Category: Environment

Plastic reusable bags have been in use since the 1980s and are still popular among shoppers to date. This stems from the several advantages derived from them. For instance, the use of these bags reduces the consumption of disposable plastic or paper bags, most of which are an environmental eyesore and pollute the soil, besides clogging sewerage systems and may be fed on by animals.

The fact that these bags are reusable implies that people who use the bags save quite a substantial amount of money they would have spent on buying disposable bags (Miller and Spoolman, pp. 29). Economic benefits of these bags also arise from the low cost of producing them as compared to plastic bags

Reusable grocery bags are multi-purpose due to their strength, so they can be used for a number of household tasks that include storing clothing. Studies have also shown that the production process of these bags does less harm to the environment as compared to plastic or paper bags.

Despite the popularity of reusable plastic shopping bags as a solution to the current environmental crisis, several people have questioned whether this strategy will be effective in the long run. The first con of these bags is based on recent studies that showed that the gabs contain lead, a metal that becomes toxic when it bioaccumulates in the human body. There has been concern that this lead may affect the food material carried in the bags. The second disadvantage of these bags is that they have been found to contain bacteria, mainly if used without washing. However, this can be corrected by telling shoppers to wash their bags.

The materials from which reusable grocery bags are made are unsustainable. A grocery bag manufactured out of thick plastic with an equal lifespan as the same weight of a plastic bag has a minimal positive impact. Instead, the bag should be made from renewable materials and significantly more durable to cancel the environmental impact of disposable plastic bags. The inconvenience of carrying a bag to the supermarket or shopping market further adds to the cons of these bags.

Reference

Miller, G. T., and Spoolman, S. (2011). Sustaining the Earth: an integrated approach. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.

Reaction Paper: This Changes Everything  Chapter 13 and Conclusion

Naomi Klein finishes her book about climate change by sharing information about herself, her life experiences, and her motherhood, tying it all within the context of the topic she chose. Her book is supposed to serve as a call for action, a harsh accusation of rampant capitalism, and enlighten the masses about climate change and factors that play an important factor in it. While Klein does a good job of presenting an accurate picture of what is going on in the world and why it is so, the finishing part of her book leaves room for improvement.

There are two main ideas that the author tried to convey to the readers in the final chapters of her book  that pollution negatively affects the fertility of humans, plants, and animals, and that for the planet to survive, the society must take control. Massive social changes, riots, protests, and demonstrations are the key to victory, according to Klein. She quotes Werner, saying that the battle for Mother Earth includes direct environmental action, resistance taken from outside the dominant culture, as in protests, blockades and sabotage by Indigenous peoples, workers, anarchists, and other activist groups.

As it was mentioned in the past essays, Naomi Kleins points about the impact of extraction and capitalism on our biosphere are all accurate and trustworthy. One does not need to look far for proof  the incident with British Petroleum was the greatest ecological catastrophe since Chernobyl. Numerous researches reflect on how growing ecological distress affects our daily lives, and there is no point in arguing that. While there are still some individuals who would, the majority will not. They know it to be true. The conclusion section is the weakest part of the book, however, since here the author is forced to step away from the comfort of research articles and newspapers and venture into the unknown territory of opinions and ideas that were never tried out in real life. To validate her concepts, Klein uses parallels with fighting against slavery and colonization, which took a great deal of direct action from the masses. As she states in continuation of her concluding chapter, both of these transformative movements forced ruling elites to relinquish practices that were still extraordinarily profitable, much as fossil fuel extraction is today.

I find this parallel to be inaccurate when considering the issue of climate change. In the situations described above, the masses had everything to gain and nothing to lose, while the elites had everything to lose, and almost nothing to gain. Klein attempts to present the battle for climate change as the battle of the masses against the elites, while in reality, it will be a battle of the society against itself. Interestingly, the author leads up to this with a chapter dedicated to fertility and children while omitting certain crucial factors from her narrative.

Extractions, technological advancements, and human fertility are interconnected. Death rates were significantly reduced due to advancements in medicine, and advancements in agriculture and industry helped sustain all these people. Current levels of fossil extraction, while certainly outstanding due to overconsumption, are largely motivated by the size of the worlds population and the current standards of living. Even the poorest of the poor nowadays are living better than they did roughly 100 years ago. While energy-efficient technologies, green energy, filters, and other measures would certainly improve the situation, they will only slow down the degradation of our planet, and not outright stop it. Drastic measures would have to be taken, like introducing limitations on the number of children per family, similar to China, and reducing the quality of life, since eco-friendly technologies will never be as efficient as technologies not limited by such constraints.

I believe this is why Klein omits to mention these things in her book  that the battle for Mother Earth will take its toll on not only evil fossil fuel corporations, jet companies, and the like  they will take a toll on the regular people as well. These measures, while necessary for the overall survival of the race, raise several important ethical questions. How many children would a family be allowed? What families would be prohibited from having children? Would the so-called baby factories, as Klein labeled them, be prohibited too? Who will make these decisions? All of these measures are likely to hit the poor more so than the rich, as the rich would have the resources to provide for their children. Throughout the entire book, Klein exposed the evils of the corporation, with the book ending representing a clear call for all social movements to unite in the name of saving Earth. These questions, however, do not fit into the narrative. They are left unanswered, as answering them would put a seed of doubt in regards to the solution.

While Klein opposes geoengineering and other technological solutions, and for good reasons too, I believe that it will be technological breakthroughs and not social movements alone that would improve the situation with climate change. Direct action, debate, conversation, and other tools of changing public opinion are slow on the uptake. It took us more than 100 years to completely abolish slavery and segregation. That is the time that humanity does not have.

This Changes Everything, Chapters 7 and 8

Chapters 7 and 8 of Naomi Kleins book are dedicated to two different topics that fit well into the topics overall agenda. They address the issue of billionaires funding green projects, and geoengineering introduced as a panacea against any potential complications brought upon the world by condensing gasses, uncontrollable drilling and excavation, and other calamities that could be triggered by careless human activity.

First, let us address the evidence that Naomi Klein uses in this chapter and throughout the book and these two chapters specifically. The author often cites newspapers such as The New Yorker, and other publically-available sources of information, including interviews, videos, news recordings from BBC, and the like. This is understandable and makes the evidence more relatable to the reader. However, when talking about atmospheric effects, pollution, emissions, and other related issues, she omits using actual numbers and talks in general terms. The only numbers she uses are years, dates, and sometimes sums of money spent by corporations on supporting climate-friendly innovations. This indicates that while her book is backed up by numerous periodical sources, it lacks factual information from scientific journals.

The main idea of chapter 7 that Klein offers to her readers is that multi-billionaires cannot be trusted with their allegations of promoting green technology and helping combat climate change and reducing emissions, as they would always choose profits before ecology, no matter how well-natured their claims are. To support her case, Klein presents several convincing stories, particularly considering Knight, Bill Gates, and Branson  the director of Virginia Airlines. All three have made claims to care about the Earth and nature, and even allocated funds towards developing efficient green technologies, but never stopped from expanding their businesses, be that by adding more airlines, or investing into oil and coal refineries. According to Klein, when Virginias various expansions are tallied up, around 160 hardworking planes have been added to its global fleet since Bransons epiphany with Al Gore and quite possibly more than that. The author accuses the billionaires of dishonesty, in using environmental rhetoric to promote good PR of themselves and their companies while doing very little to support environmental projects.

While the author acknowledges the rules of capitalism and the Grow or die doctrine, I do not think I entirely agree with her rhetoric in regards to corporations expanding, and damaging the environment with emissions while doing so. Business expansion happens according to laws of supply and demand, and competitors will quickly fill the empty places. So, had Virginia Airlines not expanded their routes, their competitors would have likely done so instead. It is an inevitable part of the capitalist world, and should not be viewed as betrayal. Virginia Airlines made a promise to help develop a new fuel for jets, not curb their businesses. Still, the point made by the author is strong, as it shows that while some businesses may be willing to commit to reducing their emissions by some margin, it would never be enough to turn the tide.

The eighth chapter is dedicated to geoengineering, which is labeled as a panacea to global warming. Klein cites numerous ways in which it can be counteracted  through releasing sulfur into the atmosphere to triggering volcano eruptions to create artificial shade and reduce the amount of sunlight coming through the atmosphere. Klein presents several convincing arguments as to why considering such actions is a bad idea. First, viewing geoengineering as a panacea will give a card blanch to all corporations to avoid reducing emissions with an argument that geoengineering is going to fix everything. In regards to the idea of creating screening layers of sulfates in the atmosphere, the author states the biggest problem with the Pinatubo Option is that it does nothing to change the underlying cause of climate change, the buildup of heat-trapping gasses, and instead treats only the most obvious symptom  warmer temperatures. The second argument is that geoengineering is not quite as reliable and predictable as we are lead to believe, and the results of a failed experiment, even on a local scare, might have far-reaching consequences. Lastly, Klein states that while geoengineering is a feasible option for desperate times, the world did not even try using softer measures to help reduce the overall emission level.

I agree with the authors concerns voiced in this chapter. While I am not terrified of the idea of humanity playing God, at our current technological level the results may be too unpredictable. Humanity has not yet developed a full-proof way of predicting the weather, as weathercasts are often wrong. Prediction of results and weather patterns is necessary for any such projects to succeed. However, I believe that geoengineering is the future of our world, as no amount of green technology will be able to reduce emissions completely. Humanitys population is around 7 billion people, and it keeps growing. Emission-reducing measures will only slow down the process of global warming, but not solve it completely. Once our technology evolves and becomes more reliable, local geoengineering and atmospheric modification tests will have to be conducted at some point, as without field tests any technology is prone to failure. It is a risk that humanity will eventually have to take. The clock is ticking.

Since the 19th century, the phenomenon of ecological awareness and environmental preservation has not existed in isolation from the major socio-economic patterns. The primary catalyst of rapid environmental policy change across the US and the world, in general, was the socio-political discrepancies behind the existing pattern of managing environmentally hazardous waste. It was established at the end of the 20^th century that the location and settlement of ethnic minorities and low-income residents were highly associated with the sites of environmentally hazardous waste. Thus, in order to bridge the socio-economic gap within the state, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued Executive Order 12898, which addressed the immediate need for environmental justice for minority and low-income populations within the state (Executive Order 12898, 1994). Hence, the emphasis was made on the matter of eliminating socio-economic barriers in the battle with environmental hazards and human health.

For its part, the modern perception of the environmental movement is not only focused on the idea of promoting change through public regulations. For the sake of better outcomes, todays environmental awareness has acquired a more anthropocentric and proactive approach, which means paying more attention to the value of human life and health through the promotion of an ecologically sustainable lifestyle and manufacturing. In such a way, the emphasis on education does not require a prescriptive approach to handling the patterns of hazardous waste management. Hence, it may be rightfully concluded that environmental justice has now become a full-scale constituent of the environmental movement agenda, as the attention paid to environmental equality among social groups is not sufficient to stop the current hazardous processes in terms of global and national ecology. The current goals for environmental justice outlined by the EPA (2020) encompass the health, well-being, and environmental quality of the overburdened populations. The modern environmental movement, for its parts, focuses on education and taking personal responsibility for the impact on the environment.

The history of environmental justice traces back to the 20th century when national minority and low-income populations across the US realized that as a consequence of rapid industrialization, the state bodies were willing to eliminate toxic waste in the areas less popular with well-to-do Caucasian residents. Thus, in 1982, the African American community of Warren County in North Carolina organized a peaceful protest against the landfill created in the area (EPA, 2021). Although it was not the first time, the ethnic minority voiced their concerns over the environmental injustice, that particular sit-in eventually drew the attention of the scholars willing to find the correlation between the allocation of landfills and minority and low-income communities.

As a result, in 1983, the first comprehensive study was published on the matter of environmental racism in Houston, Texas, as there was a distinct correlation established between the choice of land for toxic waste sites and the African American neighborhoods in the area (EPA, 2021). The EPA (2020), as well the provisions of the EO 12898, define environmental justice as the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies (para. 1). The definition encompasses both the notions of fair treatment and meaningful involvement. The former stands for the impartiality of treatment and the elimination of any discrimination against peoples inherent laws of safety. The latter, for its part, means that no individual shall be deprived of the right to participate in the discussion of their environment, health, and community activities. Hence, it may be concluded that the notion of environmental justice has become an extremely relevant issue to the US community as a result of a series of explicitly discriminative policies and precedents.

References

Executive Order 12898 of February 11, 1994. (1994). Federal Register.

US Environmental Policy Agency. (2020). Learn about environmental justice.

US Environmental Policy Agency. (2021). Environmental justice timeline.

Green concrete can be defined as concrete either made from concrete waste or from materials using technologies that are more environmentally friendly than those involved in the production of the common concrete. Green concrete is often produced from such materials as fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag, apart from the usual aggregates such as sand and gravel. Numerous experiments have been conducted in order to discover and test new ways to create green concrete, and tests have shown that certain types of such concrete might be as durable or even more durable than the regular concrete, and have other similar properties (Jepsen, Mathiesen, Munch-Petersen, & Bager, 2001). Therefore, some types of green concrete can be used instead of the common concrete as materials for building different constructions. The use of green concrete is justified because of the benefits it has; for instance, it leads to lower amounts of CO₂ emissions, is more environmentally friendly, and more sustainable.

Lower CO₂ Emissions

The innovative types of concrete developed by collaborating scientists and manufacturers might allow for significantly reducing the amount of greenhouse gas emissions. For instance, the E-Crete, a green geopolymer concrete offered by the company of Zeobond, has the potential of considerably reducing the amount of CO₂ emissions involved in the production of concrete (Nowak, 2008). It is stated that the manufacturing of the traditional concrete involves the use of gravel and sand, which are bound together with cement; however, the production of cement requires using rather high temperatures, which are commonly achieved by burning fossils; in addition, the chemical processes that are necessary to create cement also give out carbon dioxide (Nowak, 2008). As a result, the manufacture of concrete results in a large amount of emissions of CO₂, as well as of some noxious gasses, depending on the type of fuel being burnt.

On the other hand, E-Crete is made using geopolymer cement. The production of this cement requires slag and fly ash, which are some of the waste products of such companies as steel smelters and power stations, and does not lead to massive emissions of carbon dioxide; in fact, the emissions of this gas are reduced to nearly 20% of the emissions resulting from production of the traditional concrete (Nowak, 2008). The problem lies in the need to transfer to the production of E-Crete on a massive scale, and certain barriers to that transfer exist (Nowak, 2008). However, it is clear that using E-Crete instead of the traditional concrete can considerably lower the amount of CO₂ emissions, thus reducing the risk of global warming.

Environmental Friendliness

Using green concrete made of materials with certain heating properties may also allow for decreasing the threat of global warming in another way. According to Ramkumar (2013), concrete buildings are a source of heat in the summer because they absorb the solar energy quicker than e.g. vegetation, and give it out faster as well, thus creating the effect of heat islands in large cities, and possibly contributing to the global warming. Thus, the production of green concrete which would not heat its surroundings as much might help address one of the causes of the global warming.

In addition, a variety of designs of recyclable green concrete made of environmentally friendly materials exist (Jepsen et al., 2001). These kinds of concrete may be utilised instead of the regular concrete in order to reduce the amount of waste which is produced when old buildings are demolished. It is stated that these green kinds of concrete generally have properties which are similar to those of the regular concrete, and can be used instead of the latter in order to help preserve the environment (Jepsen et al., 2001).

Sustainability

The use of green types of concrete may allow for considerably greater sustainability than the use of the traditional concrete. This is achieved not only because the production of green types of concrete usually results in a lower amount of emissions that are harmful to the environment than the creation of the common concrete, but also because for the production of green concrete, either environmentally friendly materials or the materials which are the residual products of the concrete industry itself can be used, thus resulting in a better preservation of the natural environment (Jepsen et al., 2001; The First International Conference, 2013). In addition, certain types of green concrete may prove more durable than the common concrete, also resulting in a higher degree of sustainability due to the increased lifespan of the constructions built using these types of concrete (The First International Conference, 2013). Furthermore, certain green kinds of concrete have a greater degree of durability against aggressive chemicals (Jepsen et al., 2001; Nowak, 2008), which makes them less susceptible to deterioration resulting from such phenomena as acid rains.

Also, certain kinds of green concrete might be characterised by increased durability and lifespan when compared to the common concrete (Jepsen et al., 2001). This means that the constructions built from such green concrete will serve for longer periods of time; consequently, the demand for new buildings will be lower, which will reduce the financial spending involved in the process of building, as well as the total amount of concrete needed, resulting in smaller adverse effect on the environment. In addition, the production of green concretes requires the utilisation of more effective processes and systems, thus lowering the adverse environmental impact of concrete even further (Jepsen et al., 2001).

Conclusion

Therefore, it should be stressed that the use of green concrete instead of the regular one may help considerably reduce the adverse impact of concrete production on the environment. This is related to three main causes: that green concrete results in lower amounts of carbon dioxide emissions, that it is more environmentally friendly in general, and that it is more sustainable than the usual concrete. Thus, the transfer to using green concrete in the building industry is highly recommended if steps towards the preservation of the environment are to be made.

References

Jepsen, M. T., Mathiesen, D., Munch-Petersen, C., & Bager, D. (2001). Durability of resource saving green types of concrete. Proceedings of the FIB-Symposium on Concrete and Environment in Berlin, 2001, p. 257-265. Web.

Nowak, R. (2008). Geopolymer concrete opens to reduce CO2 emissions. New Scientist, 197(2640), 28-29.

The first international conference on concrete sustainability. (2013). Web.

Ramkumar, M. (Ed.). (2013). On a sustainable future of the Earths natural resources. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.

Introduction

The research seeks to establish and explain the possible causes of environmental degradation in in Yarra River, located in Melbourne, Australia.

The river has been diversely affected by human settlement at its banks from its catchment area to the end of its course.

The degradation of the Yarra River started with the clearing of the habitat around the banks followed by mining of gold around 1850s.

Problem and Aim

Environmental degradation on the Yarra river is caused by both human and natural causes. The research aims to answer the following questions.

(i) What are the likely (or known) water pollution issues in an urbanized catchment that the Yarra River may experience?

(ii) Is there any information (published or unpublished) available on water quality of the Yarra River? Who is managing it and steps taken?

Methods

During the research, secondary methods of data were used ,especially published and unpublished investigations. There have been several researches conducted by government bodies, community development agencies as well as many departments in the universities in Australia.

Data collected from these secondary sources was used to find out what other sources of pollution are at the river Yarra, its management and steps being taken to protect the river from further pollution.

Results

Results from the studies done, show that there has been a significant change in the Yarra River from the 19^th century to the present.

The river has been polluted by both natural and human causes.

Human causes are water harvesting, land use change, construction of roads, storm drain water.

Human Causes of pollution

Water harvesting. The upper part of the river provides water to the inhabitants of Melbourne, and has done so since around 1872 (Carroll, 1988).Damming and building of river channels has affected the natural course of the river. The damming prevents flood plains from getting the sediments the biota needs and may also cause salinity that can affect the agriculture.

Land use change. Over the years the people along the river Yarra have cleared natural habitats to allow farming, construction of roads and urbanization.

Construction of building and roads next to the river causes erosion. In case it rains as foundations are dug, silt flow to the river that affects many recreational activities in the river. Symonds (1982)

Faecal contamination causes pollution in the river. This happens when sewage and storm water mixes as it flows into the river. Illegal connections of sewers to drains, causes faecal contamination according to EPA Victoria (2007) screening for faecal contamination in the river Yarra (p. 23).

Untreated Industrial waste dumping in rivers is harmful to the flora and fauna in the river. Heavy metals that are found in these factories are harmful especially since Yarra river is a source of water for Melbourne.

Gold Mining started as early as 1841 according to the Quarterly registrars mining report (1876).A lot of heavy metals leaked into the river bed and affect the environment around the river Yarra.

Mercury that was used to separate the gold from the ore, pollutes the river and affects the Aquatic life. According to the Australian Bureau of statistics (2005), there is rising concern over the impact of mining on the natural environment. Mining has lead to a lot of heavy metal presence in the (Bell and Donnelly, 2006).

Agriculture along the river causes pollution. Farm that use pesticides and other chemicals pose a danger to the river health. These chemical are transported to the river through runoff.

Urbanization has caused pollution in the river. Pavements and tarmac in the city makes infiltration of rain water impossible. This water flows collecting household litter, oil/fuel spills from gas stations and parking lots. It also causes acidic rain due to the sulphur deposited in the air from car and factory emissions.

Dredging and bank widening of certain parts of the river for recreation, has interfered with the river course and the aquatic life ( Rutherfurd et al,2000)

Water Quality

The water quality of the river affects the recreational activities that can take place at the river Yarra. This quality is determined by the presence of microorganisms, litter, toxicants and sediments.

The presence of micro organisms like E.coli is an indicator of a pathogen in the water. Studies carried out by EPA Victoria (2007) showed that E.coli was introduced into the river through fecal contamination caused by illegal sewer connections to drain pipes.

Conclusion

The government through the ministry of water has made efforts to rehabilitate the Yarra River. Since 1970s the river is no longer a dumping site for industrial waste and rehabilitation of the river is underway (Melbourne Water, 2006).

The ministry of water has appointed Melbourne water as the caretaker of river health in Port Philip and Western Port. It has contributed to the research done by EPA on the water quality.

It is amazing that the river that was once considered the damping site and smelly in Melbourne, has been named as a finalist in one of the worlds top environmental awards, selected from 50 rivers from 20 countries (Mackay, 2011).The International river prize award names the best river in management and gives recognition for the restoration and sustainable management of the worlds rivers, lakes and wetlands (International river foundation, 2011 p.1).

Recommendations

The Yarra River is managed by various agencies that have different responsibilities. They are; Department of infrastructure in charge of policy coordination for strategic infrastructure along the river. Parks Victoria is in charge of Yarra waterways for recreation and navigation. City of Melbourne reenacts the policies under the councils act concerning the conservation of the river Yarra. Department of Sustainability and Environment, provides advice on marine conservation and coastal issues.

Littering can be eliminated by placement of recycle bin in places with high number of people e.g. parks, schools, churches. Public education on recycling and use of bins to put the litter.

Better water management as discussed by Stewardson et al (1994) proposes the use of grey water in the household for gardening, porous pavements and storage water tanks to reduce the amount of surface runoff.

References

Australian Bureau of Statistics, (2005) Year Book, Australia, Issue 87, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Canberra.

Bell, F, Donnelly, L,( 2006), Mining and its impact on the environment, Taylor and Francis, London.

Carroll, B.(1988). The Upper Yarra: An illustrated History. Shire of upper Yarra, Yarra junction.

International River foundation,2011.International river award, Web.

Jutson, J. T. (1910). The structure and general genealogy of the Warrandyte goldfield and adjacent country. Proceedings from royal society of victoria,23( N.S), 516-514.

Mackay, H. 2011. Yarra a world-class river. Web.

Marriot, K.L. (1975 ). The Yarra Valley. Melbourne. Sorrette.

Quarterly Registrars mining report ,(1876). Quarterly Registrars mining report. Melbourne.

Rutherfurd, I.D.,Jerrie,K. & Marsh, N.(2000).A rehabilitation Manual for Australian Streams. Land and Water Resource research & development corporation. Melbourne.

Symonds, S. (1982). Healesville: History in the hills. Lilydale, Pioneer design studio.

Tiller, D.(1990). Mercury in fresh water environment: The contamination of water bodies in Victoria as a result of past gold mining activities. EPA report SRS90/005.

Wolman, M.G.( 1967).A cycle of sedimentation and erosion in urban river channels.

When a problem reaches some critical point of no return, radical measures of the achievement of the goals seem to be a common thing. Radical environmental movements had appeared yet before the problem of environmental degradation had become the top issue in the international arena. Marshall Currys and Sam Cullmans deep and striking documentary If a Tree Falls depicts the history of one of the most outrageous and drastic environmental organizations of the last decades. Telling the story of the rise and fall of the Earth Liberation Front and focusing on the fighting path of one of its members, the directors raise difficult questions about the environmental protection movements and incite to reevaluate our approaches to the definition of terrorism.

As can be seen from the film, Earth Liberation Front since its foundation in the United Kingdom in 1992 had gained a significant population in Europe and America. For many years, this structure has acted through separate anonymous cells without centralized management. Unlike the majority of environmental organizations that only claimed the need for radical measures and in reality referred to moderate actions, ELF declared that the environmental balance can be reached only by force. For them, economic sabotage and guerrilla warfare attacks were the last resort to putting an end to environmental exploitation and destruction (If a Tree Falls: A Story of the Earth Liberation Front par. 2).

The ELFs organized arson attacks against dozens of businesses responsible for the natural degradation and terrorized occasional people who had some relation to the environmental destruction. Since every action entails a response and a battle with the governmental forces often becomes a losing one, the EFL actions do not seem to be successful. They could only have a short-term effect on potential supporters. Considering the examples of Greenpeace (which also has a solid experience of semi-radical activities) or WWF, one can see that non-violent protest turns out to be more successful due to higher support among people.

The authors of the film described the concept of radical in terms of the organizations vision and philosophy rather than applying a governmental definition of this term as of something opposing to the law and order. For EFL, their actions were just and reasonable, as they seemed to be retaliation for all the harm the people cause to the planet. The viewer can see that even inside the local cell where the main hero, Daniel McGowan, operated there were often heated debates about where the limit of radicalization is and whether violence is justifiable. McGowan himself does not seem to be a radical extremist lusting for cruelty for the sake of cruelty; he is rather a once-sensible environmental advocate who turned on the vicious path. No matter how noble the aims may be, violence and grievance of the victims suffering because of their burnt homes can hardly be justified.

Despite conducting violent actions and causing physical damage, Daniel cannot be labeled a terrorist. He can be called an extremist or a hoodlum, but not a terrorist. The actions of the radical environmental activists cannot be compared with the atrocities of those crazy fighters from ISIS or Al Qaeda. The peak of the EFLs activities and respective measures by the US government falls on the period when the world yet had not faced the true terror of 9/11. The aim of environmental extremists can be at least somehow justified. They usually do not strive to gain political power or material benefits. Terrorists, on the contrary, have no morality and use physical violence for manipulation and threatening.

Thus, it can be seen from If a Tree Falls that violent measures will never lead to constructive results, even if the aim is to save the universe. Environmental problems can be solved only through the peaceful cooperation of all the nations and movements. And ardent environmental radicals would better use their energy for creative rather than destructive ends.

Works Cited

If a Tree Falls: A Story of the Earth Liberation Front 2011. Web.

Introduction

In the past century, environmental issues have been on the center stage as core to mans existence. The impacts and consequences derived from neglect of the same can be traced as far back as the ice age. Over the past decades, mans industrious nature has shaken the balance that stood between his environment and the various climatic conditions that prevail in those settings.

As such, evils like Deforestation, air, noise and water pollution have been on the rise and consequently pose a threat to our own survival. This could be attributed to the rise in the global population accompanied by rapid technological and industrial advancement. These are among the key factors which have left a negative effect to not only the climate and the ozone layer, but also to our own health.

However, in realizing the error of their own doing, nations have come together and put a valuable effort to restore, maintain and manage their respective eco-systems. This study shall look into the environmental implications presented by plastic water bottles. A detailed analysis of relevant literature shall be provided so as to highlight the effects of plastic water bottles to our environment. To this end, solutions on how these effects can be mitigated if not avoided shall also be offered.

Emergence of the problem

As the global population continues to grow rapidly, the demand for basic needs such as; food, water, shelter and clothing increases much faster. As such, industries and other providers are under constant pressure to produce and distribute these amenities to the ever demanding populace.

Arguably, water is by far the most important resource required by man. To this effect, the sale of bottled water has been seen as a feasible investment attracting lots of profits. However, issues have come up regarding the disposal of the empty bottles after use. While there are various campaigns promoting the proper disposal of plastic bottles, the number of empty plastic bottles polluting our environment is still very high.

Effects of plastic water bottles to our environment

The use of plastic has been very beneficial to mankind. Plastic containers can be used in making durable bottles, packaging and preserving food and liquid substances. This can be attributed to the fact that plastics are water, oil, chemical and sunlight resistant making it the best and economical substance to use in the packaging of perishable and non-perishable substances. Despite these benefits, the amount of plastic bottles pilling up in our waterways and landscapes is alarmingly making the situation a cause of concern.

Andrady states that, the environmental effects of empty plastic water bottles do not begin as a result of poor disposal methods but rather, from the manufacturing stage of these plastic containers. In addition, the author states that the creation of plastic bottles requires a lot of chemical pollutants and fossil fuels which contributes to a high percentage of air pollution.

To further support this statement, the author asserts that some of the elements used in the creation of plastic contain toxic substances such as benzene and vinyl chloride. These substances have been documented as major causes of cancer and other human and animal ailments and birth defects.

In addition, during the production of these plastics, various forms of gases are emitted as well as liquid hydrocarbons which are known to affect the quality of air and soil. To this effect, it is evident that from the beginning, plastics are costly substances to our environment and should be avoided at all costs if the human race is to maintain the already fragile balance that exist between them and their environment.

Similarly, Stephenson points out the fact that plastics are durable as compared to other materials used to contain water. The mere fact that it is durable is what makes it a proffered substance in the creation of water bottles. However, its durability also makes it a hazard to the environment. Being durable means that plastic is neither biodegradable nor degradable.

To this effect, it means that plastic substances may retain their original form for decades and the only process that affects them is granulation. During this process, plastic substances do not decompose but instead, breaks down into smaller pieces. Animals and even children can easily ingest these pieces which in turn lead to various complications such as digestive problems.

In addition, the proponents of plastic use have argued that recycling is an effective method of mitigating the effects of plastic to the environment. Despite their argument, the fact still remains that a recycled hazard is still a hazard. On the same note, the recycling process has detrimental effect on the environment. Andrady confirms that during recycling of plastic substances, synthetic chemical constituents such as ethylene oxide and xylenes among other are emitted.

Besides having negative impacts on our environment, these chemical substances also cause serious damages to the human immune and nervous systems. In addition, they have been noted as having lasting effects on the blood and kidneys. With this in mind, the unsubstantiated claim that recycling is eco-friendly should be ruled out because it does not address pollution it only delays the inevitable truth.

On the same note, Goel states that plastic bottles among other plastic debris have been known to cause serious problems to marine mammals and fish. This he attributes to the fact that these animals often mistake small bottles for prey and end up ingesting them. In addition, small pieces of plastic can also be ingested by fish thereby leading to digestion problems.

When these plastic debris are ingested, they may lead to blockages in the digestive tract, thereby inhibiting the marine life ability to feed efficiently. Studies indicate that 50% to 80% of turtles found dead are known to have died due to the ingestion of various forms of plastics which lead to malnutrition, starvation and eventually, death. As such, this has resulted to the reduction in the turtles population.

Furthermore, plastic bottles which find their way into the large water bodies such as rivers, lakes and even the ocean have been documented as a mode of transportation for alien species. Since these bottles can float, they are often carried by the tides to far places. As they float to different regions, there is always a possibility that they carry on them various plant and marine organisms to these non-native marine lives.

In addition, since the plastics travel slowly, they give the organisms ample time to adapt to different water and climatic conditions thereby making them potentially dangerous to the marine life of the host regions. This not only affects the marine environment but may also be hazardous to humans who rely on these waters for their livelihoods.

Similarly, burning of these bottles has been known to produce toxic fumes which lead to air pollution. In addition, these fumes when highly concentrated can cause acid rains which affects both plant and animal life. Also, acid rains often degrade the quality of the soil and reduce the oxygen levels in water bodies. This leads to the infection and death of different species of both plants and animals.

Fish larvae are highly affected by water pollutants and experience deformities and some times end up dying at a very young age due to the chemical components that shed off plastics. What should be noted in this case is that fish larvae play a pivotal role in maintaining the balance between plant and animal life in the water bodies.

As Goel states, they are consumed by other fish and they in turn consume much of the bacteria that if left unchecked may have negative effects on the water bodies. With this disruption of their life cycle, the fish population is greatly reduced and the life of the already existing species is under constant threat of extinction.

On the same note, Harrison states that fish can be displaced due to the disruption caused by floating debris such as plastic bottles. Whenever fish sense a change in their environment, they often opt to migrate in search of the optimum conditions. Consequently, this disrupts their life and breeding cycles.

This unwarranted migration has led to the death of many fish mainly due to infections, being preyed upon and abandonment of eggs which die off due to lack of a favorable environment for breeding. Due to this sad state of affairs, fishermen are forced to overfish from the little that is left. This in turn does not give the remaining fish a chance to repopulate thereby leading to the current situation whereby the demand of fish in the global market far outweighs the supply.

On a related note, when plastic bottles are thrown into the storm water drains or the sewerage system, they can cause serious blockages within these drainage pipes. This leads to a situation where water stagnates. Stagnant water smells bad and is a great environment for algal and bacteria blooms.

The effects of these microorganisms to the environment as well as our health are well known. Ultimately, the effects that plastics have on the environment are serious and if no serious intervention is carried out, we all may perish from our own actions or lack thereof due to neglecting our environment.

Solutions to the problem

Plastic is among the worst pollutant in our environment today. The fact that it is a non-biodegradable substance made up of toxic chemicals makes it a great polluter of the earth, air and water. With this in mind, it is a worthwhile endeavor to ensure that the use of this substance is reduced to a bare minimum.

The first and most important solution to this problem should therefore be to reduce the use of plastic bottles which will invariably lower its production. However, the implementation of this solution may be tricky since the use of plastic has penetrated in all aspects of our lives.

In a bid to reduce the pollution levels caused by these plastic bottles, the governments should implement various environmental friendly strategies to ensure that empty bottles are disposed off correctly. For example, increasing the fines charged for littering may be effective in deterring this habit. In addition, giving punishments such as collecting litter to offenders found littering may serve as an example to others all the while ensuring that all litters are effectively disposed off.

In addition, a significant policy is that of Tax rebates which will should be offered to bottlers who use other alternative containers. If such a policy is implemented, it will ensure that the toxic emissions created during the manufacturing of plastic are greatly reduced since this is among the most polluting stages of plastic bottles. In addition to this, all industries manufacturing plastic bottles should be mandated by law to plant trees which acts as carbon sinks thus reducing air pollution levels.

Birch and Wachter assert that individuals can do a lot on their own to reduce the carbon footprint. America and Chinas population are among the highest consumers of bottled water in the world. It is therefore important that they adjust their lifestyle if they are to reduce the levels of pollution caused by plastic bottles. This can be done by switching to other sources of drinking water like taps or even carrying water in greener containers.

The time and money spent by multinational corporations in lobbying for softer legislations on the use of plastic substances would be better spent on research of cheap and safe alternatives. The belief that such alternatives would be too expensive is aimed at discoursing opponents on the use of plastic bottles. There are existing scientifically proven alternatives for plastic but the big players have blatantly refused to embrace these choices.

According to Brebbia and Antunes do Carmo, alternatives for some of the substances (e.g. benzene) that cause water pollutions have already been found. However, the authors point out that the prices of these substitutes may be slightly higher than those of the original product. This is because technological innovations are getting more expensive and the extraction and acquisition processes of these substitutes are also costly.

The shifts to these alternatives will save these industries millions of dollars in the future and ensure a safer and greener environment for generations to come. It is a fact that consumers will have to deal with high initial costs of the new technology; it is also obvious that this cost would be minimal in comparison to earth without the protective cover or aquatic life. Effects of the use of plastic not only affect the third world.

The United States and China have not been spared with hurricanes and floods taking toll on these two nations respectively due to unpredictable climatic changes caused by pollution. In addition, the significant drop in revenue from the fishing industry as well as the decline in the availability of fish indicates that something ought to be done to address this issue of pollution.

It is good news to note that action is being taken to reduce the effects of plastics in both global and national fronts; each and every individual has a role to play in conserving the environment and reduce pollution. Miller & Spoolman state that consumers can form the first group of environmentalists by combating the use of these plastics by shunning products composed of chlorine, phosphate, nitrate and polyvinyl compounds.

Furthermore, they can take their governments to task on proper guidelines regarding the disposal of empty plastic bottles by pressuring the relevant authorities into installing the necessary elements needed to dispose litter. In real fact, the most important weapon we have as individuals is education. In so doing, pollution will decrease and marine life will have a fighting chance for survival and repopulation.

Knowledge based solutions to our problems are so far the best techniques. An informed society is likely to understand the consequences of its actions and as such use this knowledge to solve its challenges that it faces daily Individuals must raise their level of interest in environmental issues higher than it stands today.

The fact that few people know about pollution leave alone their knowledge on its effects is a grim statistic. Furthermore, few people are aware of the role of the ozone layer, water basins and atmospheric soundness. In response to these sad realities, few people are thus aware of heath risks they are exposed to by the use of these chemicals. Education and awareness still remain the central keys to a healthy future generation of our world.

Human nature has a tendency to overlook the problems that do not affect an individual directly. Just relax and take a picture of the earth brown and withered, without the beauty of the green vegetation, and completely barren. This remains the future of our beloved planet Earth, completely brought to destruction by man; the most intelligent creature in existence. When that time comes, there will be no choice of repair.

Conclusion

The oceans and other environmental resources have over the years proved to be valuable sources of income, livelihood, food and transport to the human race. However, mans lack of concern for these resources is increasingly turning into a cause for worry. Poor littering ethics of plastic bottles as well as other forms of pollutants brought about by mans activity are affecting the quality of these resources all the while impacting negatively on the animal and plant life that depend on these environments for survival.

The fishing industry has also learned the hard way that preservation of the water sources is the only key to success in this trade. Low quality fish as well as a decline in the annual volume of fish harvests have in the recent past characterized this once so successful industry.

This study has in detail described the sad situation that exists in our environment. Pollution has been noted as a threat to existence and various aspects of pollution brought about by plastic bottles have been discussed. Examples of water, air and earth pollutants such as solid plastic debris, radioactive and chemical substances emanating from the production existence and disposal of plastic bottles have been documented as the leading sources of various forms of pollution.

How these pollutants affect all manners of life has also been discussed and the ripple effects of the same to the fishing industry highlighted. While it has been observed that the many nations are indeed directing efforts to mitigate pollution by conforming to the required standards stipulated by the global community, there is still much more that can be done to even better the current scores.

It has also been established that the vision for a greener environment can only be realized if the public and private sectors come and work together as a team. Solutions and recommendations have also been made as to how the government and the citizens can contribute in this important task of reducing pollution in future.

If implemented, these changes no matter how little will at the end make a vast difference in the lives of many people as well as the ecological balance that supports such existence. It is therefore upon each person to see that they fulfill their roles in this quest in order to secure a greener and safer future not only for future generations, but also for the animal and plant life that depend on the ecosystems for survival.

Bibliography

Andrady, Anthony. Plastics and the environment. NY: Wiley-IEEE, 2003.

Bagad, Anjali. Environmental Science & Engineering. NY: Technical Publications, 2009.

Birch, Euginie and Susan Wachter. Growing greener cities: urban sustainability in the twenty-first century. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008.

Brebbia, Carla and James Antunes do Carmo. Water pollution VIII: modeling, monitoring and management. USA: WIT Press, 2006.

Goel, Paul. Water Pollution  Causes, Effects & Control. NY: New Age International, 2006.

Harrison, Roy. Pollution: causes, effects and control. USA: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2001.

Hassan, Rashid, Robert Scholes and Neville Ash. Ecosystems and human well-being: current state and trends: findings of the Condition and Trends Working Group of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. USA: Island Press, 2005.

Michelle Allsopp and others. Plastic Debris in the Worlds Oceans. Netherlands: Greenpeace International, 2010.

Miller, Tyler and Scott Spoolman. Living in the Environment: Principles, Connections, and Solutions. NY: Cengage Learning, 2008.

Miller, Tyler and Scott Spoolman. Sustaining the Earth: an integrated approach. NY: Cengage Learning, 2008.

Stephenson, John. Bottled Water: FDA Safety and Consumer Protections are Often Less Stringent than Comparable EPA Protections for Tap Water. CA: DIANE Publishing, 2009.

Brown, Brit, T. and Escobar, Benjamin, A. Wind power: Generating electricity and lawsuits. Energy Law Journal 28.2 (2007): 489-515. Print.

The authors of this journal article underline the fact that it is not always beneficial for the countries to be dependent on foreign oil in order to be sure that the necessary portion of energy will be supplied accordingly. This is why it seems to be reasonable to think about some alternative energy technologies, and one of them is the development of wind energy. In the article, it is defined as the fastest growing source of electricity worldwide (Brown and Escobar 489).

The evaluation of aesthetic and environmental issue, focus on the conditions under which turbine windmills may be developed make the article a powerful source to rely on while talking about the importance of alternative energy in the world.

European Wind Energy Association. Wind energy  the facts: A guide to the technology, economics and future of wind power. Sterling, VA: Earthscan, 2009. Print.

This book is devoted to the idea of wind energy development as the only way to promote energy independence in different countries. There are a number of misunderstandings in the field of alternative energy, this is why it is very important to consider different facts about wind energy to comprehend its essence and urgency for society.

The chosen source is perfectly structured so that it is easy to learn the peculiarities of wind turbine technologies, e.g. vertical axis wind turbines with expected advantages of omnidirectionality and having gears and generating equipment at the tower base (European Wind Energy 65). The illustrations offered in the book also help to evaluate properly the ideas of turbine windmills.

Gipe, Paul. Wind power: Renewable energy for home, farm, and business. White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green Publishing, 2004. Print.

Among the variety of properly developed industries, wind energy is considered as the most noticeable and worthwhile. In the book, the author pays attention to the current technologies and their impact on the development of wind energy. It is necessary to realize where and why wind power will be more effective.

The peculiar feature of the book is that the author introduces each detail of the chosen system in its own way; e.g. he defines wind as the working fluid in the atmospheric heat engine (Gipe 23) and discusses how this fluid may be used by people.

Hagenbuch, Tyler. Establishing an aggressive legal framework for the future of wind energy in Europe. Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law 42.5 (2009): 1595-1630. Print.

In this article, the author discusses the peculiarities of wind energy in different European countries and the role of government in the development of the chosen field. It is noticed that investors and entrepreneurs are in need of certain financial help and ideas. To meet the purposes set by specially trained organizations, a new Climate Action Directive has been created to work on the weak and strong points of wind energy.

Wind is defined as the best position to expand compared to other sources of renewable energy (Hagenbuch 1597), and it is obligatory to think about the methods on how to organize the use of such energy and benefit from it considering the conditions inherent to the vast majority of European countries.

Hansen, Matin, OL. Aerodynamics of wind turbines. Sterling, VA: Earthscan, 2008. Print.

Wind turbine design is considered to be the main theme of the book under analysis. Starting with a brief still rather effective introduction of wind energy and its development, the author tries to underline more significant aspects in the sphere of technology so that the readers will be able to comprehend how wind energy may be analyzed from a pure theoretical point of view.

A number of formulas are used in the book to define the speed of wind and the benefits which come from turbine windmills. It is not enough to know some historical background of the field, still, it is obligatory to use the ideas and facts and apply them in practice.

Hau, Erich. Wind turbines: Fundamentals, technologies, application, economics. New York: Springer, 2006. Print.

The author of the book aims at discussing different aspects of wind turbines development to provide the reader with the necessary overview of new technologies and certain environmental and economic fields. European and American windmills have their own characteristics, this is why it is wrong to compare them or define some strong and weak aspects of each. What is required is to understand that each environment sets its own rules for wind energy development, and people should be read to consider the requirements and use them as the benefits.

In the book, several examples of how turbine windmills have been used in different periods are given in order to realize that the development of its system engineering, the component design and the manufacturing (Hau 732) are the main objectives in the field of wind energy.

Korn, Derek, R. Wind turbine windfall? Modern Machine Shop 80.12 (2008): 14.

To comprehend how wind energy may work, it is better to take one particular example and evaluate it from different perspectives. In this article, the author analyzes the development of wind energy in the USA during 2007. By means of properly chosen statistics, the author proves that wind energy is in demand and that more Americans are eager to take some actions in order to change the conditions under which they have to live.

It is defined that 20 gigawatts of wind power capacity have been successfully installed in US within one year (Korn 2008), and certain improvements have been observed within a short period of time.

Nersesian, Roy, L. Energy for the 21^st century: A comprehensive guide to conventional and alternative services. New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2010. Print.

The powerful aspect of the book under consideration is that the author does not define wind energy as the only alternative for the 21^st century. The current technological progress provides people with a variety of possibilities to improve their living conditions and earn independence in different spheres of life.

Such countries like India, Indonesia, China, and Brazil find it useful to focus on biomass as the major source of energy (Nersesian 44), still, the author admits that it is also possible to use wind that is clean and free for people, this is why such source of energy should be also considered by technologists as well.

Osborn, Robert, G., Higgins, Kenneth, F., Usgaard, Robert, E., Dieter, Charles, D., Neiger, Regg, D. Bird mortality associated with wind turbines at the Buffalo Ridge Wind Resource Area, Minnesota. The American Midland Naturalist 143.1. (2000): 41-52. Print.

The article is based on the investigations made recently in Minnesota; the authors tell that the chosen activities by the government make it possible to reduce costs which are based on wind energy production by means of new improvements within wind turbine technologies (Osborn et al. 41). Bird mortality rates have been increased as soon as new turbines appeared, and it turns out to be an important task to investigate whether human activities influence birds lives.

The investigations show that wind turbines are not as dangerous for birds as other activities taken by society, still the impact of wind turbines has to be measured within a short period of time.

Zhang, Xiliang, Chang, Shiyan, Huo, Molin, Wang, Rushui. Chinas wind industry: Policy lessons for domestic government interventions and international support. Climate Policy 9.5. (2009): 553-564. Print.

The reader of this article gets a good chance to learn more about the development of wind power industry in such huge country as China. During the last decade, China has made a considerable progress in the field under consideration, and the activities of this country may serve as a good example for other nations.

Wind power has a great potential in different spheres (Zhang et al. 564), still, it is necessary to consider the risks which take place in domestic technology, and the chosen article helps to define the weak points of the issue.

Works Cited

Brown, Brit, T. and Escobar, Benjamin, A. Wind power: Generating electricity and lawsuits. Energy Law Journal 28.2 (2007): 489-515. Print.

European Wind Energy Association. Wind energy  the facts: A guide to the technology, economics and future of wind power. Sterling, VA: Earthscan, 2009. Print.

Gipe, Paul. Wind power: Renewable energy for home, farm, and business. White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green Publishing, 2004. Print.

Hagenbuch, Tyler. Establishing an aggressive legal framework for the future of wind energy in Europe. Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law 42.5 (2009): 1595-1630. Print.

Hansen, Matin, OL. Aerodynamics of wind turbines. Sterling, VA: Earthscan, 2008. Print.

Hau, Erich. Wind turbines: Fundamentals, technologies, application, economics. New York: Springer, 2006. Print.

Korn, Derek, R. Wind turbine windfall? Modern Machine Shop 80.12 (2008): 14.

Nersesian, Roy, L. Energy for the 21^st century: A comprehensive guide to conventional and alternative services. New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2010. Print.

Osborn, Robert, G., Higgins, Kenneth, F., Usgaard, Robert, E., Dieter, Charles, D., Neiger, Regg, D. Bird mortality associated with wind turbines at the Buffalo Ridge Wind Resource Area, Minnesota. The American Midland Naturalist 143.1. (2000): 41-52.

Zhang, Xiliang, Chang, Shiyan, Huo, Molin, Wang, Rushui. Chinas wind industry: Policy lessons for domestic government interventions and international support. Climate Policy 9.5. (2009): 553-564.

Abstract

Japan is one of the most industrialized countries in the world and a leading exporter of technology-related products. However, there is a concern that the industrial sector is releasing a high amount of dioxins and furans which are very dangerous to human health. They cause cancer, reproductive health problems, and diabetes among other health-related complications. It is appropriate to find ways of limiting the release of these substances into the environment.

Background

Dioxins and furans are highly carcinogenic materials that often come from the industrial sector as waste substances. According to Harrad (2010), over 210 different furans and dioxins exist under different environmental factors. However, they all have a similar chemical skeleton with a chlorine atom being part of their make-up. They are highly toxic materials that pose serious public health threats (Stringer & Johnston, 2011).

Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds refer to a broad range of compounds with varying levels of toxicity, the most toxic one being 2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin which has a TEF of 1 (Stringer & Johnston, 2011). Studies have shown that Dioxins do not have any direct genotoxic and mutagenic activities. Vallero (2014) defines furans as a heterocyclic organic compound, consisting of a five-member aromatic ring with four carbon atoms and oxygen. It is a colorless, highly flammable, and very volatile liquid with a boiling point that is close to that of room temperature.

This compound is very common in the industrial sectors that majorly deal with chemicals. The compound is believed to be carcinogenic. The following figure shows the molecular structures of dioxins and furans.

Importance of limiting the compound in the environment

It is very important to limit these compounds in the environment because of their serious negative consequences and their behavioral patterns. According to Wittich (2009), the primary health concern of dioxins and furans is that they are highly carcinogenic compounds. They have a behavioral pattern of climbing up the food chain once they are released into the environment. If they find their way into the sea or any large water body, they are taken up by sea animals and plants, including fish.

This is so because of their nature or water-fearing. It means that instead of freely flowing in the water, these compounds quickly find their way into plants and animals in the water. They prefer animals to plants. Fish may get even more intoxicated when they continue to eat other intoxicated plants and animals in the water. If a human eats the contaminated fish, the contamination is transferred to him or her. On land, these compounds may be taken in by animals grazing on contaminated grounds.

The animals may also get affected by breathing contaminated air (Bahadir & Duca, 2009). Any of the dairy products, especially milk and meat, taken from these contaminated animals will transfer the toxins to anyone who takes them. Human beings can also get contaminations directly from contaminated air or water. Studies have shown that individuals who work in chemical manufacturing companies have higher risks of getting affected by these compounds even if they wear protective clothing.

There is always the negligible amount of the compound that finds its way into the system of a human being either orally (eating or drinking contaminated materials), skin contact, or through inhalation (Ishii & Yamamoto, 2013). Errors and accidents are common and they are the main factors that lead to such contaminations. The protective gear may also be ineffective in a way, making it impossible to give 100% protection.

Dealing with these compounds once they are released into the environment is not easy. This is so because they are quickly taken in by plants and animals in the environment. According to Anttila and Boffetta (2014), it is not just people close to the industrial sectors that are at risk of getting contamination from these two compounds. Sometimes the contamination may spread to a wider geographic area with animals being their carrier from one place to another. They can stay in the bodies of these animals for a very long time until they are eaten by other animals. That is why it is very important to ensure that the spread of these compounds limited (Assmuth, 2011).

The best way of doing this is by proper management of wastes by the industrial sectors. Studies have shown that solid waste incarceration plants are some of the leading sources of dioxins. The individual companies whose industrial processes lead to the emission of these dangerous compounds should take the responsibility of managing them. This is so because once the materials find their way to the soil, water, and air outside the premises of their production, then it becomes almost impossible to manage them effectively.

Techniques of Analyzing Dioxins and Furans in the Environment

Dioxins and furans are very undesirable compounds within the environment hence, it is often very important to find ways of dealing with them before they can cause serious health issues to the affected population. According to Anttila and Boffetta (2014), when analyzing dioxins and furans, environmental samples from sewage sludge, sediments, soil, combustion residues (flying ashes), air, and sometimes water are taken for laboratory tests.

In cases where it is believed that the compounds have affected animals in the area, then samples such as milk from cows in that specific region may be taken for laboratory analysis. Other food products such as fish, chicken, and grapes can also be tested for these two dangerous compounds. The following are the scientific ways of analyzing dioxins and furans once the sample is taken.

USEPA Method 1613

According to Vallero (2014), this method is often used in determining tetra- through octa-chlorinated dibezo-furans (CDFs) and dibenzo-p-dioxins (CDDs) in sediment, water, sludge, tissue, soil, and many other samples were taken to the laboratory. The method uses high-resolution mass spectrometry/high-resolution chromatography (HRMS/HRGC) to test the level of the compounds in the samples used (Torgal & Jalali, 2011). This method has been in use for a very long time and is often preferred because it can be used to analyze various compounds. Its accuracy in determining the level of dioxins and furans in the compounds has also been confirmed.

USEPA Method 8280

This method has been in use for some time and it is particularly utilized when analyzing samples that are suspected to have a very low content of dioxins or furan substances. Using the HRGC/LRMS method, this approach makes it possible to detect even the least amounts of these substances in the sample used. The analysis includes Total Homologues, Cl4- Cl furans/dioxins, and various isomers of dioxins and furans.

USEPA Method 8290

This is another popular method of analysis that is used in measuring polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins within the scope of tetra to octa-chlorinated homologues and the polychlorinated dibenzofurans in various samples (Lichtfouse, Schwarzbauer, & Robert, 2013). It uses high-resolution gas chromatography/high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRGC/HRMS) analysis technique. It enables the detection of the number of dioxins and furans compounds in a given sample (Lichtfouse, Schwarzbauer, & Robert, 2013). The method is also very popular because of its level of accuracy in determining these dangerous compounds in the samples taken to the laboratory.

Method 23 and TO-9

Compendium method TO-9 is used for the detection of toxic compounds of dioxins and furans which are in the air. The method was developed in 1989 and has been considered one of the most appropriate methods of determining the level of these two toxic compounds in the air. Just like the other methods, it uses HRGC-HRMS to analyze the samples. This method has been peer-reviewed and is popularly used by large companies and government authorities.

According to Harrad (2010), other numerous methods can be used to analyze samples for dioxins and furans based on some factors. Each of these methods is suitable for different purposes based on several factors. For instance, there are cases where it is suspected that there are negligible amounts of dioxins or furans in a given sample such as air. In such a case, the USEPA Method 8280 is the most appropriate strategy to use. Other methods can also be used, but this specific method works best in such cases where only traces can be detected. Wittich (2009) also says that the nature of the sample sometimes determines the most appropriate method that can be used. Sledge, liquid, air, and soil samples work best in different methods based on their physical nature. However, they have a convenient method of presenting their findings in a way that is easy to understand after an interpretation of the results has been made.

Matrix of Analysis in Japan

As shown in the above matrix analysis, the amount of dioxins and furans in the water, organisms, sediments, and the air is determined by the number of industries and the nature of their activities in a region. It is also determined by the approach used in managing wastes, especially the plastic materials and those from healthcare facilities. Special wards of Tokyo and Yokohama are highly populated areas in Japan. However, they have a limited number of companies.

The administrations in these municipalities also have very strict waste management policies. These are factors that have directly contributed to a very low level of dioxins and furans in these two regions. The matrix above shows that these two regions have the least detectable amounts of dioxins and furans in air, water, organism, and sediment samples which were tested. On the other hand, Osaka, Nagoya, Sapporo, and Kobe have a high number of industries. This high number of companies directly correlates with the high amounts of dioxins and furans substances in the samples that were taken. This can be attributed to the effluents and emissions from the companies (Zhao, Zheng, & Jiang, 2011).

Impacts of Dioxins and Furans and Their Possible Sources of Contamination

Dioxins and furans have serious impacts on people, animals, and plants. In this discussion, the impact was limited to plants. According to a study by Action (2012), dioxins and furans are believed to be some of the leading causes of cancer because of their carcinogenic nature. Taken in large quantities, they stimulate the growth of cancerous cells within the body. This is one of the primary reasons which makes it a major public health concern.

Dioxins are specifically known to damage the immune system of the affected person making him or her prone to various opportunistic diseases. They are also believed to interfere with the hormonal systems. According to Action (2012), another major concern about dioxins and furans is their impacts on the reproductive system. They are linked to the inability of pregnant mothers to maintain their pregnancies, decreased fertilities, low sperm counts, birth defects, endometriosis, suppression of the immune system, diabetes, lung problems, learning disabilities, lowered levels of testosterone, and skin disorder among many other health complications. The fact that it suppresses the immune system makes it difficult to contain the above health complications.

Sources of contamination vary based on the type of food that one eats and the environment within which a person lives. The figure below shows the main sources of contamination.

As shown in the above chart, beef, dairy, and milk ingestion are some of the leading contaminants through which one can be exposed to dioxins and furans. Chicken, pork, fish, and eggs are also major sources of contamination. Inhalation, soil, and water ingestion are negligible sources. It should be noted that once these toxic substances are released into the environment they easily find their way into animals. We are at a higher risk of getting the contamination from the animal food we eat than we are from being exposed to contaminated air, water, or soil.

Conclusion

Dioxins and furans are some of the most dangerous industrial toxic substances that are released as wastes. They are also released into the air and soil when waste substances, especially those that have plastic materials and wastes from healthcare centers, are burnt. Once these two toxic substances are released into the environment, they find their way into animals living in the contaminated water or those that eat contaminated plants.

People often get contamination by eating contaminated animals or animal products. Beef, dairy, and milk are some of the top sources of contamination. Once ingested, these two substances cause serious health problems based on their level in the body. Cancer, suppressed immune system, diabetes, and reproductive health problems are some of the health issues that are directly caused by this problem. The government needs to work together with the industrial sector and waste management agencies to contain the release of the two substances into the environment in this country.

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