizens fundamental needs.

Egypts disease problems have little effects on development because of the notion that they do not present huge challenges requiring magnanimous expenditures to alleviate. However, diseases may diminish progresses in Egypt through straining the economy during serious ailments outbreaks. It is noteworthy that Egypt continues spurring its development through integrating diverse aspects initiated to handle diseases.

Criminal occurrences in Egypt have associated with the revolution badly affected the economy. It is notable that lawlessness infiltrated work surroundings as people engaged in protests and sit-ins demanding improved work rewards and conditions. These emerged harmful to the productivity thus diminishing the outputs emanating from producing companies (Kirkpatrick, 2011).

Crime within Egypt and insecurity also appear to worry tourists and investors. This affects the economic status and hampers availing employment opportunities. Killings resulting from criminal actions also limit human resource availability for Egypt. In some scenarios, people possessing abilities to spur development die thus making Egypt deficient of important brains. Bombings also causes property destruction, which reduces progresses already attained (Kirkpatrick, 2011).

Conclusion

In summary, Egypt has diverse environmental problems, diseases and criminal occurrences, which influence progress. The environmental predicaments mainly occurring in Egypt entails water insufficiency, land concerns, pollution, erosion, and sea level elevations. It appears that Egypt enjoys lucrative progress amid the environmental challenges. Diseases, which appear prevalent, also include infectious ailments.

The country exudes ailments emanating from contact with water and foods. Vector borne ailments also emerge from bites sustained by citizens thus compromising their well-being. Criminal activities in Egypt escalated because of police absence during the post Mubarak ousting. The citizens created lawlessness which availed opportunities for criminals to strike. These predicaments affect development differently. Crime is the worst threat to progress for Egypt because of its insecurity creations.

References

CDC. (2011). Health Information for Travelers to Egypt. Retrieved from https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/destinations/traveler/none/egypt#diseases

Kirkpatrick, D. (2011). Crime Wave in Egypt Has People Afraid, Even the Police. The New York Times.

Pallister, J. (2004). Egypt. London: Evans Brothers.

Rubio, J. (2009). Water Scarcity, Land Degradation and Desertification in the Mediterranean Region: Environmental and Security Aspects. Dordrecht: Springer.

U.S Department of State. (2011). Egypt: Country Specific Information. Web.

Over the past few years, much has been written, including scientific data, regarding the impending ecological disasters facing the world at large. Ecology is a relatively wide field that refers to the scientific study of environmental systems where individual organisms interact with their natural and man-made environments (Hall, 2010).

During the 19^th century, ecology was not well developed until theorists emerged in the 20^th century. Changes in climatic conditions have continued to pose great threats to the ecosystem. If urgent measures are not taken the entire ecosphere is at risk of being hit by monumental disasters.

Ecologically speaking, ecosphere refers to spheres of the planet Earth which consists of the atmosphere, the lithosphere (geosphere), the biosphere, as well as the hydrosphere (Hall, 2010). Governments of the world have responded differently to the alarm raised by the ecologists.

The essay explores the role played by the United States government relating to the care of the ecosphere and whether it has done enough to control or reverse the trend of our life support systems. It will also offer suggestions on alternative approach in dealing with this issue.

Although the ecosystem should be self-sustaining, activities of mankind contribute significantly towards causing instability of the ecosphere. Therefore, there is need to focus on continued assessment and development of a clear understanding of how individual components work together, as well as how they influence each other (Hall, 2010).

This will in turn reveal how the whole system operates in ways that could not be easily predicted from the pieces. Caring for the ecosphere should take priority if any meaningful and sustainable development is to occur. It is critical to note that man has wrecked havoc on the land, water bodies, as well as the air through utter negligence, disregarding the associated dangers, or even by failing to carry out a cost-benefit analysis of his actions.

Over the past several decades, America has witnessed environmentally destructive activities initiated by human activities. Leading corporations in America have been largely responsible for activities that have been disastrous to the environment at large including human health (Wilson, Dilulio, & Bose, 2011).

It is unfortunate that all the major corporations whose activities are known by the public to be damaging to the environment have not been held accountable. These corporations include: Exxon Mobil, Monsanto and W. R. Grace. They are responsible for most of the toxic substances dumped into streams posing great danger to users of their waters. Their structures are also too weak causing chemical leakages that harm those who come into contact with them either directly or indirectly.

There are a number of environmental catastrophes that have been caused by human activities in America that the government has tried to control or reverse with limited success. Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone is a result of farming activities. Chemical fertilizers and pesticides used by farmers get their way into Mississippi River which drains to the Gulf of Mexico (Hall, 2010).

Chemicals and nitrogenous wastes from animals encourage the growth of algae, which are then eaten by microscopic creatures called zooplanktons. The decaying pellets found at the bottom of the ocean end up starving the water of oxygen. The resulting dead zone becomes inhabitable to any sea life. The American government has not allocated sufficient funds to research initiatives into the dead zone.

However, available research findings reveal that the dead zone is caused by organic sediments found on the sea bed and that the zone will continue to expand if urgent measures are not taken (Wilson, Dilulio, & Bose, 2011). Subsequently, the government has developed a comprehensive plan to encourage the states to adopt pollution-reduction strategies that will in turn help reverse the devastating effects of chemicals and nitrogen runoff.

American government plays a central role when it comes to the regulation of corporations. However, the government has failed in this responsibility in some instances. During Bushs administration in 2000, there was a major disaster caused by coal sludge spillage in Kentucky and West Virginia (Hall, 2010). Millions of gallons of coal slurry laced with mercury and arsenic spread over the land and polluted water bodies killing virtually all living organisms in the eventual reservoir.

The government at the time suppressed all efforts to investigate the energy companies that are responsible for most environmental disasters due to their reckless operations. Moreover, other companies like the Tennessee Fossil Plant have also allowed leakage of radioactive material into the environmental which have been the cause of cancer among Americans in the affected areas. Unfortunately, under the watch of the government, official records showing the number of those affected have never been released.

On the other hand, global warming remains to be one of the greatest risks to thousands of animal and plant species. It is potentially the next cause of devastating floods along coastal areas, and generally raising the temperatures of the world. Despite massive campaigns to raise awareness among the people at the beginning of the 21^st century, the American government now seems less concerned with this quest.

There are no clear policies that outline how global warming is to be controlled and how its effects so far can be reversed (Wilson, Dilulio, & Bose, 2011). Even if there are, then they remain just that, policies on paper. This is due to the fact that the government is doing very little to cut down on the massive greenhouse gas emissions recorded in America alone.

Undoubtedly, failure to care for the ecosphere will lead to environmentally destructive consequences not only in America but also the world at large. The government should develop clear and accurate policies that will regulate the operations of corporations especially those dealing with and releasing harmful substances. Moreover, practical strategies on efficient energy and use of new technologies should be adopted in combating global warming.

References

Hall, C. (August3, 2010). Ecology. In The Encyclopedia of Earth. Washington, D. C.

Wilson, J. Q., Dilulio, J. J., & Bose, M. (2011). American government: institutions & policies (12^th ed.). Cengage Learning

Arguments presented

Mathieus efforts are aimed at restoring the environment and in his argument; the principal issue that comes out is environmental degradation. The Kouchibouguac National Park is gradually losing its wonder. The principal contention relates to the two categories of people affected, the clam fishermen whose source of livelihood is under threat and people who are witnessing the death of a culture treasured and observed by all. Ideally, Mathieu presents the idea that the pollution of the Canadian coast has to stop. The stakes are high shown by the decline of the clam population in the lake (Gibbs and Pye).

Mathieu attributes this occurrence to several reasons, which he argues have to be addressed. He suggests that the untreated sewage released into the waters, the substantial commercial harvesting practice and the release of industrial effluents into the Canadian coasts, have caused environmental pollution, which is now showing itself in the form of the declining clam population. He posits that eventually, the locals heavily acknowledge the burden whose economy and tradition is getting ruined. Arguably, the Kouchibouguac National Park depends heavily on fishing and tourists activities, which may soon be part of history. It is, therefore, paramount to bring the attention of relevant stakeholders to these issues. It is on that premise that Mathieu has developed this documentary (Gibbs and Pye).

The appeal of the arguments

The argument appeals to the logic, emotion and ethical feelings of the audience. Mathieu reports that the clam population is sick and dying. The audience seeks to see a logical explanation for his allegation. He goes further to display the continuous ever-flowing industrial effluent that he correctly credits for the pollution of the coast. The logic is clear, and one does not need advanced biological knowledge to buy his idea (James). The audience is further convinced on noticing that, in addition to the threat to the life of clam and other aquatic organisms, the fact that the sewage released is untreated, poses a risk even to people accessing the coastal waters. The argument that the effects of the effluent release are detrimental, therefore, appears logical, and the audience is persuaded into siding with Mathieu on the need for urgent action to save the environment from pollution.

Emotionally, the argument by Mathieu draws a reaction from the audience. Naturally, all humans would instinctively hate processes that are confirmed as being harmful to their environment. The arguments draw the audience into hating the capitalists responsible for the mass commercial harvesting of the clams. The capitalists do not feel anything for the lower classes represented in this case by the clam fishermen. The argument is that commercial and large-scale fishing coupled with the pollution of the coast is the principal causatives of the decline of the clams. The fishermans future is at risk. Economically, he (fisherman) is losing while the capitalist is gaining in the immense profits he earns. The audience naturally reacts with empathy for the fishermens plight while wanting to scorn the commercial mass harvesters (James).

Mathieus argument imparts or has ethical appeals. Ethics is about what is right usually not in the eyes of the law but the eyes of society. Consequently, ethics depends on the eyes of the public. The argument in the film criticizes the approach taken by industrialists on this Canadian coast. The public perceives them as unethical, by realizing untreated effluent into the waters and indeed Mathieu builds on that concept giving his argument an ethical appeal (Gibbs and Pye).

Writers purpose

He brings out the causatives that are sickening and ultimately killing the clams. Further, he exposes societal greed and selfishness. He shows it by the actions of two leading players. These industrialists release untreated effluent into the water that continuously flows, and the commercial mass harvesters whose capitalistic leanings do not allow them to think about the helpless and small-scale clam fishermen.

Who makes the argument?

The argument is made largely by Mathieu himself, in his presentation of the film he focuses his energies on bringing out the untold misdoings in the society. By showing the actions plainly without any digressions whatsoever, he comes out as one who had a clear motive in his mind and has set out to achieve the objective (Gibbs and Pye).

The context of the argument

The arguments are raised in a socio-economic-political context. Mathieu brings out environmental pollution as a threat to the economic status of the people. The decline of the clams puts the livelihood of the fishermen at stake. Where would they earn their livings? Further, the creation of industrial effluent is a consequence of industrial production and the commercial harvesters are also engaging in economic activities. However, the arguments have a social dimension. The release of untreated sewage into the waters is a social issue. The fact that the species are facing extinction is a preserve of socio-biologists who always champion the preservation of nature. To seek a solution, a political process has to be initiated. Ideally, that is what Mathieu has just begun. They would be a need for legislation to regulate, restrict and contain operations of the coastal waters (James).

The use of visual rhetoric

The film employs visual rhetoric to bring out the arguments by showing the methods through which the pollution occurs. Further, it depicts the adverse consequences. When some fishermen eat the raw clams we no longer have to ask about the possible risks that the pollution poses to the peoples health. In addition, the audience does not have to look for the pollutants; the constant flow of untreated sewage is visually presented evoking high emotions.

Soundtrack effects

Mathieu captures the mode of the audience by the soundtrack he adopts. The sound effects stir up the feeling of the need to seek to protect the environment. For instance, when he displays the flowing industrial effluent, the sound stirs anger in the audience. One is indeed inspired to condemn the societal vice at the coastal waters (Gibbs and Pye).

Counter arguments and convincing effect

The film does not present any counterarguments. Mathieu takes the opportunity to advance a strong case for the protection of the environment seldom deviating from that course so that eventually the argument is against degradation without any counterarguments. The film is indeed convincing. One is convinced that there is a relationship between the effluents released into the waters; the sickening and deaths of the clams, after watching the motion picture. Consequently, they are convinced to join for some action to take (James).

Works Cited

1. Gibbs, John and Pye, Douglas. Style and meaning: studies in the detailed analysis of the film. 1. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2005. Print
2. James, Mertice. The Book Review Digest, Volume 102. New York: H.W. Wilson Company, 2012. Print.

Introduction

Decentralization entails the transfer of power from a central government to local authorities. Decentralized management of natural resources aims at enhancing efficiency and equity in the use of public resources. In essence, decentralization shifts management duties to the local community and promotes public participation. Generally, decentralization enables accountability, openness, and effective representation of local communities in the central government (Larson & Ribot 2004). Decentralized management of natural resources makes the local community to have a sense of ownership. The local community could own, control, monitor, and maintain natural resources such as mines, which are within the village, and would use revenues generated from the mines in development of the village.

However, with regard to natural resources, decentralization is not possible because existing legislations and policies enable central government to manage natural resources. Although decentralized management of natural resources seems simple, it requires effective management structures. The potential risks associated with some natural resources can have considerable impact on local communities. Moreover, exploitation of some natural resources needs more capital than others do. Nevertheless, the associated financial benefits of natural resources outweigh the risks and costs, and thus necessitate decentralization. In this view, this essay examines arguments that support and oppose decentralization of natural resource management.

Supporting Arguments

Decentralizing as a Start Point for Development

Understanding the needs of the local community is only possible through a decentralized government. The key aspect of the decentralization theory holds that the local community knows better of the projects that needs investment than the central government. Each local government would have an equal share in terms of development if left to choose the nature projects to invest available resources. Otherwise, if central governments would have control over the funds, then they would invest revenues within the projects in respective central governments.

In any case, central governments would propose projects that meet their interests, but not the needs of local communities. Democratic decentralization of natural resources would enhance development where local people and local governments have freedom to rule with the least involvement of the central government. Kates, Parris, and Leiserowitz (2005) assert that decentralization is the key to sustainable development and economic growth. Under minimum supervision by central government, a local government would pursue to deliver concrete outcomes and enforce efforts that are similar to those of private companies. From this point of view, decentralized resource management would lead to economic outcomes that are equitable and sustainable.

Decentralizing as a Remedy for Bad Governance

Since local governments rely on national governments fulfilling their financial needs, decentralization of natural resources would empower them to be independent. The financial independence would keep the management committee on toes in promoting good governance in aspects of management such as effectiveness, commitment, transparency, and accountability. While management in the initial years seems difficult, the desire to produce the best of results would be a remedy for bad governance, which makes local governments to be good candidates in decentralized management of the natural resources. Decentralization of natural resource management would enable local people to communicate their views, thus promoting equitable outcome through the decision-making process (Larson & Ribot 2004). Contrastingly, central governments support centralization of management institutions because bureaucracy is important in power.

Decentralization as a Centerpiece for Policy Reforms

Through decentralization, policies are reformed and adjusted to meet the requirements of the local community. The local community can draft their own constitution, which guide and govern their actions. Reformation of rules and regulations that deals with natural resources will enhance fair distribution and greater retention. Such policy reform exercises would improve the efficiency and sustainability of all sectors.

Decentralization would mean monitoring the public service providers at the local level would reduce redundant services. New policies and reformation of already existing policies to deal with cases of corruption, racism, and unequal distribution of resources would aid in generation of outcomes that are more equitable. When a local government has control over a resource, it has powers to dictate on who should manage the resource (Ribot, Agrawal & Larson 2006). Hence, decentralization empowers local government to conduct reforms that support interests of local community.

Decentralization as a Sense of Liberty

Since central government has excess powers that override powers of the local government, it gives a sense of colonization. Decentralization enhances liberty and increases legitimacy of governance. Decentralization improves accessibility of natural resources and scarce opportunities to the local community, thus promoting liberty. Moreover, decentralization relieves the local community from the imposing powers of central government, and thus creates a sense of ownership and self-reliance in governance.

In essence, decentralization increases liberty of the local community to specialize in various economic activities that are essential for their economic development. Owing to enhanced liberty and independence, community members who migrated to other places in search of favorable opportunities can come back to manage the natural resources as decentralization brings a sense of ownership and self-reliance. Decentralization enables equitable distribution of wealth and income, thus leading to equitable outcome.

Opposing Arguments

Initial Costs of Decentralization are Prohibitive

Despite the belief that decentralized natural resource management would enhance equity among communities, the initial costs are prohibitive. The initial costs of establishing and exploiting a natural resource, purchasing equipments, and employing people are quite high. The local governments cannot afford the costs as some central governments can only afford by seeking foreign aid. Other central governments source funds by borrowing massive loans. Moreover, central governments normally import experts to aid in the establishment and exploitation of natural resources.

Thus, high costs of exploiting natural resources deter local governments from exploiting some natural resources. The already established natural resources may fail to pay the debts accrued during establishment and exploitation of natural resources. Since central governments rely on revenues from natural resources, decentralization denies them these revenues and plunges them into financial crises where they would have challenges in servicing debts and offering essential services to their respective citizens. Therefore, decentralization of natural resources would not lead to outcomes that are more equitable, but it would increase financial burden to central governments.

Susceptibility to Discrimination within the Local Governments

Decentralization of natural resource management is susceptible to gender discrimination. Reports indicate that elected local representatives have a poor record in terms of womens representation (Sunam, Paudel, & Paudel 2013). The traditional aspect of perceiving women as inferior lies more within the local governments than in central government. Another form of discrimination that would be evident in the decentralized governments is the discrimination against the poor. As the rich are very influential, they would reap the most from the decentralization of natural resources, while the poor would earn a meager income through the manual labor. Thus, unless the central government intervenes, the distribution of revenues from the natural resources between the poor and the rich will result into great inequalities.

Decentralization as an Initiator of Anarchy

Decentralization is so much associated with anarchy. A poorly governed local government will form a society of lawlessness. There will be political disorders due to the absence of central government authority. Since the rich, the poor, and companies struggle to derive most benefits from decentralization of resources, they tend to struggle against each other. Such struggles create and initiate anarchy where strong parties take over the natural resources and dominate them for their own selfish ends. The interested parties then over-exploit or extinguish resources, and thus the equitable outcome becomes unachievable dream (Sunam, Paudel, & Paudel 2013).

In the struggles, the influential and wealthy individuals within the local community will overtake the ruling of the local government and enjoy the freedom without interference from the central government. Owing to naivety, the community could worship the rich as small gods because they do not know their rights. Given that the local community is naive, anarchy becomes the appropriate means of regaining power from the hands of the powerful. Thus, decentralization in a local community of such kind would definitely lead to anarchy, which would not lead to outcomes that are more equitable.

Lack of Equity Due to Procedural Corruption

It is true that governance from the central government deprives the minority groups and the poor of their rights in governance. However, it is the same case in the decentralized government. Although the poor may attend meetings and gain privileges of giving their contribution, no one can implement their contributions. Since the poor and the minority groups are not influential, their views and expressions will have no impact on decision-making. In any case, if they happen to secure a chance to speak and express their views, they are ignored in the final decision. Thus, at the local government, the rich and major groups overpower the poor and the minority groups by using power, money, and threats. The influence of the rich and the majority groups poses as the greatest barrier to the local community, which believes that decentralization enhances equitable distribution of resources. In this view, decentralization would never lead to equitable outcomes.

Conclusion

From the discussion, arguments that support and oppose decentralized management of natural resources have significant weights. Decentralized management of natural resources has a number of advantages. However, the disadvantages of decentralization of natural resources also raise some concerns. In any case, not all local areas possess lucrative natural resources. Therefore, while some local governments earn billions of dollars from the natural resources, some earn meager dollars, leading to inequality. Therefore, it is feasible that full decentralization of natural resources would not lead to equitable outcomes, but partial decentralization of natural resources would lead to equitable outcome. The local governments can manage non-complicated natural resources, while the central government should manage expensive natural resources that require complicated process of exploitation.

References

Kates, R, Parris, T & Leiserowitz, A 2005, What is sustainable development? Environment, vol. 47, no. 3, pp. 9-21.

Larson, A & Ribot, J 2004, Democratic Decentralization through a Natural Resource lens: An Introduction, European Journal of Development Research, vol. 16, pp. 125.

Ribot, J, Agrawal, A & Larson A 2006, Recentralizing while decentralizing: How national governments re-appropriate forest resources, World Development, vol. 34, no.11, pp. 1864-1886.

Sunam, R, Paudel, N & Paudel, G 2013, Community forestry and the threat of decentralization in Nepal: Contesting the bureaucratic hegemony in policy processes, Society and Natural Resources: An International Journal, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 1-17.

Introduction

Nuclear plants are powerful sources of energy. Despite the danger, they pose and the cost of failure that the world has paid not once the world still continues to use atomic power. This year, UAE prepares to commission the first reactor of the Barakah nuclear power plant with the rest three being ready by 2020 (Langton, 2018). In light of this, it is paramount to review the details about the plant and assess its significance.

Nuclear Plants Construction

In 2009, Emirates Nuclear Energy Corporation (ENEC) issued a $20 billion grant to the Korea Electric Power Corporation (KEPCO) that was chosen to construct a nuclear powerplant 50 kilometers west of Ruwais. The construction of the first reactor began in 2012 and initially was scheduled to end in 2017. However, there were allegations of the terrorist attack against a plant that was the reason for failing to meet the construction deadline (Update 1-Yemens Houthi group says, 2017). Presently, the first reactor is complete and now undergoes testing and accreditation.

Reasons for Construction

The reasons for construction are energy concerns. The newest pressurized water reactor is capable of producing a safe and stable flow of energy. As electricity demand steadily rises in UAE, new sources of power are required to satisfy them. In addition, UAE wants to decrease its dependence on oil and gas. Currently, nearly 100% of electricity is produced through the use of natural gas. Despite the fact that it is relatively cheap and non-damaging to the environment, its resources are limited, and a more sustainable solution is needed. A reactor that is currently being built in the UAE will supply 1400 MW of power for more than 60 years (World Nuclear Association, 2017).

Positive and Negative Effects of Nuclear Plant Construction

On the one hand, the construction of a nuclear reactor is a benefit. It will allow receiving lots of energy and start exporting natural gas rather than burning it. It will also increase the energy pool and will bring UAE closer to 100% sustainable energy use.

On the other hand, nuclear energy is rather costly. Maintenance and supply of power elements are very expensive for the reactors of PWR type. In addition, PWRs are the old-generation design plants that do not allow converting it to a cheaper and reliable fast neutron reactor that is powered by cheaper and less enriched fuel.

Environmental Policy

Before commissioning, the plant or its reactors must be tested and acquire an operating license from the Federal Authority for Nuclear Regulation (FANR). This organization assesses the environmental impact of the plant, its safety, and stability. UAE government exercises the policy aimed at establishing purely sustainable energy sources in order to adapt to the world beyond fossil fuel. As such, Barakah nuclear power plant is one of the achievements of the National Grid project aimed to reduce consumption of non-renewable energy.

Personal Opinion about Nuclear Plants

I admire the effort of using nuclear energy as it is one of the most reliable and powerful sources. Despite past and recent failures such as Chernobyl and Fukushima, the technology continues to advance and is already one of the safest and environmentally friendly electricity generators. I believe that in 2020, when the fourth reactor is commissioned, UAE and its strategic partners will realize the benefits of this technology and continue to further develop nuclear energy.

References

Langton, J. (2018). UAEs first nuclear power plant marks significant milestone in construction. The National. Web.

Update 1-Yemens Houthi group says fires missile toward Abu Dhabi nuclear reactor. (2017). Reuters. Web.

World Nuclear Association. (2017). Nuclear power in the United Arab Emirates. Web.