Essay on Bhopal  The Gas Leak Tragedy

Below, you will find an essay on the Bhopal gas tragedy. It discusses and analyses the causes and effects of the incident.

Introduction

The Bhopal Gas Leak is the worst environmental disaster in our history. This disaster occurred on December 12, 1984 at the Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL), a pesticide-manufacturing factory in Bhopal, India, and was caused by a leak of methyl isocyanate gas (MIC) and other lethal gases from the plant (Rosenberg, 2011). The gas cloud emanating from this leak contained nearly 15 metric tons of MIC and spread over the vast and densely populated Bhopal city.

The gas leak killed at least 4,000 people immediately and caused health complications for at least 50,000 inhabitants with some agencies reporting a figure of 500,000. These health complications have resulted in the death of more than 15,000 people over the last two decades while a large number (estimated at 100,000) still suffers from the effects of the gas leak, with ten people dying every year (Broughton, 2005).

Chemicals released during the leakage were deposited in the area around the plant and have continued to seep into the groundwater. Other sources of pollution include leaks from isolation material and residues as the containers used for storing them are slowly wearing out.

Tests carried out by UCIL in 1989 showed that soil and water in the Bhopal neighborhood were poisonous to fish and other aquatic life. In 1994, studies indicated that 21% of the UCIL premises were highly contaminated with toxic chemicals. Apart from humans, animals were also affected by the MIC leak: at least 2,000 animals, both wild and domesticated, were found dead.

Cause of the Disaster

The gas leak is said to have begun when water entered a tank that contained 42 tons of MIC, an ingredient in the production of pesticide. This contact led to an exothermic reaction that elevated temperatures inside the tank to more than 200 0C, leading to a corresponding elevation in pressure. This caused the tank to vent, releasing poisonous gases into the atmosphere, the spread of the leaked gas was hastened by the northwesterly winds blowing over Bhopal (Rosenberg, 2011).

The explanation as to how water entered the MIC tank has varied depending on the investigating agency. Union Carbide, the major shareholder in the firm, stated that such a large amount of water could only enter the tank through sabotage by an employee.

Somebody intentionally put water inside the tank leading to a reaction and eventually a gas leak. However, the Indian government accused Union Carbide of not taking adequate security measures to avert or control a disaster. For example, the company should have installed six safety systems that would either prevent or contain the disaster, none of them worked correctly that night.

Besides, the company switched off safety controls to reduce their expenses- including the MIC tank cooler that would have lessened the severity of the gas leak. The number of casualties was high due to the dense population in the Bhopal area, said to be more 900,000 and a warning siren that was started was immediately put off allegedly to prevent panic.

Most of the Bhopal residents were asleep when trouble began at the pesticide plant and many only woke up because they heard their children coughing from the fumes. As the residents woke up, they felt a burning sensation at the throat while some chocked from the smoke. People ran in all directions, unsure of which way to go, amidst the confusion, families became separated and many people fell unconscious and were trampled upon (Rosenberg, 2011).

Effects on the Environment

Even before the gas leak, the area surrounding the plant was used for depositing toxic chemicals and this led to the abandoning of wells in the vicinity of the plant in 1982. During the leak, nearly 27 tons of MIC gas escaped into the air and spread over the heavily populated city of Bhopal, spreading over a 30 square mile area.

The plant was closed between 1985 and 1986, during which most of the pipes and drums were sold off, however, the MIC and pesticide tanks are still in the site, as well as several tanks used to store various residues (Broughton, 2005). These tanks have worn out and the isolated material is falling out and is being dispersed into the surrounding water systems.

The isolated material contains several heavy and/or toxic elements that include naphthol, nickel, lead, mercury, and other hydrocarbon compounds such as hexachlorobenzene, most of which can cause nervous system breakdown, liver and kidney infections and perhaps cancer in the coming years. In fact, several studies have indicated that the water and soil in the area are highly polluted (Broughton, 2005).

Today, the location and its environs are still polluted with thousands of tons poisonous material, these have found their way into water systems that are used by the local population.

A recent visit by the BBC revealed that some wells in the area even contain nearly 500 times the recommended limit of these pollutants, however, the locals continue to use this water as they have no other choice (Vickers, 2004). The population around the UCIL plant still suffers from various diseases not common among persons living in other areas (Morehouse & Subramaniam, 1986).

References

Broughton, E. (2005). The Bhopal disaster and its aftermath: a review. Environmental Health: A Global Access Science Source, Vol. 4, No. 6.

Morehouse, W., Subramaniam, M. A., and the Citizens Commission on Bhopal. (1986). The Bhopal tragedy: what really happened and what it means for American workers and communities at risk. NJ: Council on International and Public Affairs.

Rosenberg, J. (2011). 1984  Huge Poison Gas Leak in Bhopal, India. Web.

Vickers, P. (2004). . Web.

Environmental Impact of Bottled Water

Bottled water is the new wave of the future as millions of people are purchasing it everyday while disregarding its environmental and cultural impacts to the society. Currently, the impacts of bottled water are spanning various policy formulation and enforcement strategies. Hall notes that there is an increased consumption of bottled water as several companies have carried out massive investments in this lucrative industry (para.1).

Consequently, this increased consumption has led to major problems of waste management. Landfills are increasing to huge sizes and the rates of recycling the used containers are still miserably low. The non-environmental friendly ways of disposing the plastic bottles has only served to escalate the problem. Therefore, as an aspiring environmentalist, I feel that the uncontrolled use of these products have dire environmental consequences that need to be addressed.

A number of key players are responsible for escalating the problem. To begin with, manufacturers of plastic water bottles play a significant role in this detrimental issue.

The process of manufacturing the water bottles, such as the dependence on fossil fuels, is causing a lot of direct as well indirect destructing to the environment. In most cases, the raw plastic materials for making the bottles are heated to very high temperatures before putting them into bottle-shaped blow molds. And the source of energy needed to achieve this high temperature is derived from either electricity or natural gas.

The amount of energy needed to achieve this is also usually very high. The Pacific Institute estimates that it takes around 3.4 mega joules of energy to make a typical one-liter plastic bottle, cap, and packaging (para.4). The same corporation also estimates that the more than 30 billion liters of bottled consumed in the United States every year requires over 17 million barrels of oil to manufacture, besides the energy used in their transportation.

Usually, these heat sources are obtained from the non-renewable fossil fuels. Most plastic bottles are manufactured from polyethylene terephthalate and it contains two compounds: terephthalic acid (PTA) and monoethylene glycol (MEG). These constituents of PTA are toxic compounds that are obtained from fossil fuels. Therefore, in the process of production of the plastic bottles, some of them can leak into the atmosphere leading to serious environmental impacts.

In addition to the manufacturing process, the transportation of the manufactured plastic bottles also has serious environment effects. Besides consuming a lot of energy, the use of trucks, trains, or any other means of transportation, leads to pollution of the environment.

More over, to maintain the quality of the bottled water, they have to be provided with additional packaging and cooling systems, which also increase the amount of energy used in their transportation. To say plainly, the environment is being deteriorated by the uncontrolled manufacture of plastic bottles (Andrady, 126).

Consumers of bottled water are another key players in this problem. Most of them hold the false perception that bottled water is superior to other types of water. The manufactures of bottled water are doing good business nowadays because consumers think that bottled water has a better taste and real or alleged health benefits.

For example, in a Field Institute 1990 survey, it is reported that about half of the consumers surveyed said that they drank bottled water because it tasted better than water from the tap, about one-fourth gave safety and health reasons, and one-fourth believed that bottled water was free of contaminants ( LaMoreaux, 122).

However, it is important to point out that this is a false conception of the consumers who want to justify falsely their addiction to bottled water while disregarding its impacts to the beautiful environment. More so, the consumers have been blinded by the false adverts of the companies selling bottled water.

In fact, investigations have revealed that bottled water is not any superior to tap water and when consumed in excess it can lead to health problems, for example, teeth problems. Interestingly, research has also established that some of the blends of bottled water are more contaminated than even the normal tap water and some of the bottled water are repacked tap water.

The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation estimates that between 2002 and 2007, the world consumption of bottled water had increased by 7.6 per cent per year, from 130.95 billion liters to 188.8 billion liters (para.1). The U.S., consuming over billion liters, is the worlds greatest consumer of the product.

Individuals usually consume bottled water because of a number of reasons. First, it offers them the convenience they need, especially when travelling and they have to move from one place to the other. Second, some individuals use it as a luxury item and they purchase it to show off their privileged status in the society.

Lastly, some individuals think that bottled water is of better quality as compared to tap water. However, what causes Mother Earth pain is that the plastic bottles are discarded without considering their impacts. Consumers are not aware of their roles as environmental stewards. This has been caused by inadequate education on the impacts of improper disposal of the plastic bottle containers.

The problem that bottled water pose to the environment also involves the various policy makers who have failed to institute workable solutions to solve this problem. As much as numerous researches have revealed that the manufacturers of bottled water are simply luring the consumers with their attractive ads, not much has been done on the part of the policy makers to address this problem. Many innocent consumers are daily falling prey of these attractive ads.

It has been proved that some of the bottled water is not obtained from natural or protected sources as claimed, but they are simply purified water that has been obtained from the same source as the ordinary tap water. More so, the so-called spring water is also at risk of being contaminated, unless adequate measures are taken to prevent this. The contamination can arise from natural pollutants that sometimes get into the water as it moves to the surface.

A number of side-by-side taste experiments have revealed that there is no clear distinction in aspects of quality of taste between municipal water and the water that has been distilled. However, as much as the policy makers are aware of these facts, they have failed to advise the consumers accordingly in this regard. That is why most consumers have developed the false perception of the superiority of bottled water. Consequently, issues of environmental stewardship have been swept under the carpet.

It is of essence to note that this problem is an outcome of various historical factors. As pointed out in the earlier sections of this paper, several divergent views have been held over time by end-users of bottled water. To be particular, they have perceived that this water is superior to others and that none other can match its quality.

Nonetheless, this historical belief has led to ineffective disposal methods of the plastic bottles that are now changing the beauty of this worlds environment. Historically, the recycling of bottled water has never been recognized as the best option of tackling this problem. From the time when the plastic water bottles were introduced, less focus was put that someday there will be a need of recycling them so as to conserve resources.

The fruits of this historical negligence are evident today as few areas in the United States have endorsed bottled water-recycling programs. Many manufacturers have realized this historical mistake and they are now making recyclable plastics. However, despite these, most of them still end up in landfills or are left to dirty the corners of streets.

Similarly, the current state of the problem is also due to bottled water-recycling program that has remained unchecked for a while now. This has led to the low level of recycling containers that has dropped in comparison to the other years.

For example, in 1994, the overall recycling rate of all recyclable plastic containers was 15 % but by 2003, the level had dropped to 19 %. According to the Container Research Institute (CRI), nearly 40 million bottles of used plastic containers do no end up in the recycling plants on a daily basis (CRI, para. 1).

This low recycling rate of plastics is leading to increased consumption of fossil fuels as well as increased environmental degradation. In the United States, some domestic plastic recycling companies have recorded decreased returns as more used plastics are being exported to other countries that have historically held the culture of recycling them.

The impacts of bottled water on the environment are felt in almost every place in the United States. Notable, however, is that the extraction of bottled water from groundwater stores has raised the concern that the supply of water to the residents is decreasing in such places.

When bottled water companies extract a lot of water from the underground reserves, it causes stress to the ecosystem because of the reduced availability of this precious commodity that is vital for sustaining life. Key places where this problem has been reported include Texas, Florida, and the Great Lakes Region (Aitchison, 4).

Aitchison records that when flows and levels of a regions springs, wetlands, lakes, streams and rivers are materially affected from extraction for bottling, the entire local and even regional environment suffers (para.6). This is the consequence in places where too much mining of water for bottling purposes is practiced.

Since bottled water is categorized in terms of being a food under federal legislation, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates the bottled water industry and it requires all bottle water manufacturers to check for contaminants at least once every week to ensure that the consumers are safe.

Besides putting a check on the quality of bottled water, it is also beneficial in conserving the environment, as it is indicative of a companys commitment to environmental issues. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is the federal agency that is endowed with the responsibility of ensuring that the countrys environment is sustainable. The EPA enforces the regulations of the government concerning destructive habits on the environment.

For example, EPA enforces the Pollution Prevention Act (PPA), which focuses on industry, government, and public attention on reducing the amount of pollution through cost-effective changes in production, operation, and raw materials use (Summary of PPA, para.1).

In addition, the agency enforces pollution prevention strategies that include practices that increase efficiency in the use of energy, water, or other natural resources, and protect the resource base through conservation efforts (Summary of PPA, para. 3). The PPA has been involved in tackling this problem.

Appertaining to waste management, EPA has been engaged in countrywide campaigns to sensitize people about the dangers of improper disposal of wastes. In particular, the agency has been challenging all citizens to conserve their natural resources by committing to reduce, reuse, and recycle at home, in the community, and at the office (Wastes, para.1). In addition to the initiative that has been taken by EPA, there are a number of proposed policies that are aimed at addressing the problem.

For example, the manufacture of biodegradable plastic water bottle has been suggested to be the best alternative option of tackling this problem. This is because they are both environmentally friendly and economically viable. Even though the biodegradable bottles are only able to disintegrate under certain special conditions, such as adequate exposure to heat and humidity, they are able to disintegrate within three months under these special conditions.

This is a much better option in contrast to the plastic bottles that may take an extended period to be entirely degenerated. In addition, the biodegradable containers have been proved to be free of harmful substances, reusable, and consume less energy during manufacture (Environmental leader, para. 2)

This problem posed by bottled water containers to the environment fits into the larger field of study of environmental issues that I will be entering into. In this age, man has shown subjugating influence on the environment.

The beauty of Mother Earth is slowly fading away as humanity has adopted an oppressive stance toward nature. Therefore, the best method of protecting the environment is by shielding it from destruction. As an inspiring environmentalist, this issue of ensuring that plastic bottled water containers do not destroy the environment will fall in my immediate docket.

The study of such environmental issues will adequately equip me to fulfill this role of conserving the environment so as to ensure that the natural resources are preserved for future and for the present generation. More so, since currently the world is shifting to a new era in which environmental issues are increasingly getting more attention, my study of this subject will be of great importance.

In conclusion, the consumption of bottled water has serious environmental impacts that should be addressed. The various key players such as manufacturers, consumers, and policy makers ought to develop realistic ways of solving this problem.

As much as the problem is associated with some historical factors, concerted efforts should be made to reduce the impact of bottled water containers to the society. Adoption of such measures would ensure that there is efficiency in waste bottle disposal. As an inspiring environmentalist, I will strive to this end.

Works Cited

Aitchison, Christin. Bottled Water and Water Shortages. Suite 101. 2008. Web.

Andrady, Anthony. Plastics and the environment. Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2003. Print.

Container Research Institute Producer responsibility: A simple recipe for reducing waste. CRI. 2010. Web.

Environmental leader.  Environmental leader. 2010. Web.

Hall, Noah D. Federal and State Laws Regarding Bottled Water  An Overview and Recommendations for Reform. Wayne State University Law School. 2007. Web.

LaMoreaux, Philip E. Springs and bottled waters of the world: ancient history, source, occurence, quality and use : with 53 tables. Berlin: Springer Limited, 2001. Print.

Summary of PPA. US EPA. The Environmental Protection Agency. 2010. Web.

The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Bottled Water. CBS News. 2008. Web.

The Pacific Institute. Bottled water and energy- a fact sheet. Pacific Institute. 2008. Web.

Wastes. US EPA. The Environmental Protection Agency. 2010. Web.

The Effects of Nuclear Weapons on Plants, Animals and Humans

Purpose of the research: The purpose of this research is to evaluate the effects of nuclear weapons on plants, animals and humans. The hypothesis for this research is that nuclear weapons-related radiation has far reaching consequences on the health and the general welfare of the affected human population, and also affects animals as well as plants in the affected area.

Research Methods: This research paper is based on a review of literature. My point of research will be internet data gathered from different websites, which have documented research findings on the subject of nuclear weapons and their effect on the plants, humans and animals. The research paper is based on the facts found during the research.

Introduction

To date, Hiroshima and Nagasaki goes down in history as the two surviving cities where nuclear weapons were used during the World War 2 and to devastating effects. Apart from the instant deaths that occurred right after Americans bombed Hiroshima and three days later, Nagasaki, thousands of deaths have been registered due to radiation related illnesses occurring from the two bombs.

Although there are no accurate numbers of the deaths in Hiroshima, the United Nations estimates that by December 1945, the death count was at about 140,000 people (Sublette, 1997; Walker, 2005). The Nagasaki death count on the other hand is estimated at 70,000 people. Apart from the deaths, the survivors and their descendants continue registering bodily injuries and other damaging effects to date (US dept. of Energy, 2007).

Literature review

According to DArrigo (2004), radiation is energy that travels in waves. Unfortunately for humans, radiation can not be smelled, felt, seen or heard. In a nuclear weapon blast, nuclear radiation is usually 15 percent of the activity, with 50 percent of the explosion being presented as blast energy and the remaining 35 percent as thermal energy (atomic archives, 2008).

Of the 15 percent nuclear radiation, 5 percent affects animals, plants and humans as the initial radiation. Such occurs within a very short period of the explosion usually less than three minutes (atomarchive.com, 2008, p.1).

The remaining 10 percent nuclear radiation is gradual, which involves radioactivity of fission products usually present in the weapon debris, residue and explosion fallout. Fallout radiation usually occurs minutes after the nuclear explosion and happens from radioactive distributed in the air above the explosion site during the explosion.

The radioactive particles eventually fall to the ground. In the rainy season, the rain water carries the contaminated water to wider areas therefore causing more radiation effects to plants and animals.

Naturally, the earth releases natural radiation that affects human being, animals and plants and can lead to cancers in both animals and humans. In the case of the World War II bombings, the radiation that occurred during the two bombs led to fatalities within a 500 meters radius of where the bomb was dropped. However, people as far as five kilometers from the bombing place would later start developing symptoms of radiation poisoning, which included radiation related cancers.

According to Linsley (1997), the environment has cosmic radiation that exposes all organisms to natural radionuclide. However, nuclear weapons contain artificial radionuclide, which have higher adverse effects than those that occur naturally. DArrigo (2004), states that uranium that is usually found in the ground lacks in the concentration and the interactivity that would negatively affect the environment to great levels.

However, human beings have over the years learnt the art of mining the same, enriching it and converting it to gaseous forms such as Uranium-234, Uranium-235 and Uranium-238 among others (Auxier, 2004). The enriched Uranium is then used as nuclear reactors, nuclear power or fuel.

While the fuel form may seem like the least harmful to human beings, DArrigo (2004) states that every link in the fuel chain creates radioactive emissions, which are released into the environment consequently adding to the background radiation that affects human, plants and other organisms.

That aside, there is growing concern that the nuclear weapons even though never used on the human population again since World War II, continue releasing radiation to the environment during creation and testing. The negative effects in radiation comes from ionized radiation, which according to DArrigo (2004) breaks molecular bonds hence causing erratic chemical reactions.

According to DArrigo (2004), ionizing radiation is the energy or matter produced by an unstable atoms nucleus as it decays or tries to reach a stable state. The energy released is either in form of waves (X rays or gamma rays) or subatomic particles (beta and alpha). Uranium, which is used in the production of nuclear weapons, is among the radioactive elements that result in man-made radiation and radionuclide.

When radiation hits the cells or tissues of living organisms, it either damages or kills it. According to DArrigo (2004), a damaged cell is well able to rejuvenate and heal correctly. However, this does not happen all the time. In some cases, the cells or tissues repair incorrectly thus impairing their ability to grow or reproduce or it can repair incorrectly, but still reproduce. When the latter happens, the defects of the cell or tissue are passed over to subsequent generations.

Nuclear radiation has also been found to reduce the immunity of animals and human beings drastically thus compromising their ability to fight off diseases (Sublette, 1997). More to this, radiation causes mutations in the body cells, and especially in the defective body cells thus meaning that the spread of cancer is more probable in people and animals exposed to nuclear radiation than people in normal environments (DArrigo, 2004; Pike, 1998).

Testing of nuclear weapons continue releasing ionizing radiation pollutants into the environment. According to Catcott (2003, p. 228), the effect of ionizing radiation released by such tests takes two forms; 1) acute radiation effects, & 2) long-term or delayed effects. In Acute radiation effects, signs of injury develop within hours and could last up-to weeks after exposure.

Such effects occur to areas close enough to the testing sites. Long term or delayed effects on the other hand are not immediately noticeable, but eventually, the effects lead to the development of different types of cancers among the affected population, shortened life spans, which involves non-specific aging and/or mutation effects in the genes of the affected population. The latter could last for generations following the initial exposure to ionizing radiation.

According to Glasstone & Dolan (1977, p. 542), radiation in nuclear weapons either occurs as nuclear radiation or thermal radiation. Of these, nuclear radiation is the most intense, often palling in comparison to the effects of the blast and the thermal radiation. This however greatly varies according to the position of the nuclear attack. An air bust, a surface burst and an underground burst would all have different levels of radiation.

Using the World War II airburst nuclear attacks on the two cities in Japan as an example, Glasstone & Dolan (1977, p. 543) concludes that the kind of shelter that people (and animals) are during nuclear attacks affect the level of their exposure to radiation. Statistics on deaths and injuries during the Japanese attacks indicate that people who were outdoors died most, while those inside wooden structured suffered more casualties than those housed in brick or concrete buildings.

Research findings

Burns

According to Glasstone & Dolan(1977, p. 560), nuclear weapons-related thermal radiation causes burns on people and animals directly through the absorption of radiant energy through the skin or indirectly through heating and consequent of ignition of clothes.

Direct burns are referred to as flash burns since they are caused by the flash that occurs when the nuclear fireball releases the thermal radiation. Indirect burns on the other hand are known as flame burns or contact burns, and are similar to skin burns sustained during ordinary fires or through contact with hot objects.

In the Japanese case, Glasstone & Dolan (1977, p. 565), notes that the flash burns were more than flame burns. This was especially because the two bombs targeted highly populated areas, and the fact that the weather in Japan at that time was warm. In Nagasaki alone, it is reported that 42,000 people suffered flash burns in areas as far as 1.1 miles away from the nuclear bomb. Less serious cases of flash burns were reported as far as 2.6 miles from the nuclear bomb site (Glasstone & Dolan, 1977, p. 566).

Radiation contamination

According to Catcott (2003, p. 227), radiation from nuclear weapon testing contaminate human and animals food chain. The radioactive elements deposited in the soil, are eventually taken up by plants or washed into the water bodies. The plants may be eaten directly as human food, or are eaten by animals, which may end up on the dinner table.

While current statistics indicate that contamination through such means is negligible at the moment, not research has ever found how much the human body can tolerate the contaminated food supply chain. Researchers however indicate that there is bound to be some long-term biological effects on animals and humans if the radiation-contaminated food continues to be eaten (Catcott, 2003, p. 230)

Eye Injury

According to Glasstone & Dolan (1977, p. 567), nuclear radiation can also cause Keratitis- an eye condition where the cornea becomes inflamed. In cases where thermal radiation exposure to the eyes is high, permanent cornea opacity can occur.

This happens because the cornea is the transparent part of the eye, which registers thermal energy received as part of the spectrum by the eye in normal circumstances. This is however a reversible condition and most people regain normal eyesight in approximately three years (Glasstone & Dolan, 1977, p. 570).

Researchers however suggest that if a nuclear explosion is to be conducted in the night, when it is usually dark and hence the eye pupil is bigger, the thermal radiation would be more intense. More to this, they also suggest that if the nuclear fireball occurs near the visual proximity of most people, the effects of the thermal radiation would also be dire.

According to the researchers however, the fact that the pupil is often shielded from intense light from the eyelids comes as a mitigating factor since it the lids would prevent the inner eye from too much exposure to the thermal radiation (Glasstone & Dolan, 1997, p. 571).

The bright flash that accompanies a nuclear weapon detonation usually produces two effects to the eyes: retinal burns and flash-blindness. Retinal burns are permanent injuries to the eyes, which happens when the retinal tissue if exposed to excess temperatures.

This is especially the case when a person looks directly at a fireball thus exposing their eyes to the intense heat generated by the fireball. According to Glasstone & Dolan (1977, p. 571), the primary pigmented cells in the eye absorbs most of the radiation energy generated during a fireball explosion and consequently increases the temperature in the eye.

Temperature increases of between 12 to 20 degrees centigrade in the eye, causes thermal injury, which injures not only the pigmented layers, but the adjoining rods and cones. This in turn causes permanent visual loss in the affected part of the retina.

According to Glasstone & Dolan (1977, p. 571), humans are naturally inclined to look at an exploding fireball thus increasing their chances of suffering retinal damages. However, unless the damage to the retina is expansive, some people rarely notice they have suffered any damages. This is especially the case when the damage is minor and centrally located along the central axis of ones vision.

The latter is the temporary impairment of sight, which occurs from the bleaching rods and cones, which act as the light sensitive elements in the retina. This condition can occur in people and animals that look directly at the fireball, or from scattered light affecting the eyes of people and animals that were looking elsewhere when the fireball exploded.

Sufferers of flash blindness (even in cases where nuclear weapons are not involved), state that their entire visual fields are blurred out and in their place the bright afterimage of the fireball or any other bright light remains as the constant image. This however only last for a few minutes before the affected people regains their normal vision.

Ionization and its effect on living organisms

According to Glasstone & Dolan (1977, p. 575), the harmful effects registered in nuclear weapons-related radiations are mainly from the ionization and excitation processes, which occur in cells of a living organism once it is exposed to the radiation. When ionization occurs, some cell constituents responsible for its normal functioning are either destroyed or altered.

More to this, the products that are formed as cells react to the radiation may be poisonous to the cell, and may result in chromosome breakages, swollen nucleus, swollen cells, increased cell fluid viscosity, weaker cell membranes and hence higher permeability, or even overall destruction of the affected cells.

Iodizing radiation not only breaks or damages the chromosomes but also damages the DNA when the unstable compounds and free radicals are formed when molecules in the body react with the radiation compounds. More to this Sublette (1997), states that the reactions in the cells interfere with the normal cell chemistry hence resulting in immediate effects on both the replication and metabolic processes.

The long term effects mainly relate to the genetic structure of the affected population, and this is usually passed over to their offsprings.

Further research suggests that when a cell is exposed to radiation, mitosis (cell division) is less frequent. In such a case, the normal replacement cycle for the cells in inhibited this affecting the general well being of the organism. In the event of a nuclear explosion, the immediate radiation would cause burn and eye infections as discussed above, but the long-term effects would take anything between several weeks to almost a millennia in plants, animals as well as human beings (Glasstone & Dolan, 1977. P. 576; Pike, 1998).

In addition to the burns and the effects to the eyes, animals and humans suffer other symptoms immediately or weeks after suffering the radiation exposure. Such include nausea, vomiting, malaise and loss of appetite. Glasstone & Dolan (1977, p. 583) states that the higher the doses of radiation exposure one experiences, the higher the intensity of the symptoms. Usually, these symptoms disappear within a day or two of development only to re-appear after two or more weeks.

This time however, they may include fever and diarrhea. Glasstone & Dolan (1977, p. 583) further indicates that more often than not sufferers of nuclear radiation poisoning will start to hemorrhage in various body organs including the skin. Blood in the urine usually suggests that the kidneys too are bleeding. When hemorrhage occurs, it is an indication that the radiation affected the blood platelets and the clotting mechanism.

Other symptoms seen as a result of nuclear weapons related radiation include loss of hair, and the body becoming more susceptible to disease, which it would normally be able to deal with. This is mainly because the radiation affects the white blood cells as well thus jeopardizing the bodys immunity.

Bioaccumulation

The radioactive materials released in the event of a nuclear explosion leads to the release if radionuclide into the environment. Accordingly, this leads to an increased circulation of the same in the biosphere. In such a case, the radionuclides end up in water bodies, plant tissues and animal tissue.

According to Darrigo (2004; Bushberg, 2009), this bioaccumulation of radionuclide ends in the biosphere affects animals on the high part of the food chain. Further, the effects to human beings who eat vegetables and meat from the same biosphere are undeniable. An example of the radionuclide harmful to both human and animal health is Strontium 90, which according to DArrigo (2004), mimics calcium and is thus deposited in the bones consequently causing leukemia or bone cancer. Cobalt on the other hand mimics vitamin B6.

Conclusion

The effects of nuclear weapons on human, animal and plant lives were laid bare by the Hiroshima and Nagasaki incidences in 1945. Research into the same subject suggest that nuclear radiation is able to cause short-term and long term misery to human and animal lives. As such, it is comprehensible even to the layman the fear that nuclear weapons elicit even to the world powers.

Regulatory agencies have been put in place to ensure that necessary measures are put into place in order to protect human beings as well as animals from radiation. However, different experts allude that enough protective measures are not in place yet. Whether this is true or not remains to be seen.

References

Atomic archives (2008). The effects of nuclear weapons. Web.

Auxier, J. A. (2004). The effects of Nuclear Weapons. Web.

Bushberg, J. T. (2009). . The Merck Manuals. Web.

Catcott, E. J. (2003). Effects of Air Pollution on animals. 221-232. Web.

DArrigo, D. (2004). . Web.

Glasstone, S. & Dolan, P. L. (1977). The effects of Nuclear Weapons. United States Department of Defense and The Energy Research and Development Administration. 276-316. Web.

Linsley, G. (1997). Radiation and the environment: Assessing effects on plants and animals. IAEA Bulletin. 16-20. Web.

Pike, J. (1998). Nuclear Weapon Effects. Federation of American Scientists. Web.

Sublette, C. (1997). . Web.

US dept. of Energy. (2007). The Atomic bombing of Hiroshima. The Manhattan project: an interactive History. Web.

Walker, G. (2005). Nuclear weapons: history, technology and consequences in historic documents, photos and videos. Trinity Atomic Website. Web.

A Cost Benefit Analysis of the Environmental and Economic Effects of Nuclear Energy in the United States

Overview

There are myriad environmental benefits presented by the production and use of nuclear energy. Studies on this fuel have indicated that it has a negligible contribution to global warming since there are no emissions of greenhouse gases.

In addition, other toxic gaseous compounds such as oxides of sulfur and nitrogen are not emitted in nuclear reactor plants or in points of consumption.

In any case, the process entailed in the conversion of nuclear energy to electric energy does not involve any combustion of solid or liquid substances that may be injurious to the environment.

Hence, in a conventional sense, no single substance undergoes the process of incineration as it is common with other types of fuels.

Besides, the production of heat in nuclear plants is due to fission of radioactive substances but not through the process of oxidation. The quantity of fuels spent in nuclear reactors is almost the same amount of end products (energy) produced by the reactor.

This implies that there is minimal loss of energy to the environment in form of waste products. The fuels that have been spent are not let free to the environment but are stored in the assembly points within the reactor.

Contrary to the production of energy using fossil fuels, all the solid wastes and particulate matter in nuclear reactors are not disposed to the ambient environment.

Although wastes generated from nuclear plants are not emitted freely to the surrounding environment, the impact of releasing such wastes would be disastrous if it were permitted.

The reason behind, is the fact that nuclear plants produce an assortment of waste products that are more risky to the environment than fossil fuels.

For instance, solid wastes generated from the reactor system may be highly toxic when exposed to living environment. Moreover, there are quite a number of process chemicals that would pose serious threat to fauna and flora if it were emitted to the environment.

There is also excessive steam emanating from heated water that as well as spent fuel that contain traces of radioactive substances harmful to life. Nonetheless, there is a distinction between the amount of electric energy produced and the mass of waste products, which is rather small.

Therefore, the impact to the environment may not be similar in magnitude to the use of fossil fuels. Moreover, the plant operators have the full control of the harmful wastes being generated.

The waste control measure involves variety of individuals and agencies such as plant managers, owners of the nuclear reactors as well as the Department of Energy.

There are stringent measures taken to ascertain that no waste materials fins their way to the environment until the last stage of disposal.

It is also imperative to note that spent fuel from nuclear waste is primarily radioactive in nature. On the other hand, a very small fraction of waste materials from fossil fuels contain radioactive substances. In both cases though, solid wastes can substantially spoil the environment.

The nature of damage posed to the environment depends on the nature of the nuclear plant being used and also the extraction process of fossil fuel themselves.

Quite often, the management of wastes from nuclear reactors is undertaken up to the disposal phase. However, it is not quite easy to manage particulate matter and stack gases from fossil fuels before they are released from the fuel production system.

The fact the gaseous waste products are dealt with well after they have been released increases the risk of exposure of these toxic substances to human, animal and plant life.

Although it is possible to manage fossil fuel wastes either partially or fully, the process may prove to be costly both in terms of setting up waste management systems within fossil fuel pant establishments in addition to emanating the systems to remain effective and efficient in disposing wastes.

On the same note, operators who run nuclear plants have the responsibility of ensuring that appropriate systems are installed within the nuclear reactors to eliminate or control wastes generated during the radioactive processes and reactions.

Hence, the cost of controlling wastes through building of structures cannot be evaded by either fossil fuel or nuclear plant operators. Furthermore, it is also pertinent to make controversial decisions regarding the most applicable waste control measures to adopt.

To this end, the cost-benefit analysis on environmental impact of nuclear energy compared to other forms of energy relies heavily on the waste value attached on each type of pant used to generate energy resources. For example, airborne wastes originating from nuclear power are largely eliminated before being exposed to the environment.

The minimal volume of radioactive wastes generated from nuclear reactors is indeed advantageous in terms of cost since managing such small quantities of wastes is both cost effective and beneficial to the owners of the company due to reduced overheads.

Similarly, fossil fuels equally generate harmful solid and gaseous wastes but the environmental impact of the latter may be hefty compared to spent fuel from nuclear reactors. Nonetheless, none of the waste stream can be embraced in the environment. Both wastes are disastrous regardless of the point of source.

The wastes produced by nuclear power have been found to bear the highest environmental costs in comparison to other types of fuels. As already mentioned, the quantity of waste produced from nuclear plants may be quite small when a comparison is drawn with other type of fuels such as fossil fuels.

However, if these wastes from spent fuels are not nipped at the bud, the impacts can be extreme. In fact, wastes generation during the production of nuclear energy should never be permitted into the environment at all costs.

The waste streams can be handled from the point of production using two key options. To begin with, clean sources of energy, also known as renewable energy are usually in place just in case surplus power needs to be generated.

In spite of these alternatives, each of the method of producing energy has its own environmental impact that cannot be avoided in the process of production and consumption of the resource. It is also vital to note that the environmental impacts of these alternative fuels may be positive or negative.

The availability of these power generation sources does not, however, solve the challenge of the ever-increasing power demands in United States. For a considerable length of time now, fossil fuels imported from foreign destination have been instrumental as the chief source of energy.

At a time when there seems to be strain and over-reliance on fossil fuels, nuclear power seems to come in handy. Thus, the cost benefit analysis on the use of nuclear power and the projected environmental concerns are crucial in the evaluation of potentiality of nuclear power.

Secondly, managing demand for power is critical in a bid to alleviate the environmental impacts of wastes generated from spent fuels in nuclear plants (Morris, 2007). It is definite that power generation is usually accompanied by wastes and the two components can be separate or discussed in isolation.

In order to reduce nuclear power wastes, the demand for power should go down. Hence, reducing the demand for power will have a ripple effect on the quantity of wastes produced.

One likely proposal would be to consume less energy so that the demand for the same is lowered. Consequently, wastes associated with power production will equally be lowered.

Nonetheless, this will not address the challenge of economic development since myriad of outlets such as industrials plants and domestic settings will continue to demand for more energy as time progresses.

When managing demand for energy, it is pertinent to acknowledge cycles for need ranges from the daily to seasonal basis. The pattern of fuel choice and use will be affected significantly if such consumption cycles are treated on a common platform or flattened altogether.

The choice of fuel cannot be merged with managing demand for energy. However, the duo processes may as well complement each other. Indeed, the case of nuclear power being compared with fossil fuel is a critical example of this nature (Ramana, 2009). The base load, for instance, works well with nuclear power source.

This base load refers to a state of stable demand for energy over a considerable length of time. Similarly, the cyclical demands for energy can be met using other source of energy like fossil fuels and hydropower.

In line with this, it goes without saying that when nuclear power is put into perspective of cost benefit, it remains to be most reliable during both the peak and off-peak loads.

Hence, when demand level s are leveled, the production of nuclear power may be favored. This can also be a viable way of regulating environment pollution arising from other sources.

On the overall, nuclear energy is a growing contributor of US energy needs, contributing about 20% of the total energy requirement in this vast country. On a global scale, this form of energy accounts close to 14% of energy production.

Although the United States and the world at large is still relying heavily on fossil fuel, the need to devise other alternative and clean sources of energy is ever beckoning. Is this agreement is implemented, then depending on unstable nations for crude oil resources will be reduced substantially.

Besides, the cost of energy production will also go down. Hence, the additional spending on oil imports can be channeled to other areas of development agenda for the country.

Although an alternative power generation is needed to supplement fossil fuel use, the undesirable impacts associated with other sources ought to be addressed beforehand so that the environmental impacts are brought to a level low.

Situational analysis

In 2005 alone, 86 quadrillion of crude oil was imported and consumed by the United States. The quantity of crude oil consumption has continued to grow exponentially even as demand skyrockets. The rate at which energy is being consumed does not match the production rate thereby leading to deficit.

The last fifty years or so witnessed a near balance between the two parameters, namely energy consumption and production. In order to meet this difference, the Federal government ha to import crude oil resources. Sincerely speaking, energy exploration should be given a restart in the US.

The reliability of nuclear energy is one the reasons why the United States should be boasting of rich uranium deposits.

Generating power from radioactive elements such as uranium and polonium assures an uninterrupted supply of electric energy and hence, it is highly predictable both in terms of timing in availability and quantity demanded.

The disposal of wastes generated from radioactive substances remains to be the strongest point in the use nuclear energy. United States has the best potential for producing nuclear power since it is well endowed with deposits of uranium.

Premise

One outstanding feature of nuclear power is that it can be accessed readily and easily. However, the United States government has not taken the full advantage of this resource as an option that can be employed in harnessing supplementary power.

Several research studies have already concluded that nuclear energy is effective in terms of cost management. Moreover, this form of energy is quite worthwhile to invest in owing to well refined process of controlling environmental pollution of nuclear generated wastes.

In addition, its sustainability is far beyond par since it can be relied on for a considerably long period of time. If adopted, it can generate adequate power alongside lowering cost of producing energy. Moreover, waste disposal procedures in nuclear plants are indeed phenomenon when addressing the cost benefit analysis of this form of energy.

The key problem statement to be addressed in this paper is the identification of impacts of nuclear power as far as cost and benefit are concerned.

The effect of this energy resource both economically and environmentally is vital in this discussion. When comparing nuclear energy with other sources of energy, the cost benefit analysis cannot be ignored since it gives the clearest picture.

Wastes from nuclear plants

Disposing of wastes from nuclear plants face various restrictions from the local, state and federal government. In order to impose these restrictions, myriad of elements are used.

For instance, government regulation, enactment and enforcement of by-laws or legislations as well as owner commitment to dispose radioactive wastes are all channels through which waste disposal controls can be put into force.

Hence, restrictions of this nature that govern waste disposal from nuclear plants reflects the public opinion on the best measure that can be employed in managing wastes based on their value as well as cost.

It is highly likely that there will be opinion differences among different players or concerned members of the public on the best method to use to control wastes from nuclear reactors.

In other words, the emission policies may not address the views of all those who are concerned with safe disposal of wastes and the environmental impacts of the same.

The type and nature of wastes disposed from an energy production process often depicts the type of restriction imposed. Thus, environmental controls on waste disposal will largely depend on the type of power plant being used to produce energy.

Besides, variations also exist in terms of level needed to regulate the emission of certain environmental pollutants. A crucial example is the effect of steam discharge from hot water, since it may significantly affect the normal temperature of the surrounding water bodies.

In retrospect, it is paramount to note that nay slight change or variation of normal temperature of the nearby water bodies may adversely affect certain plant and animal species which are not accustomed to a warmer environment.

Furthermore, the ecology of the affected water masses is altered. Consequently, policy issues emerge to debate on the impact of such discharges and whether corrective actions should be taken or not.

When concerns of this nature are addressed in operating nuclear power plants, the nature of controls as well as costs required will be established. For instance, a cooling system that lowers the temperature of hot water can be put in place.

Better still, the quantity of waste discharge to the environment can be stipulated in order to monitor how much in terms of pollution is let free in the environment and the degree of impact on plant and animal species.

The spent fuel disposal is still the worst environmental fear for all nuclear plants used to generate power. Usually, the fission of process that involves splitting of radioactive nuclides does not pass through any heating stage.

In practice, no single matter undergoes combustion since the entire process is oxidation-the loss of electrons by the atomic species in the radioactive nuclides. As a result, the process of nuclear fission is accompanied by minimal conversion of mass of the raw material to energy.

From the point of insertion up to the eventual removal from the system, there are myriad of control measures that are put in place. The process of disposing solid and gaseous wastes is so strongest that the immediate environment is not affected negatively at all.

The point at which the solid and gaseous toxic products are deposited is keenly monitored, making it cost effective to the environment in terms of pollution control.

The adoption of strict disposal measures of nuclear wastes is indeed one of the reasons why the use of nuclear power to generate energy is an excellent option when seeking alternative sources of clean energy (Suppes & Storvick, 2007).

The processes of generating power incorporate two main reactions namely nuclear fusion and nuclear fission. The two processes take place between the materials and the fuel units and are both accompanied by notable loss of heat energy with the emission of certain radioactive particles harmful to skin and the rest of the animal body (Hantula & Voege, 2009).

The accumulation of products obtained from fission (splitting) and fusion (joining) results into the spending of nuclear fuel. At this point, the nuclear fuel cannot generate any surplus power.

There is a large amount of energy fuel which is not consumed in this process. However, there is need to investigate whether surplus fuel can be produced from the residues.

The chemical and physical characteristics of the spent fuel are not similar I nay way. This difference is indeed necessary in the process of handling waste materials and disposing them before they exit the reactor.

Nonetheless, the stages involved in the handling of these wastes do not come without a cost. There are expenses which are incurred and are part and parcel of the nuclear production overhead (Department of Energy, DOE., 1988).

Spent fuel can be handled in different applying unique procedures. Hence, potential techniques are varied. For instance, recycling is one of the procedures used to eliminate or alleviate the toxicity of spent fuels which are already in form of wastes.

The main advantage of recycling is that the process undertakes some form of reprocessing of raw materials that were not completely used up. Hence, recycling is an economically beneficial process that improves the viability of setting up a nuclear plant.

When some the spent fuel is recycled, the environmental risk of the crude waste product is reduced significantly. The end product after reprocessing is less harmful and can be safely released into the environment.

Another benefit of recycling is the increased output of the total energy production. There is minimal wastage of the raw materials that have been categorized as waste products.

The approach being taken in the United States is that which entails burying down all the waste products collectively known as spent fuel. All waste products from radioactive reactors are perceived to be highly toxic and the best alternative of managing such wastes is to burry then deep underground.

Although this procedure of disposing wastes seem to be viable, it may equally lack sustainability especially in situations whereby landfills are to be acquired separately for burying wastes. This will imply that the operators of nuclear plants will have to undergo additional expenses as part of the production costs.

Both transmutation and recycling have not been adopted in totality since they are still under policy considerations. In addition, the two aforementioned processes will interfere with the timing, quantity, period and the nature of the very burials (Nunn & Ebel, 2000).

The operating costs of the nuclear plants will definitely be increased perhaps by substantial amount. Currently, the overall duty of disposing spent fuels from nuclear plants lies with the US Department of Energy.

Well, this has been quite reliable source of funding although sustainability remains to be subject of concern owing to the on-going dispute over the legality and constitutionality of such charges.

The burden of funding waste disposal program has been left to the public and the very funds have been considered to be a form of subsidy to the waste disposal initiative.

It is important to note that the federal government involves itself directly in the nuclear waste disposal program than any other type of energy production program (OECD Nuclear Energy Agency, 2003).

There are also concerns over the sufficiency of funds being raised by the public. The costs involved in the reprocessing of wastes may indeed go up with time. Worse still, if the nuclear energy production program is expanded by any means, the volume of nuclear wastes generated will equally increase (Findlay, 2010).

This will be the case especially in a few years time since the demand for energy is continually increasing. Hence, nuclear energy generation may face lack of adequate funds in the foreseeable future.

Should this happen, then the disposal of toxic nuclear wastes may be a gigantic challenge to the Department of Energy. Furthermore, as the cost of producing nuclear power may also be unpredictable owing to factors such as inflation and economic recession.

The Department for Energy in liaison with the federal government is currently a burial site for nuclear wastes in Nevada. Although much hope has been vested in acquiring this site, the court dispute is still raging and therefore the time when this site will be acquired is indefinite.

Such controversies especially those regarding waste disposal mechanisms has remained to be a major challenge in the adoption of nuclear energy production as an alternative source of energy. Even as environmental concerns continue to bother the Department of Energy, the US energy demand is still an economic quagmire.

As it is the case now, the status of nuclear waste disposal is pathetic. The use of temporary sites for disposing spent fuels from nuclear reactors is the order of the day. Hence, most of the wastes emitted from nuclear plants have not been disposed appropriately.

The reprocessing of these wastes within the plant system seems o be the most viable and readily used method as per now. Sooner or later, the alternate or temporary sites will be overwhelmed by the continual disposal unless lasting solution is sought in due time.

Comparison

The main forms of energy production are quite flexible and resilient in generating electricity. Although oil can be used to generate electricity, its high market cost as an imported product prohibits its use in the generation of electricity (Molak, 1997).

As it is well known, the use of natural gas and coal poses gross environmental risks in spite of the fact each of these energy component has its own emission criteria. For instance, the amount of greenhouse gases emitted during the combustion of coal may not necessarily be the same although both of them are pollutants in the environment.

When nuclear power is used to generate electricity, a clear distinction can be drawn right from the outset. There are vivid environmental pollution levels when all of these energy components are used to reduce power.

When coal is used, there is a possibility of choosing between cal that contains high and low contents of sulfur alongside other emissions. Similarly, the use of fossil fuels also allows differences in emission levels.

These variations may be tagged on the type of burners used, the level of technology employed as well as the apparatus used to monitor and control emission levels.

The application of emission allowances as enshrined in the Clean Air Act adopted in 1990 can be a real booster in nuclear waste management.

Since 2002, there have been plans to include nuclear power plants in the emission allowances that are applicable with plants that emit oxides of nitrogen. In spite of the low volume of these allowances, it may indeed save a lot in terms of emissions that are usually avoided in totality (Eisenbud & Gessell, 1997)

Emission levels have been set up by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to act as a guide to nuclear and other power generating plants. For example, for each 1 MWh of electricity produced, coal plants should not exceed the cap of 2249 of carbon dioxide while for oil plants; the maximum allowable emission is 1135 by volume.

The remaining pollutants such as sulfur dioxide and the oxides of nitrogen also have their emission levels which cannot be exceed by operators. However, nuclear plant reactors are not emitted to emit any waste products to the environment, whether the pollutant is considered to be mild or less severe.

The reason given behind this prohibition is that any allowable emission to the environment emanating from nuclear wastes may contain traces of radioactive substances known to be highly devastating even after being deposited for a long period of time.

The radioactive wastes can still initiate chain reactions millions of years after emission to the ambient environment (Eisenbud & Paschoa, 1989). This also explains the reason why the residues emanating from nuclear wastes are buried deep underground so that the elements do not move to the surface and cause health havoc such as gene mutation in animals.

Hence, nuclear power plants should be operated in a very sensitive manner right from the time raw materials are fed into the reactor up to the time period when waste products are being disposed.

The quantity of spent fuel produced by nuclear power on an annual basis is estimate at 2,000 metric tons. This quantity is far much less than the stipulated allowable emission levels per every Megawatt hour of electricity produced.

This implies that even though the environmental effects of spent fuel can be devastating, nuclear plants emit quite a marginal amount of these wastes to the environment.

From this perspective, it is likely that a nuclear plant which operates in more than 90% of the total duration and has a capacity of one thousand MWe, waste generation from this plant will be approximately 46,000 lbs per year translating close to 23 tones.

From this evidence, it implies that the amount of wastes generated from a nuclear plant per annum is relatively small compared to other forms of energy production. However, the challenge remains how adequately and satisfactorily these wastes can be disposed to avoid pollution of the immediate environment.

When the same quantity of electricity is generated from coal, over three hundred thousand tons of waste products in form of ashy residues will be formed. This will translate to about ten prevent of coal burnt. the process of srubbing is used to remove ash impurities.

This marks the main difference between the volume of waste products generated in nuclear plants and other forms of energy generation (Simon, 2007).

It is possible to make resolutions and change to nuclear fuel from fossil fuel. However, this will rely on the type of fuel being substituted and the emission which is of great significance. Airborne emissions emanating from nuclear power plants and other sources of energy such as coal have common significance throughout.

There has been a gradual decline in the building of new nuclear plants since the past three decades or so. By 1996, one nuclear power plant was completed in United States in spite of the fact that there are pending building licenses of nuclear plants (National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, NCRP, 2004).

There is much hope that yet another nuclear plant will be constructed soon to supplement energy production in meeting high demand. The decline has not been without a cause. For instance, the associated expenses and overheads required to erect new power plants is quite high.

The capital required for this investment is huge and as a result, it has prohibited the development of new nuclear sites. In addition to the element of cost, the risks involved in the constructing and running of nuclear power plants are overwhelming.

As much as there is increasing demand for energy resources, the returns on nuclear power plants may not be significant especially at the initial stages of production due to the fact that management of wastes from spend fuel is a costly affair.

Besides, waste disposal is a mandatory requirement in nuclear plants and as such, the operating costs may remain all time high, thereby jeopardizing operations. Building fossil fuel plants as well as coal plants has been quite easy in terms of cost compared to the construction of nuclear plants (Diesendorf, 2007).

There are highly charged views over the possibility of alleviating greenhouse gas emissions through the adoption of nuclear power generation. Acidic gases, solid wastes and metallic particles have been a concern for a lengthy period of time.

There seems to be concurrence that greenhouse gas emissions can indeed be reduced when nuclear power generation is given a serious thought instead of over-relying on fossil fuels (Sovacool, 2010).

Furthermore, the emission of acidic gases like the oxides of sulfur and nitrogen will significantly go down if fossil fuels such as coal and oil are sufficiently replaced with energy production using nuclear power. Although the cost benefit analysis of setting up a nuclear plant reveals hefty financial risk, the overall result is definitively impressive.

The other side of the coin must also be analyzed. When fossil fuel is replaced with nuclear power, the quantity of nuclear spent will be higher, necessitating the need for further disposal.

The control technologies for regulating emissions from nuclear power plants is yet another option that can reduce or completely eliminate the release of harmful waste products to the environment.

Environmental effects

Right from the initial stage of construction, a nuclear power plant is a real source of noise disturbance to the neighboring community. However, this kind of disturbance is quite common in most industrial establishments (Leeuwen & Smith, 2003).

For instance, the increase in traffic flow, digging of natural sites trough excavations by heavy machinery, destroying of the natural ecosystem by interfering of plant and animal habitats are likely to be experienced whenever a nuclear power plant is being constructed.

There are instances when the natural environment is completely defaced, leaving bare ground, deep valleys and rugged surfaces. Nonetheless, it is vital for an environmental impact assessment to be carried out before such construction works begin.

This type of assessment will ascertain any mitigation measures that need to be taken or put in place in order to reduce damage to the terrestrial and aquatic environment.

An impact assessment to the environment is carried out by environmental experts and a report outlining some of the measures to be taken as the construction goes on is released to the contractor (Diesendorf, 2008).

To begin with, the selection of a nuclear power plant site is an important step to take. A carefully selected site will by far and large, minimize the effects of these negative impacts to the environment.

For instance, it is highly recommended that a nuclear power plant be located away from human settlement. Residential places should not be positioned within the vicinity of nuclear plants.

Another environmental impact of nuclear power plants is the thermal discharges that emanates from heat that has not been used in the process of driving the turbines. Both the fossil fuel and heat generated from fission and fusion in the reactor are not conducive to the environment.

Complications arising from reproduction, growth and development of initial stages of tiny animal species like insects as well as children and adults.

In order to address this environmental problem, there are regulatory agencies whose main role is to set up standards regarding water temperature and the associated discharges being released into the environment (New Nuclear Energy Agency, 2008).

The aquatic populations may also undergo demise due to exposure to extremely hot discharges. The transmission lines that are highly visible is a common sight in locations where nuclear power plants have been located. These lines serve the purpose of transmitting electricity at very high voltage.

Although underground cable can be used t transmit electricity from the source of production to various destinations, such an undertaking is not economically feasible and may as well translate into a financial risk.

Hence, the net returns on nuclear power projects may be hampered by not only the cost of transmitting electric power from one location to another, but also the impact posed to the environment by the transmission lines such as accidents, requirement of additional space to erect power lines and so on (Benduhn, 2009).

The ionizing radiation emanating from nuclear reactors is indeed the man cause of worry when generating power using nuclear power. Strict monitoring of the power generating plant is necessary at all times.

Any slight leakage from the system may lead to hum exposure to high power penetrating radiation such as gamma rays and beta particles. In particular, the former has a very high penetrating power and can render the victim dead or with complications after a short period of exposure.

In summing up, it is vital to reiterate that the cost-benefit analysis of the environmental impacts of nuclear power generation reveals that in spite the high cost of establishing a nuclear plant in addition to the exaggerated costs of managing wastes in from of spent fuel, this form of energy production is a potential alternative to fossil fuels such as oil, gas and coal.

The total volume of waste products generated by a nuclear plant per annum has also been found to be significantly low compared to other forms of energy production. Nonetheless, the most satisfying way of managing these wastes is still a challenge up to date.

The high cost of installing subsidiary systems within the nuclear plant to eliminate toxic wastes requires and additional capital investment (Sovacool, 2008). Furthermore, nuclear power generating plants are by far and large considered most convenient in the production of energy compared to coal or oil resources.

The major disadvantage in terms of cost benefit analysis remains to be the relatively high cost required to set up the plant as well as maintenance costs. Of great importance in any nuclear plant is the ability to isolate waste without releasing any amount into the ambient environment.

Finally, if waste disposal methods such as burial and reprocessing can be applied to the latter, the negative environmental impacts of this form of energy production can be feasible and highly reliable when demand is low or high.

References

Benduhn, T. (2009). Nuclear Power, New York: Gareth Stevens Inc.

Department of Energy, DOE. (1988). Data Base for 1988: Spent Fuel and Radioactive Waste Inventories, Projections and Characteristics. DOE/RW-0006, Rev, 4. Washington, D. C.

Diesendorf, M. (2007). , Sydney: University of New South Wales Press.

Diesendorf, M. (2008). Is nuclear energy a possible solution to global warming? Web.

Eisenbud, E. & Gessell, T. (1997). Environmental Radioactivity from Natural, Industrial, and Military Sources, Fourth edition, Academic Press, San Diego.

Eisenbud, E. & Paschoa, A. S. (1989 ). Environmental radioactivity, Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research, A280, 470-482.

Findlay, T. (2010). The Future of Nuclear Energy to 2030 and its Implications for Safety, Security and Nonproliferation: Overview, The Centre for International Governance Innovation (CIGI), Ontario: Waterloo.

Hantula, R. & Voege, D. (2009). Nuclear Power, New York: Infobase Publishing.

Leeuwen, V.S. & Smith, P. (2003). Nuclear Power  The Energy Balance. Web.

Molak, V. (1997). Fundamentals of Risk Analysis and Risk Management, New York: CRC Press Inc.

Morris, N. (2007). Nuclear Power, MN: smart Apple Media.

National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, NCRP. (2004). Radiological assessment: predicting the transport, bioaccumulation, and uptake by man of radionuclides released to the environment, NCRP, Bethesda.

New Nuclear Energy Agency. (2008). Nuclear Energy Outlook 2008, New York: AEN NEA.

Nunn, S. & Ebel, E.R. (2000). Managing the global nuclear materials threat: a report of the CSIS Nuclear materials management,Washington D.C.: CSIS Press.

OECD Nuclear Energy Agenc. (2003). Nuclear energy today, Issue 964, New York: AEN NEA.

Ramana, M.V. (2009). Nuclear Power: Economic, Safety, Health, and Environmental Issues of Near-Term Technologies, Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 34: 127 -152.

Simon, A.C. (2007). Alternative energy: political, economic, and social feasibility Plymouth: Rowman & LittleField.

Sovacool, B. K. (2010). A Critical Evaluation of Nuclear Power and Renewable Electricity in Asia. Journal of Contemporary Asia, 40(3), 369-400.

Sovacool, B.K. (2008). The costs of failure: A preliminary assessment of major energy accidents, 19072007, Energy Policy, 36 (5): 1802-1820.

Suppes, J.G.& Storvick, S.T. (2007). Sustainable nuclear power, Burlington: Elsevier.

Environmental Planning: Dam Construction

Introduction

Environmental planning is when decision making is done to attain development of an area while giving due thought to factors that may include Mother Nature (environment), economic policies and political aspects, governmental policies as well as social aspects and at the same time allowing for a holistic outline to produce viable results that will be of mutual benefit to both the resident communities and nature.

Several issues may affect the construction of a reservoir along the course of a river, with different aspects and interests being brought forth. These may cover a vast array of issues with diverse views and interests. Environmental planning tries to direct these processes not only effectively but also transparently, methodically and in an equitable manner to the advantage of constituents of the affected schemes, presently and in later years.

Among the building blocks of environmental planning in the present day are issues such as regional development, infrastructure systems, natural resources and land use thats integrated, governance policies, urban development and social and economic development. Integrated environmental planning assessment encompasses among other things land use, wetlands, air pollution, endangered species, noise pollution, transportation, flood zones, coastal zones erosion, housing and visual studies.

Issues on dams and reservoirs

Building dams brings about changes to the region, completely altering the physical characters and this is due to several different factors. A poorly planned dam construction would pose an ecological disaster. This is in regard to the impact of the construction on the environment. A wide scope of personal interpretation has got to be applied when pondering about the environment. These are mainly social, cultural and environmental impacts.

Most planners hardly ever consider the reasons to foresee related impacts. Issues that affect dam constructions could be local, regional, national or international. The erection of dams leads to evident changing of the watercourse and its usual flow. Even so, upstream, a contrasting set of changes is witnessed as the resultant reservoir forms a lake on what was formerly dry ground that was either residential or farmland. Though there are myriads of problems affecting dam construction assessment, not all can be deliberated on seeing as it would be more viable to focus on the most important ones which are environmental and socio-economic impacts.

How the dam will look after completion

Impacts of dams

The assorted environmental impacts of dams can be divided and sub-divided into several groups. These range from upstream and downstream impacts, to biological and physical impacts. Climatic changes that refer to the drop in temperatures due to the change of environment caused by the buildup of water play a vital role in determining the impacts on the environment. Stagnation deprives the water of oxygen which in turn affects living organisms in the water like fish. The local communities have a portion of people that thrive on the fishing business and would be rendered jobless and with no means of earning a living.

Stagnation

Stagnation is resultant of silt build-up against the physical structure, which over time piles up to become a load on the structure thus weakening it and posing a grave danger to the inhabitants downstream.

Further issues

However, problems that are faced downstream are treated less seriously because once the interested parties are through with the water upstream, unless, for the necessary parts, they hardly consider side effects on a wider range unlike for upstream. Fisheries and wildlife downstream also get less consideration because they thrive on a livelihood based on the water. Another aspect that is widely overlooked is the fact that the ecosystems get imbalanced because for example, the fish cannot camouflage themselves thus remain vulnerable to predators. Also, the physical altering of the flow of water causes thermal damage downstream for living organisms that thrive in the water.

Another problem that is faced downstream is the continuous discharge of solid waste and wastewater. This raises eyebrows concerning dumping. Health management issues come up as this is raised. This not only affects only the local human community at large, but encompasses the wider range covering a wide part of the inhabitants.

In cases where the migration of fish is involved, the pattern is totally interfered with and thus may lead to extinction of some rare species if its not put into consideration. Some species of fish migrate along the river for breeding purposes as they have since time immemorial. When their cycle gets interrupted, they may become extinct.

Socio-economic effects

Other impacts that affect the reservoir environmental planners are among others, socio-economic factors. This involves the use of local labor. For the planning team to achieve their target, they will have to employ locals because without involving the locals the project may experience difficulties that had not been counted on.

The displacement of people has also to be put into consideration when planning on environmental issues. The issue of displacement touches on the local communities so severely, that it involves permanent changes to the lives of the people living within the region. These changes may include resettling into a new place with one having to relocate with their spouses and finding new jobs and new schools for the children which may pose a challenge especially for the people who move from rural to urban areas.

The planning challenges

There are numerous challenges encompassed in the planning and implementation of a dam construction this size. Since the High Dam is located just on the outskirts of a town (Milo) along a river passing near a game reserve, detailed emphasis will be placed on the environment, the social and economic outcomes on the people in this town together with the associated dam construction problems that will affect animals in the park and marine life. Large-scale dam constructions are meant to bring desperately needed developmental activities and hydro-electrical energy to towns nearby. Conversely, this particular construction seems to come with a lot of environmental effects.

As shown by Campbell and Fainstein (2003), the distinction between urban theory and planning theory is not intellectually viable. Reasons include the historical roots and justification for planning, which depends on a vision of the city rather than simply a method of arriving at prescription. There is also the reliance of effectual planning on its background; this means that preparation activities need to be based on comprehension of the field in use. The purpose of environmental planning as a conscious formation of a just environment necessitates substantive normative frameworks (Hall & Ward, 1998). Therefore, the planning of this construction is supposed to be all-inclusive.

The river where the dam will be constructed

Contagious issues in planning of the construction

Planning of this construction does entail a number of issues. Before starting the construction, a site was identified. This site was just on the outskirts of Milo town just down the river passing by the town. Before the construction, the large river is supposed to be rerouted to give room for the specific spot for the construction. As shown by the engineers, the river can only be rerouted to pass through the forest and therefore affect the animals and all existing plant life. As a result, the animals and birds in this park are supposed to be relocated to another part. The construction will also affect some few farmers living near the park as they too will need relocation. The right place for relocation is again a big challenge.

Another planning challenge will be as a result of the machinery needed and the manpower for the job. This is a small town that does not only have inefficient resources for a big workforce, but also the road network is not specifically built to withstand this kind of machinery. There is need to find a specific place for keeping the machinery and a place where the people will live. During the construction again, there will be noise and air pollution together with a possible release of toxins into the river. All this will affect people, animals, plants and even marine life. Consequently, there are planning challenges for this construction.

Picture of the town near the construction.

The planning opportunities and proposed solutions (including the planning process)

Environmental Planning offers an overview of the attempts to manage development at different scales in different places. (Gleeson, & Low, 2000) By referring to planning, exploring the outcomes of environmental issues, a planner can tackle future critical reflections on the responsibility of environmental planning in the community.

Opportunities

Planning of this construction does not only entail the detrimental effects but does have opportunities too. But because of the detrimental effects, there is need for solutions to them. It is true that hydro electrical provision has its own complications. More often than not, this kind of construction is not very friendly to the environment. Despite this fact, the construction of this dam for the production of hydroelectric power possesses a number of opportunities.

When exploiting the opportunities of this construction what should be put in mind is that the finest solution is not necessarily the most environmentally pleasant one (Freestone, 2000). This construction will evidently increase the supply of the much-needed energy provision. There is also the opportunity of increased water for irrigational purposes and also for home use once the dam is completed. Employment opportunities will also be created for the people around and near the town. There will be need for all this to be factored in the planning.

Hazards and mitigation measures

Its true that the construction of the dam environment is probably harmful and in some cases hazardous for this environment. Proposed solutions on this construction are basically supposed to touch the people in the area, marine life, plant life and animals in the park. The site for construction was identified along the very course of the river. This means that the river is supposed to be rerouted to create room for construction. The rerouting is supposed to be through a park in which there are animals and plant life. Some people living on the edges of the river will also be relocated. With the relocation again, there will be an effect on marine life after the barricade that will stop and divert the river to the point of reconnection.

Mitigation measures

The proposed planning for the construction is that the people along the river will be taken to an identified farm on the other side of town. This will mainly mitigate the fact that because of this displacement, the town might be flooded with displaced individuals who are unskilled. The animals in the park, on the other hand, will be captured and taken to the nearest national park. This will be done by volunteers and wildlife workers. Plants lying in the new course of the river will obviously be destroyed. Because of the deforestation, there are plans to plant trees on the new river course to prevent erosion and also a re-forestation program after the river is put back on its former course. The marine life from the place the barricade will be placed to the point of reconnection is also to be put into consideration. After the barricade is put in place, all marine life will be trapped and subsequently transferred upriver. There is again the problem of sedimentation done by the river which carries nutrients vital for crop production down the river. While building a reservoir, the river must be stopped. This will also stop the carrying down of nutrients to farms down the river which will in turn make farmers there use fertilizers and other chemicals to grow their crops. These are known to contain toxins that get into the atmosphere, the water and the ground. A mitigation measure for this will be that the farmers will be advised to use economically friendly fertilizers to grow their crops.

How the community will be engaged in the development and/or implementation of solutions

The community forms a vital constituent in the development and implementation of the above solutions. This is mainly because they are from the environment and they know it better. First of all, the community will be taught about the impacts of this kind of construction. They will be briefed on what exactly is entailed in the whole process, where they come in and what they are supposed to do. Here the community is supposed to help move all animals in the park to the designated relocation place. They are supposed to make sure all animals and birds in the affected are captured and transferred to the appropriate place. Farmers down the river who will be affected by the barrage will be asked not to use toxic material in their farms that will affect the environment.

Community involvement

The community will also be at the forefront to make sure that construction workers do not pollute the environment. This includes noise pollution, toxins that might be released in water and air pollution. Once again, the community will be responsible for planting trees in places with the possible likelihood of erosion. Another aspect that touches the community is that many community members will be able to work on the actual construction. This will be for a limited period and when it is over and there will be no more income-generating activities. Because of this, they will be taught how to invest and some of the money they get to prepare for them when they will be unemployed.

The proposed project sit the site where the dam will be built Analysis

Analysis

The undertaking of data analysis needs extensive thinking and consideration. A broad range of effects established a link between the environment and the social-economic impacts on the people found in this region. The analysis thus calls for an interdisciplinary view in analyzing the effects, necessitating the insertion of all aspects; in particular the combination of physical and social dimensions of the host location and seeing how a change in their dimensions would change the outcomes for the locally affected populations (Taylor, 1998). The community of this area will have positive impacts after the construction but at a cost. The cost will be in the form of land degradation, relocation, deforestation, and environmental pollution.

List of references

Campbell, s.s and Fainstein, s., 2003. Readings in Planning Theory: Second edition, Blackwell Publishers (chapter. 1) (Call No. Ht165.5. R43 2003).

Freestone, R., 2000. Urban planning in a changing world: The twentieth century experience. London E & FN Spon (Chapt. 1-3).

Gleeson, B., & Low, N., 2000. Australian Urban Planning: New challenges, new agendas, Allen & Unwin, Sydney (Part 2 & 3).

Hall, P. & Ward, C., 1998. Sociable Cities, London: John Wiley. Chapt 1-2 (Personal copy M. Amati on reserve).

Taylor, N., 1998. Urban planning theory since 1945, London: Sage.

Environmental Sustainability Audit: The Oman Environmental Services Holding Company

Executive Summary

The Oman Environmental Services Holding Company (OESHCO) or Beah has been known as the first privatize waste management company in Oman. Previously the government of the Sultanate was responsible in the implementation of waste management systems and environmental projects of the country but come 2007, such responsibility was given to Beah.

The primary objective of the firms is to privatize the waste management sector of the Sultanate. It provides waste management solutions to organizations because it aims to preserve the environment. This paper evaluates the environmental sustainability of the company as a firm working under the waste management sector.

The companys key target market will be discussed in this paper as well as the strategies of the company in operating in the market. Through an in-depth analysis, the planning, gathering of information, organizational response mechanism will be discussed in this report. The bulk of the literature will focus on auditing the companys environmental sustainability.

As a firm in the waste management sector, Beahs nature and types of environmental safety actions will be also be discussed. On the last part of this paper recommendations will be provided with regards to the improvement of the companys processes as well as the technologies needed in order for the firm to operate efficiently.

Introduction

The Oman Environmental Services Holding Company (OESHCO) also known as Beah was founded on July 2007. Its legal status was granted on August 8, 2009 through the Royal Decree No. 46/2009. The company was established through the recommendations of the National Solid Waste Management Strategy Report which was commissioned by the Ministry of National Economy.

The companys objective is to streamline and privatize the waste management and environmental protection activities of the Sultanate. OESHCO or Beah is gradually taking over the waste management sector of individual municipalities and privatizing them (OESHC: About Us 2011).

There are six (6) members of OESHCOs board of directors namely He.Sultan Hamdoon Al-Harthy, Engineer Said Darwish Al-Alwai, Dr. Salim Said Al-Wahaibi, Mrs. Awattiff Mohammed Al-Hikmani, Engineer Abdulqader Ahmed Alawi Al-Haddad, and Engineer Suliman Nasser Al-Akhzami (OESHC: About Us 2011).

The strengths of the company can be attributed to its presence in the market through its key projects. Beah is known as the first company to conduct sanitary landfills throughout the Sultanate thus it is expected that the company will serve as an example for future sanitary landfills (Health Ministry and Oman Environmental Services Holding Company).

It is also known for the waste management systems it has created in the Sultanate. Through these activities Beah has helped expanded waste storage facilities, improved existing waste management systems; drafted out improved waste management plans and engaged in waste sector emergency projects.

Major projects of Beah include the expansion of Al Amerat landfill, the development of Al Batinah temporary hazardous waste storage facility in 2011, the designing, contraction and operation of Barka landfill in 2010 and the Dhofar medical waste facility in early 2011, the creation of Dhofar integrated waste management system in 2011, Duqm waste management plan in 2011, used tyres recycling facility in 2010, national medical waste plan in 2010, electronic waste plan and national hazardous waste facility (OESHC: Projects 2011).

Definition of the companys key target market

The Oman Environmental Services Holding Companys target market is the whole waste management sector of the Oman Empire. The government used to handle the task of waste management in the Sultanate but with the establishment and legalization of Beah, the task of such is delegated to the said company.

Forms of transpiration used by Beah in implementing projects include the use of bulldozers, cranes and big trucks. These are used by Beah in projects including the engineering of landfills and establisment of waste facilities, waste transfer stations and waste plants (Moving Oman towards Zero Waste).

In terms of communication the company has relied heavily on the power of the internet where it posts its announcements of activities in their website. They are also open for comments and suggestions for further improvements. There is a portion in the website where outsiders are able to air out their concerns and ideas on how the company can further progress the development of the waste management sector of the Sultanate.

The company also partner up with other organizations in making its activities known to the general public. It leverages resources with partner firms to have a bigger scope of audience. In the waste management sector the customers of Beah are different organizations which need seek Beahs services in developing processes on how to reduce wastage, improve nearby sewages and reuse and recycle materials.

In terms of distribution, Beahs core strategy involves their close cooperation with the existing waste management sector of the government. Since the company is in the process of taking over waste management responsibilities of the government, the former is introduced to projects previously lead by the government. In marketing services Beah uses the internet in reaching out to its target market.

With the help of government connections it has managed to be granted previous projects handled by the former. Beah has been working on previous projects assigned to the government. Its main focus is the privatization of public waste management sectors.

In terms of pricing, the company tries to provide better quality services compared to the government but with prices similar to if not near that quoted by the government. Beahs biggest competitor is its predecessor, the government. Comparing and contrasting both organizations, we can see that the privatized waste management system of Beah has better facilities compared to that of the government.

Whereas the government encountered problems in terms of its focus on the waste management sector because of its broad scope in terms of environmental preservation and waste management, Beah has no problem of such because it was specifically established to manage systems concerning wastage.

Prices of services on the other hand are the same as Beahs concern in taking over the responsibilities of the government was to provide the same quality if not better services than its predecessor but the price range of services would be near to that of the governments. Beah uses the internet in promoting its events and activities.

Its partnership with different organizations also enables the company to use its partners resources thus its saves costs. The budget allocation of the company in terms of marketing its services is not as big as that of its competitor.

In promoting its activities and services in general, government waste management companies need to make budget proposals in order for them to be given funding to run the program. Funds would be coming from taxes of people thus it is difficult for the company to implement strategies efficiently because of budget constraints and delays.

Planning

At the end of every year, when all the reports with regards to the previous projects have been compiled, top managers together with the board of directors set up a meeting to discuss the direction of the company for the following year. All activities implemented in the previous year are being evaluated. Thorough studies are being conducted by respective teams to learn from the successes and failures of projects.

What have worked in the implementation of the project is being noted. Information is shared among team members in order for each team member to grow and learn from past experiences. Project failures are also evaluated. What did not work or what have contributed to the failure of the projects are being detected in order to avoid a repeat of such mistakes.

The board of directors together with the top managers bases the companys direction for the follow year through the compilation of reports about previous projects. Also researches forecasting the latest trends in waste management and sectors of Oman which need attention are taken into consideration.

In corporate planning, both the shareholders and the management team discuss the companys objectives and goals for the following year. The decisions enable the different teams of the company to focus on goals with quotas thus there is direction among each team.

Cooperation in all position levels play an important role in corporate planning especially since the implementation of strategies in order to lay out strategic plan will be done not by one but all employees of the company. Strategic plans involving teams such as the manufacturing, marketing, human resource, finance, logistic and service teams play crucial roles in the operation of the company.

Once corporate plans have been decided by the top level management and the board of directors, each team is assigned tasks that may help in the achievement of the companys goals. Beahs mission and vision involves zero waste in Oman through the privatization of waste management systems of organizations. This has been the general goal of the company. The more specific goals and decisions are left for each team to decide.

Beah has a list of key projects which they focus on throughout the year but each year the company has been innovative in adding new projects to expand the companys scope in waste management. The aim of the company is to become an all around solutions provider of waste management systems for the Sultanate thus the goals of the company each year have been patterned to fulfill such objectives.

The Current Environmental Information Gathering System

Since Beahs predecessor is the government collecting information has never been a problem. Beahs information about waste management in the Sultanate come from the governments achieves (Oman Waste Management Strategy). Information is readily available to the company. The research and development team compile such information in reports for managers and board members to view.

The nature of information collected by the R&D team is mostly about the environmental issues of the Sultanate. Other information collected is about the success of other waste management systems of other countries for example that of India. Beahs employees are taught to learn from others in order to provide the best quality of service to clients.

Employees are required to be knowledgeable about issues concerning the environment and how to conserve it thus information collected are readily available to managers in order for them to have an idea and overview of the current events in the environmental and waste management sector. When the R&D team has finished compiling information gathered they conduct a meeting with all departments.

In the meeting they report the information they have gathered for a period of time. Team leaders are invited to attend the meeting in order to guide them in their decision making processes. Once the meeting has finished each manager is given a hard copy of the report.

Organizational Response Mechanism

Decisions are made by hierarchy. Usually the people with top level positions make the broadest and most general decisions. As the information passes through from top to the bottom levels of the hierarchy the decisions made become more specific. An example is the board members decision to have a zero waste Oman. Such decision is too broad with no specifics.

Team leaders of each team (i.e. manufacturing, finance, marketing, HR, etc.) are left alone to decide the best way in their fields to achieve such goal.

The manufacturing leader may inform his team that they would need to come up with designs of a recycling machine which convert garbage to paper the finance team lead would inform his teammates that they need to tighten up their belts by lessening the costs for the year, the marketing manager may need to inform his team members to create programs to make noise in the market and the human resource manager may start conducting interviews in search for the best qualified individuals to be assigned in different teams.

Each individual in the company has a voice in terms of contributing to the success of the company. Teams are formed in order to classify individuals. The strength of the team lies in the ideas contributed by each team member. All employees are encouraged to participate in brain storming activities. Employees of Beah are considered part of the environment task force because most are environmentalist.

Almost all the employees of the company are passionate about saving the environment thus it is very easy to extract creative inputs from team members because they actually care about salvaging Omans environment and implementing waste management in all organizational sectors of the Sultanate. The speed of response to the environment related information received can be considered efficient.

Team members are updated and alert about new information going around and actions are taken immediately. Though the companys strategies are considered more aggressive rather than reactive, each team ensures that they do not overlook the current events. The company implements projects that are viewed as pioneer in Oman but it also tries to continue and improve its predecessors works.

Behavioral Audit

Beah is an environmentalist company thus the company conserves energy. Its consumption of such is very minimal where the administration department had carefully checked the wattages of appliances. Most individuals are disciplined to conserve energy. Office rules also stipulate the strict implementation of rules with regards to energy conservation.

For example, desk lamps, electrical appliances and the like must be unplug when employees leave the office premises. Meeting rooms and rest room lights must be turned off when such are not in used. The energy consumption of the company is very minimal since conservative rules with regards to its consumption are strictly imposed on employees.

Materials used in the engineering of projects for waste management are usually recyclable goods or materials that are environmental friendly. The establishment of recycling factories for example is a product of materials considered by most as junk. As much as possible materials used in projects must conform to the environmental safety criteria of the company.

For example the use of freshly chopped logs is not permitted since the cutting of trees promotes deforestation in the region. Suppliers of materials are usually those who are accredited by the government. They must also support the environmental campaign of Beah. Illegal loggers, miners and the like are disqualified in bidding for projects of the company since the ethics and values clash.

Methods of transportation used from suppliers to the company are trucks by suppliers. Upon the purchase of materials, suppliers deliver the needed raw materials to the warehouse of Beah where the logistics team will receive such goods. When implementing projects materials delivered to the warehouse by the supplier will be transported to the project sites.

It is important that materials go through the warehouse first for checking and inventory. On the issue of how emission level targets are identified the company uses a device to track down the harm each target may bring about to the environment. For example a factory that dumps its chemicals in the forest may spread the toxin and kill the trees in the forest. Beah uses a device to track down the level of toxicity.

Such device may inform the researchers how hazardous such practices may be. In order to control such emission levels teams assigned to do field work usually record organizational activities. They compare such data with existing studies in order for them to recommend needed actions to be implemented in order to salvage the environment through waste management.

The process of recording such measures is a tedious one but teams work hard to fulfill the needed requirements. Once a hazardous activity has been spotted by teams assigned to do field work, information regarding the activities and history of the said target is researched. Existing studies by the company indicate the standard level of harmful activities thus this is used by teams to measure the dangers of given events.

The R&D team does all the data collection activities but further evidences are being gathered by teams working in the field. A compiled report is produced after 48 hours. This report is being discussed to the team heads in order gather additional information, comments and suggestions from the different teams on how to provide a solution to the given problem.

Top managers hold a meeting regarding the said issue and they decide if they would call on a stakeholders meeting.

If situations and problems are very minor and they are included in the strategic plans of the company then such topic will only be included in the weekly reports to the stakeholders in passing but if the issue being discussed is a unique one and may require a huge amount of funding then a stakeholders meeting will be called upon as soon as possible.

Issues are considered problematic when the top level management can no longer handle things on their own and may need the decision making powers of the stakeholders. Each stakeholder was is part of the group because of their strong concern to the environment. Beahs board of directors is in some way involved with the campaign to promote the environment through waste management.

All of them believe in a healthy environment where there is zero waste thus the vision of the company. In terms of the environment each member of the board has his or her own personal opinion in protecting the environment thus their agreement to take on a challenging task to be part of the decision making body of a waste management company.

Beah offers waste management services to organizations while promoting the privatization of waste management in the Sultanate. The process of the company in rendering their services is quite simple. They conduct studies and survey after which they provide recommendations to the clients. If the clients are satisfied with the given recommendations, Beah starts to implement such.

For example, when landfills are needed in certain areas of Oman, the company conducted a study whether to expand existing ones or create new ones. Different teams of the company had conducted studies to produce solutions and alternatives to such problems. Once recommendations have been drafted out the company coordinates with different authorities to have projects approved then they proceed to the implementation part.

So far the company has been efficient in implementing its processes. Reviews from different organizations have been quite impressive (Proposed Recycling of Used Tyres 2010). In terms of the facilities, equipments and technology used by the company in implementing projects, the company is still lagging behind (Action plan to curb medical waste scourge cards).

Since the company is fairly new in the waste management sector its facilities, equipments and technology are not as advanced as that of other countries such as India. Though the company has a very proactive group of employees and the processes are quite ideal since they have modeled such from its predecessors the tools used needs improvement.

It is understandable though that such would be expected since the company is new and budget is tight especially since there is no return of investments yet.

The board of directors has already decided to improve the weaknesses of the company thus Beah has been aggressively hiring new employees to further gain knowledge in uplifting the processes of the company in terms of problem identification, networking to gain more clients and the implementation of cost effective strategies.

The company has also started talks about purchasing new equipments, facilities and technology abroad in order to complement the newly improved process but the final decision has not yet been decided due to budget constraints (Project Engineer 2011). The waste levels and controls of the company itself have been closely observed by the company itself (Recycling Poised to Boost Omans Private Sector).

Since Beah is concerned with the environment and waste management in general, its own waste levels are being monitored and controlled by the waste management team. It is highly recommended for any waste management company to have an ideal waste management system and control themselves before they go off promoting to other organizations the proper ways of waste disposal.

The chief executive officer of Beah is very concerned with the environment. In his message via the companys website the CEO highlighted the importance of waste management. He is very happy that the responsibility of managing waste of Oman will be handled by Beah.

The support of the government is very helpful to the company especially since it is the first time in history to have a private waste management sector in the Sultanate.

Waste management is an issue that has to be dealt with daily in order to control the huge amounts of waste currently passing through the country. At the moment the waste management in Oman is managed by the government.

It is managed by not one government organisation but by a number of them like the Muscat Municipality, Dhofar Municipality, Regional Municipality and Ministry of Health (medical waste) among others.

The governments strategy is to restructure and privatise the sector (OESHC: About Us 2011). The acting CEO of Beah is Mr. Azhar Hariun Al Kindi. Mr. Azhar Hariun Al Kindi has been actively participating in the decision making process of the company.

He is always attending conferences and events that promote the waste management sector of Oman. One time he even conducted a workshop in order for people to be aware of the waste management strategy in Oman.

He was willing to provide information of possible business opportunities in the waste management sector during the workshop last year (Oman Waste Management Workshop 2011). Mr. Azhar Hariun Al Kindi has been a very influential and inspirational leader not only to Beah employees but to environmentalist all over the world.

Analysis of the nature and types of environmental safety actions being undertaken

Since the establishment and legalization of Beah, the company has been aggressively proactive in the implementation of programs that promote waste management in the Sultanate.

Aside from implementing key projects which serve as the companys standard projects in promoting waste management in Oman namely the expansion of Al Amerat landfill and Al Batnah Temporary Hazardous Waste storage facility, the designing, construction and operation of Barka landfill and Dhofar Medical Waste, the establishment of Dhofar integrated waste management system, Duqm waste management plan, used tires recycling facility, waste sector emergency projects, national medical waste plan, electronic waste plan and national hazardous waste facility.

It has aggressively promoted its cause to the public through the internet and by hosting a series of activities such as the earth hour in 2010 and earth day. Beah has conducted a succession of feasibility studies in order to improve its programs as well as be more competent as a company in the implementation and recommendation of waste management and environmental advices.

On the other hand the company has been reactive to changes brought about by the everyday challenges. The different teams of the company are very much alert in receiving information about the new waste management systems from other countries, environmental problems experienced worldwide and other event that may affect the ecosystem.

The management has prepared teams in reacting to unexpected events and it is a protocol among teams to device immediate plans of action to counteract unexpected problems.

Reporting

Reporting has been the considered as a standard operating procedure for any company. In Beah each team is required to present a weekly report updating their pending works and status of projects.

Each team has their own weekly internal meeting. In this meeting team members present to the team leader updates of what they have been working on for the past week. Sometimes in weekly meetings new information is shared in the group to stimulate creative ideas which may be of great essence to the companys objectives. On a greater note, a weekly status update is also help together with the managing director.

This meeting is attended by group leaders who update the managing director about the status of projects from each team. Projects that have been completed are also discussed during this meeting. Concerns from each team are aired out during this meeting. Managers are also encouraged to participate in the said meeting attentively and their suggestions as well as their comments are highly encouraged.

During this time each group reports on the outcome of their previous projects, what they are currently working on and future projects they have in mind. During this meeting, team leaders usually ask for help from other team leaders in projects they are currently working on. Aside from the weekly meetings, the management also conducts quarterly meetings to evaluate the performances of each group.

In the quarterly meeting the topic usually involves numbers where previous projects are being analyzed and evaluated. Lastly the company conducts annual reporting every end of the year to evaluate the annual performance of the company. Teams prepare reports for the past 12 months they have worked on.

The main topics of this meeting are amount of budget spent, return of investments and profits generated. This is the most stressful meeting because all the activities of each team are being analyzed and compared to the activities and performance of the previous year.

Recommendations

The Oman Environmental Services Holding Company (OESHCO) or Beah is a fairly new company. It is the first private sector waste management company in Oman. Previously the waste management sector of the Sultanate was controlled by the government but the decision to privatize such sector has resulted to the establishment of Beah.

Since the company is fairly new it is understandable that its processes and technology are not of the best quality thus I would really recommend a strong focus on the improvement of the companys processes and innovation of technology. It is understandable that Beah relies heavily on its predecessor for information and knowhow in running the firm but its time that the company stands up on its own.

The research and development sector of the company must be developed to produce the best and highly skilled individuals. R&D is very important because it is the one of the crucial departments that conducts studies on how to improve waste management sector of Oman. By funding the growth of the companys R&D department, Beah would be able to provide the best quality of services to the organizations of the Sultanate.

A good research and development department serves as a backbone of a firm in innovation. Another improvement worth noting is the facilities, equipments and technology used by the firm. It must be updated to fully measure data. Beahs lacks necessary tools that may help the company in efficiently providing and delivering services to its clients.

Beah still relies on the old equipments provided by its predecessors which are outdated already. In order to save time and money in terms of gathering data and information as well as implementing projects, Beah should invest in top of the line technology to ensure the efficient and cost effective way of conducting and implementing waste management and environmental projects.

Reference List

Action plan to curb medical waste scourge cards. Web.

Health Ministry and Oman Environmental Services Holding Company. Web.

Moving Oman towards Zero Waste. Web.

OESHC: About Us 2011. Web.

OESHC: Projects 2011. Web.

Oman Waste Management Workshop 2011. Web.

Oman Waste Management Strategy. Web

Project Engineer 2011. Web.

Proposed Recycling of Used Tyres 2010. Web.

Recycling Poised to Boost Omans Private Sector. Web.

Opportunity Cost and Environment Protection

According to Mankiw assertions, opportunity cost (OP) is the value of any prospect that is not considered when two mutually existing choices are present (p. 55). This implies that it is like a sacrifice associated with the second alternative available at individuals disposal when there are multiples options to choose from. Simply put, OP asks the question appertaining to what one would have done if the other choice had not been made. This cost comes into action in any decision that involves choosing between two or more options. As often applicable in economics, it is a crucial concept that is used in a wide range of business decision making.

McEachern further claims that OP can be calculated on almost every action we do in life (p. 28). However, they are habitually ignored in decision making. For example, a student joining college would only consider such costs as tuition, books and housing which are deemed monetary costs in college. For this decision, scores of opportunity costs have been ignored. In fact, activities missed when in school, wages resulting from employment, experience that would have been gained for those working years and loss of revenue which would have been gained in investing the tuition fees serve as better examples. OP foregone may have significant value though not monetary value. For every action we choose to do we are foregoing another action that we could have done.

In real life situations people are often inclined to forego some choices after considering the best alternatives that materialize to be beneficial. Thus, incurring opportunity cost. When one decides to watch a television, he dedicates his time that would have been used on various other activities (McEachern, p. 28).

Mankiw claim that to protect the environment opportunity cost must be applied (p. 55). An example has been the legislation that required reformates carcinogenic aromatics to be eliminated from gasoline. Refineries are made to install equipment to the tune of millions of dollars and consequently pass the cost to the consumer. After its elimination, cancer cases dropped significantly. The decision was nevertheless highly criticized given that the money spent on installation of equipment could have been appropriately used in cancer treatment or in other ways. The decision made served as the OP of eliminating carcinogenic aromatics in gasoline.

OP can also be applied by an individual in daily life situation to enrich the niche understanding. In essence, environment dictates the lives of individuals. Too much exploitation or misuse of natural resources can trigger disasters such as global warming. Individuals must forego some luxurious activities that might impact negatively on their surroundings (Mankiw, p. 55).

Setback emerging due to lack of space where houses could be erected has proved to be a major global problem. Although countries have massive tracts of lands under forests individuals are forced to forego the choice of building on these lands to conserve the available forests. Notable people have risked their lives to protect natural forests that are essential to the environment. Where people can afford to buy high fuel consuming vehicles, one may opt for low fuel consumers. Such intents might reduce the rate of carbon emissions that affect the ozone layer. Mankiw maintains that in a such a situation an individual foregoes the comfort of an expensive car to preserve the environment (p. 55).

In conclusion, plastic paper bags are a nuisance to the environment since they offer a greater disposal challenge. Given that they are non-biodegradable proper disposal via incineration is considered a priority. When recklessly disposed they scatter everywhere and may sometimes choke. Incineration however produces carbon emissions that pollute the environment. With individual efforts plastic paper bags will not be an environmental nuisance. For example, the correct usage of the available dust bins in various sections can curb littering of the environment. Individuals should refrain from free-rider mentality. These cases showcase how individual decision making by foregoing one decision helps him to understand his surrounding and conserve the environment.

Works Cited

  1. Mankiw, Gregory. Principles of Economics. Independence, KY: Cengage Learning, 2011.
  2. McEachern, William. Macroeconomics. Independence, KY: Cengage Learning, 2011.

The Nestle Companys Environmental Sustainability Efforts

Nestles sustainability efforts are not top-notch. This is because the companys sustainability report does not provide adequate information on its progress in its sustainability efforts against its goals. Nestles environmental sustainability report only includes information on selected companies sustainability initiatives. This action makes it hard to assess the companys overall performance on sustainability. In a rating total of 10, Nestle company would get a 4 out of 10.

What I like and dislike about the companys sustainability efforts

What I like about Nestles environmental sustainability efforts:

  1. Nestles environmental sustainability efforts are concise and clear towards the companys sustainability plans, that is, clear goals and objectives which are time bound.
  2. The companys sustainability efforts are committed to reducing its environmental impacts.
  3. Nestle reports its environmental sustainability yearly.
  4. Nestle has a robust environmental management system.
  5. They have a comprehensive environmental sustainability approach, including climate change, water stewardship, responsible packaging, and zero waste.

What I like least about Nestles environmental efforts includes:

  1. The company does not have an adequate ecological record.
  2. Since the company is large with a worldwide footprint, I feel that its sustainability efforts are not enough to offset its overall impact.
  3. Nestle has been criticized for pollution and misuse of water in the past.
  4. Some of Nestles environmental sustainability initiatives, like responsible packaging, are voluntary and not yet mandatory.
  5. The company has been slow to take action on environmental issues like palm oil sourcing.

Executive summary of the assessment of Nestles sustainability efforts

Nestle is a food manufacturing company formed in 1866 by Henry Nestle in Vevey, Switzerland, where its headquarters are up to date. The company enjoys a top position in the food and beverage production industry. The mission statement of the company, Good Food, Good Life, aims at providing customers with the best products in terms of great taste and nutritional value. The companys slogan is associated with minimizing hazardous waste released into the environment and the misuse of water.

The company has an environmental protection strategy aiming to improve the quality of products offered to customers. Also, the environmental sustainability program is a tool of government compliance with manufacturing companies; hence it enhances the companys image to the government. Nestles ecological sustainability efforts aim at; promoting nutrition and health in society, climate action, protecting nature, water stewardship, protecting human rights, using sustainably sourced raw materials, taking care of people and communities, practicing ethical business practices, and performing and reporting.

Nestles most significant initiative is its commitment to water stewardship. The company had set a target to improve water efficiency to 40% by 2030, and has achieved a 20% improvement since 2020. Additionally, the company has been working towards improving water quality in communities neighboring the companys factories. Improvement of water quality in communities has been achieved through launching several programs to mitigate the scarcity of water and water pollution.

The companys climate change sustainability initiative has failed. The company has concentrated too much on its water stewardship program and neglected its impacts on climate change which is vital to its operations. The companys greenhouse emissions are very high. In the climate change environmental efforts outlined in the companys charter, Nestle targeted the emission of greenhouse gases by the company to drop by 20% by 2020. Still, it has only achieved a 5% reduction rate.

Additionally, the company has been criticized for its palm oil sourcing practices. This is because palm oil farming is a significant player in deforestation in the tropical region of Africa. In the environmental sustainability report, Nestle had committed to sourcing only certified sustainable palm oil by 2020, but it has not made a positive effort towards the achievement of the goal. The issue of palm oil sourcing is both a climate change sustainability issue and using sustainably sourced raw materials.

The supply chain in the company needs to be improved because its mixed up. In the companys environmental sustainability objectives, Nestle aimed to reduce child labor associated with cocoa supply in West Africa. The company has made some commendable efforts to reduce child labor in its supply chain, but there are some traces of the same in the cocoa supply. Additionally, the company faces criticisms for sourcing its seafood because it does not prohibit the use of forced labor in the seafood supply chain.

Nestle has achieved its aim of providing healthy and nutritious products to customers. Various studies have rated the company among the leading companies in providing nutritious and healthy products. However, there is still room for improvement in the quality of its products. In addition to providing healthy and nutritional products, the Nestle food company has also achieved a solid ethical base in its operations. The companys operations are built on integrity and ethics to inspire the industry, collaborate with peers, and encourage consumers to make changes that help generate fair operation practices in the company.

Generally, the company has well laid out environmental sustainability efforts which have not been achieved to the maximum. Only water stewardship has been completed fully among the actions highlighted in the companys sustainability charter. Nestle company should work on the remaining sustainability efforts like supply chain, improvement of human rights within the companys working environment, reduction of greenhouse emissions, performance and reporting, taking care of people and communities, and protection of nature.

Network Organizations and Environmental Processes

Introduction

Building organizational development strategies in entrepreneurship is aimed at implementing both narrow objectives, for instance, finding solutions to specific issues or reforming individual operational processes, and broad goals, including optimizing staff productivity and capital accumulation. For different firms, distinctive approaches to the performance of the set objectives are applied due to various structural types and resource bases. Given that the business sphere is a dynamic and flexible environment, models for building workflow modes can be different. Recently, network organizations have gained wide popularity as models that utilize the work of small teams working independently but in the context of the same operational tasks. This structure of the workflow allows for getting away from the traditional organizational form and optimizing the distribution of assets because, in such a model, not the usual vertical control mechanisms are promoted but more flexible connections between the participants involved. This paper aims to evaluate the various types of network organizations and identify some of the environmental areas that these business structures affect, particularly ecological processes, technological changes, and resource concentration options.

Main Types of Network Organizations

As their name implies, network organizations function by pooling the activities of individual nodes, where each team works independently of the other, including resource bases and capital assets. Scott and Davis (2007) give several types of such organizations, which differ from each other by the period of interaction, the range of participants involved, size, and some other criteria. The choice of the optimal structure of a network organization is the key to productive work on solving various operational issues and contributes to a more successful realization of not only direct entrepreneurial objectives but also related factors that affect business sustainability, for instance, the degree of customer loyalty or coverage of target markets.

Stable Network Organizations

One type of network organization is a stable system in which long-term partnerships are established. As Scott and Davis (2007) note, these structures are based on the work of stakeholders providing the services of suppliers or manufacturers. In addition to operating within the same network, they can also do business outside of it, which makes them competitive and allows them to grow independently of their main line of business (Scott & Davis, 2007). As a rule, such organizations are large and mature, with significant outsourcing assets and market activities in different regions. As an example, Moore et al. (2018) cite highway construction activities in which a large number of competing participants are involved. The contractor has the right to coordinate the work of the partners and determines the basic requirements for the fulfillment of the tasks set, but the individual characteristics of partners activities remain inviolable. This, in turn, allows organizations on the network to compete and expand their business capabilities without being tied to a single project, and the whole system functions stably and freely.

Dynamic Network Organizations

Unlike stable network organizations, dynamic ones differ in the duration of their existence and the proximity of businesses. Scott and Davis (2007) state that in such structures, product cycles are short, and the interaction between the involved participants is carried out exactly to the extent necessary to achieve the set goals. Firms do not compete because they are not bound by long-term contracts and aggregate commitments. Scott and Davis (2007) cite the film industry as an exemplary area in which dynamic patterns emerge; involved participants, including creators, actors, technical staff, and other employees, work for a certain period and are not required to continue cooperation after the end of work on the project. In some cases, technology transfers are acceptable, which, according to Sobolewska (2020), is a form of temporary borrowing and does not imply adopting others workflow models. In most cases, dynamic network organizations are built in accordance with the algorithm of temporary unions in which members pursue both a common interest associated with the implementation of the objectives set and personal benefits.

Internal Network Organizations

Internal network organizations are separate entities with specific business principles. Scott and Davis (2007) define them as systems in which participants interact with each other to sell and buy goods. In these structures, certain boundaries are set, for instance, on the range of market coverage or on the share of sales, although general economic conditions, such as pricing policies or cost control, are respected (Scott & Davis, 2007). Moore et al. (2018) pay attention to such a factor as bonding social capital; this parameter represents the relationship between the involved firms in the internal chain. This aspect is critical to take into account since, being limited in interaction with the external market, this is essential for organizations of this type to be guided by specific frameworks, including financial constraints, to be successful and prevent the loss of competitive advantage. Rivalry is relevant to such structures; firms interact with a limited number of participants, which determines the special conditions for success. As a result, even in small internal networks, strict principles of market struggle can occur.

Alliance Networks

Alliances are special forms of network business structures because they may not fall under any of the aforementioned types. In their traditional definition, alliances are designed to achieve such goals as reducing business risks, sharing technology, overcoming legal barriers, and other goals that some organizations cannot achieve alone (Scott & Davis, 2007). These systems can be described as a form of partnership where contacts between two or more firms are formalized to conduct business on favorable terms for each of the parties. Sobolewska (2020) identifies strategic types of alliances, cluster partnerships, and co-op relations. Nevertheless, regardless of this or that type of structure, each of these forms is designed to address the main task achieving specific business outcomes in conditions in which this is not rational to act alone.

Impacts of Network Organizations on Environmental Areas

From the perspective of impact on environmental areas, network organizations differ from traditional forms of business, where one firm exclusively utilizes its own assets. Collaboration under the proper conditions encourages active knowledge sharing, which, as Sobolewska (2020) remarks, is often one of the main reasons for forming this type of partnership. In addition, one can note the prospects for creating new organizational structures with greater market capabilities by expanding spheres of influence and strengthening targeted projects designed to capitalize on profits and increase client interest. Networks can also stimulate attention to general issues in social or other sectors, such as environmental protection (Cantino et al., 2017). As a result, the nature of the impacts may be distinctive and depend on the specifics of the businesses, the resources available to apply, the share of market coverage, and other characteristics.

Technological Changes

As a real outcome of the formation of network organizations, one can mention the technological changes resulting from such activities. Koch and Windsperger (2017) evaluate the effectiveness of these structures and highlight the role of partnerships from the standpoint of enhancing digitalization as a significant perspective. According to the authors, by entering into alliances with other firms, companies build digital capabilities by learning from partners and optimizing existing operational capabilities, and as an example, developments in the digital economy are given (Koch & Windsperger, 2017). By following this strategy, network organizations create new ways to control operations, establish distribution channels, expand marketing opportunities, and realize many other tasks that would be impossible to accomplish with limited technological capacities.

Since technological changes are directly related to innovation, the speed of business potential development also increases significantly in advanced network organizations. Scott and Davis (2007) note a positive relationship between alliance formation and the centralization of control, which, in turn, reflects favorably on financial opportunities. More investors pay attention to actively growing businesses with a rich technological background (Scott & Davis, 2007). When speaking of the size of the participating firms in the same network, a more advanced technical base is the key to faster recognition in the target market and increased trust of suppliers and consumers, which is due to the ongoing trend towards digitalization. If the network is relatively young but adheres to an innovative course of development, this indicates the efforts of its leaders aimed at creating a favorable image. Thus, network organizations are transforming the traditional business sector by having a significant impact on the technological environment and setting new digital trends.

Ecological Processes

From the standpoint of influencing environmental processes, network organizations can create important precedents for the entire global community by using available resources to study current issues and fill knowledge gaps. In their study, Cantino et al. (2017) give an example of the use of natural resources based on fishing as an activity that is practiced worldwide and is often one of the most important income sources in local economies. According to the findings of the research, network organizations can make a significant contribution to the study of the sustainable exploitation of fish resources by forming communities that include ordinary fishermen, scholars reviewing marine ecosystems, and special control boards (Cantino et al., 2017). Additionally, as a rationale for the analysis, Cantino et al. (2017) cite Lachmanns vision of entrepreneurship, which implies that any business involves the ownership and control of appropriate resources. The formation of network organizations allows for active work on the study of target business areas, and both fishing and other activities related to the exploitation of natural resources can be optimized through a number of stakeholders effective activities.

The ability to address relevant ecological issues through extensive entrepreneurial activities is a valuable environmental implication of network organizations. Merida (2015) mentions Christian laws, according to which God rules over all the resources of nature, but human, being sinful creature, often destroys the blessings of nature for the sake of material values. Building large groups in which individual firms are involved in distinctive activities, including risk assessments and resource calculations, reduces environmental threats, largely due to sound analytical principles of separation of powers and responsibilities. Therefore, the activities of network organizations can have a beneficial effect in the context of addressing ecological issues.

Concentration of Resources

One of the significant effects that network organizations have is the concentration of resources, which is usually expressed from a geographical perspective. Manning (2017) assesses the role of such entrepreneurial structures in the distribution of funds and notes that in developed regions, partnership projects often have more opportunities for the allocation of investment capital than those from less financially developed areas. This is due to the traditional idea of the value of brands and their recognition in the target market. The more successful a network organization is, the more likely it is that its focus will be on those who can contribute the most to development, such as elite clients or world-famous investors. The business of network organizations in economically underdeveloped regions can be hampered by the lack of market interest and, consequently, the lack of funds for development. As a result, more resources are concentrated where market activities are intense.

When speaking of human resources, this is important to note the influence of network organizations on the distribution of roles in teams, and the geographical factor is also an essential aspect to consider. According to Manning (2017), when there is a high demand for goods or services, there is a need to increase the number of production and marketing facilities, which leads to the opening of new branches. In this regard, new leadership functions emerge, and local managers get more opportunities to regulate individual operational processes and participate in the work of the entire structure. Therefore, when evaluating the impact of network organizations on environmental areas, this is crucial to consider the concentration of resources, including both tangible and human, as one of the consequences, and in many respects, from a geographical perspective.

Biblical Integration

From a Christian perspective, networking is a practice that can be compared to partnerships that people have been building since ancient times. For instance, Merida (2015) mentions foreign alliances based on inter-ethnic marriages to profit from these unions. When taking not about the social but about the entrepreneurial context, the situation is similar; individual firms conduct joint activities, subject to the general order and, at the same time, pursue personal benefits. The following biblical principle may be relevant in this case: For as in one body we have many members, and the members do not all have the same function, so we, though many, are one body in Christ, and individually members one of another (Romans 12:4-6, n.d.). Members of network organizations complement each others interests by participating in team activities. Following a single strategy reflects participants cohesion and emphasizes the importance of working together.

Conclusion

Network organizations are business structures that are based on the joint activities of a number of involved firms, and in the course of their operations, they have an impact on technological, ecological, resource, and other areas. Such organizations can be classified into different types depending on the size, interaction conditions, market coverage, and other criteria, as a result of which they distinguish internal, dynamic, and stable network organizations, making alliances a separate group. With respect to the impacts involved, geographic characteristics largely determine the concentration of resources and the success of the work. Innovative optimization and addressing environmental issues are the consequences of technological and ecological effects.

References

Cantino, V., Devalle, A., Cortese, D., Ricciardi, F., & Longo, M. (2017). International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 23(3), 504-523.

Koch, T., & Windsperger, J. (2017). Journal of Organization Design, 6(1), 1-30. Web.

Manning, S. (2017). Research Policy, 46(8), 1399-1415. Web.

Merida, T. (2015). Christ-centered exposition: Exalting Jesus in 1 & 2 Kings. B&H Publishing Group.

Moore, C. B., Payne, G. T., Autry, C. W., & Griffis, S. E. (2018). Group & Organization Management, 43(6), 936-970. Web.

(n.d.). English Standard Version Bible. Web.

Scott, W. R., & Davis, G. F. (2007). Organizations and organizing: Rational, natural, and open systems perspectives. Pearson Education.

Sobolewska, O. (2020). Journal of Entrepreneurship, Management and Innovation, 16(1), 107-132. Web.

Environmental Issues and Ethics: The Questions

Should scientists ignore their personal values and ethics when designing and conducting a scientific study to examine an environmental problem using the scientific method? Why or why not?

Environmental ethics concerns itself with the moral relationship of human beings to, and also the value and moral status of, the environment and its nonhuman contents. (Environmental ethics, 2008, para.1). Thus, human beings as superior beings have greater responsibilities towards the environment and should also be concerned with the preservation and protection of the environment and also that of the smaller non-human species which are living on it. Moreover, aspects in living have both instrumental value and intrinsic value (Environmental ethics, 2008). Instrumental value is the benefit to others outside the persons domain. For instance, a school teacher provides benefits to students. These benefits provided to the taught could be termed as instrumental value. Besides this, the teacher provides benefits to himself in terms of his personal satisfaction, privileges and duties. These constitute the intrinsic value, and needs to be protected. Intrinsic value needs to be well identified and assessed; otherwise it is possible of causing detriment or damage to others, as well as to users themselves. Thus, it would be correct to assume that something which has intrinsic value triggers off a prima facie direct moral duty on the part of moral agents to preserve it, or better still not to cause harm to it. (Environmental ethics, 2008, Introduction: the challenge of environmental ethics, para.2).

Thus, it would be essential to consider the instrumental interest and intrinsic interest while examining an environmental problem using the scientific method. In the event such scientific study necessitates damage to the ecological balance, or harm to existing environmental structure, and is against the personal values and ethics of the concerned scientists, it is necessary that these aspects are not ignored and they should refrain from conducting such research studies. This is because not only are such studies morally wrong, but these are also capable of causing irreparable damage to environment.

What do you consider the challenges of applying utilitarian, deontological, and religious ethics to environmental issues?

The challenge of applying utilitarian ethics fundamentally deals with human-interest frustration and non-human desperation. (Environmental ethics, 2008). Thus, under utilitarian ethics, the quantum of people who experience pain and pleasure (human, animals, etc.) are only considered. The consideration of non-sentient aspects like hills, valleys, forests, etc.) are not considered. Thus, it may be said that many actions in terms of killing animals, mammals, etc. could be justified under utilitarian ethics since these actions have higher human interest pleasure balance, ignoring its effects on objects that have no sense of feelings. Utilitarian ethics, thus, could be considered, as a subject matter of debate. Coming to deontological ethics, it advocates that the righteousness of action is independent of its consequences  good or bad. It is evident that human beings have an obligation for protecting the biotic world, which also includes all living organism. If environmentalists allow destruction of forests or interference with nature, they are in essence, violating deontological ethics. Rather than raising environmental ethics disputes, why such activities need to be allowed is a moot matter of argument. That being said, it is necessary to consider religious ethics. This school of ethics considers that all thoughts and actions should be for the good of mankind and also for growth and development of the human race. While religious ethics could be said to be human oriented, it is also necessary to consider non-human beings within its scope. Human development can only be sustained if the larger context of life on earth and protection of life is also considered.

What is the role of education in changing individual values, attitudes, and practices toward a healthier global environment? What might you do to improve the global environment?

Education plays a compulsive and critical role in changing individual values, attitudes and practices towards a healthier universal environment. By creating awareness in ourselves and others, it is possible to work towards creating a healthier, safer and secure environment for humans and other living organism in this world and address challenges and issues that emanate from the destruction of ecological structures and environmental pollution. Moreover, the role played by environmental ethics goes beyond just caring for the environment. It also needs to devise ways and means, through awareness and activity programs regarding how certain unwanted environmental hazards could be eliminated and man could live at peace with his environment.

In order to improve the global environment, it is necessary to identify and work out viable solutions to the uncontrolled and arbitrary destruction of nature, such as clearing of forests, building high rise concrete structures on land, and creating other problems for flora and fauna inhabiting these regions. It is necessary to draw and implement action plans for protection of endangered species of animals, birds and reptiles and ensure their safe sanctuary. These beings should be secure in their natural habitat. It is also necessary that detrimental activities like illegal killing of beasts for their hides and tusks, encroaching land, and pleasure hunting activities are restricted, if not eliminated. Moreover, a world body needs to be created that could address specific issues relating to environmental ethical values and their implementation on a global level.

Reference List

Environmental ethics. (2008). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Environmental ethics: Introduction: the challenge of environmental ethics. (2008). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.