Throughout time humans have been making their life comfortable and safe by using nature. Centuries ago, ancient people were gathering berries, fishing in the rivers and seas, killing animals for sustenance. Then man invented the ax to cut down trees to build a house. Later, he sat on an animal to move faster and used it as help to work the land. In more recent periods, humans built skyscrapers and complicated machines that can drive and fly in any direction. People still use animals for the same purposes, but they have entered a new role as leisurely household pets. In some countries, animals are used for testing drugs, cosmetics, and other experiments. When humans go for a hike, they burn woods and leave plastic behind them. Whilst wealthy men eat black and red caviar, fishermen put nets in the seas and oceans, causing the extinction of some species eternally to satisfy their demands. The increase of human control over nature and species has had a negative impact on the balance in ecosystems and caused the dying out of countless types of animals.
People are concerned about their needs and do not think about the ecosystems sustainability and the consequences of their actions. Aldo Leopold, in Thinking like a mountain underlines an issue of humans influence on nature. By sharing his thoughts as a young man, Leopold (1949) claims that back then, he was sure that fewer wolves meant more deer, and no wolves would mean hunters paradise (p. 130). However, the chains existing in ecosystems and the order created by nature are interrupted by a man thinking beneficially for himself. Leopold proves that by an example of a cowman fighting wolves to protect the tribe; however, no cowman has ever thought that the wolves are trimming the herd for the balance in nature.
The environment is a fragile system where everything is interconnected. While humans are afraid of wolves killing the deer, the mountain is suffering from the deer, destroying it. Aldo Leopold invokes humans to stop interrupting the natural flow of life. Most of the population still are convinced that they are the golden center of the world, yet it is the other way round. Humans are a tiny part of the Universe, and they must care for and nourish the surroundings they live in.
The modern man is the one putting the negative impact on nature, and humans should learn to take benefits from it with gratitude and love. The text Returning the gift by Robin Wall Kimmerer explores the modern relationship between mankind and nature by using concepts from modern economic theory to ancient Potawatomi stories. The first topic the author covers is the reciprocal relationship that has been lost between modern humans and nature. Nowadays, human society is more focused on the individual rather than the surroundings. Humans are willing to sacrifice ecosystems and greedily harvest natural resources for personal needs (Kimmerer, 2014). The author implies that humans need to strive for a similar relationship with nature as the Native Americans had before the colonization.
Robin Wall also involves the topic of gratitude in the sense that humans are more concerned with the gift rather than the giver. To survive and thrive, humanity is reliant on the living organism around us. The food on our table, the air we breathe, and clothes that make us warm all come as a gift from other species, either direct or indirect. We should therefore strive to preserve as many as possible of these species and be grateful for their existence.
Humans need to pay more attention to what the earth is saying. Today, we see the rapid extinction of many species and whole ecosystems. As one species disappears, it creates a butterfly effect for the extermination of many more. If humans continue down the same path, our species will soon be living in solitude. With the devastation of so many ecosystems, the author indicates that we no longer can read the signs mother nature is sending us, and the outcome can be detrimental.
If human influence on nature keeps developing the same scenario, people will struggle to survive. Leanne Simpson, in the text Our treaty with the hoof nation, raises the topic of human reliance on species and nature, talking about the Nishnaabeg community. With the disappearance of the deer, moose, and caribou, people felt hungry, worried, and sad. When they realized they had been wasting the meat of the Hoof Clan and treating the species with disrespect, they started negotiating for getting the animals back. Simpson brings up an essential topic of human dependency on species and their attitude to them. With no respect and a wish to take more than needed, none of the individuals can keep living. People should learn how to share land without interfering with other nations (Simpson, 2013). Thinking about nature and species as equals, caring about the future generations is a key to the right relationship with the environment.
Even though in reality, nature cannot talk to people, like in the story. Nevertheless, humans should learn to hear their voices and understand the limits of taking from their surroundings. Getting advantages from flora and fauna must be accompanied by giving back. Helping rare species survive, maintaining natural conditions for the animals will keep the balance in the chain and give people all the beneficial factors they need.
In ancient times humans treated nature with honor and respect, considering that they are a small part of a big system. With the constant development of technologies and increase in the speed of life, people forgot about this respect. The modern industrial revolution has created a gap between humans and the earth. There is nothing wrong with progress when it does no harm to the place the population lives in. With love, caring, and respect for flora and fauna, individuals, can reach a new level of relationship with the environment preventing the extinction of species and reaching the balance.
References
Kimmerer, R. W. (2014). Returning the gift. Minding Nature.
Leopold, A. (1949). Thinking like a mountain. Oxford University Press.
Simpson, L. (2013). Our treaty with the hoof nation. The Gift is In the Making: Anishinaabeg Stories. Highwater Press.
Floridas orange harvest is the lowest since 1947 (Neate, 2016).
The decline in orange production is caused by a citrus greening diseasehuanglongbing (HLB) (Neate, 2016).
Hurricane Irma exacerbated the issue by reducing orange crops by 21 percent (Bjerga & Perez, 2017).
The entire industry is in a dire position.
Floridas citrus industry has experienced a series of devastating blows that have put it on the brink of collapse. Currently, the states orange harvest is the lowest since 1947, which can shrink the industry to less than a half of its size (Neate, 2016). According to the US Department of Agriculture (USDA), Hurricane Irma devastated the harvest, thereby reducing orange production by 21 percent (as cited in Bjerga & Perez, 2017). It is estimated that orange farmers in the State of Florida, which is the leading US producer of the fruit, will harvest only 54 million boxes in the 2017-2018 season (Neate, 2016). The plummeting crop production has several causes.
The valuable commodity, which has become an inspiration for the states beverage, flower, and song, is a mainstay of agriculture in the region. However, its production has always been associated with numerous struggles such as hurricanes, freezes, periods of frost and competition from a major exporter of orangesBrazil ( Florida agriculture, 2016). However, orange producers in the state have encountered an enemy that is more dangerous than weather conditions. The hurdle that has put the entire industry in dire straits is a bacterium that causes a citrus greening disease known as huanglongbing (HLB) (Neate, 2016).
HLB Symptoms
Citrus HLB originates from Asia.
The disease is characterized by patchy mottling on the plants shoots and leaves (Wang & Trivedi, 2013).
The progression of HLB is associated with crop reductions and fruit discoloration.
More than $100 million in research has been directed towards the elimination of the disease (Neate, 2016).
Citrus HLB is a crop disease that has been known in Asia for many decades (Wang & Trivedi, 2013). HLB had been largely ignored by the world community until it was transmitted to the US in 2005 (Neate, 2016; Wang & Trivedi, 2013). The disease that has suddenly become relevant now threatens the existence of the citrus industry in the country.
In terms of symptomatology, HLB is characterized by several effects all of which threaten the life of the plant. The disease produces patchy mottling on shoots and leaves. The infected areas are stunted, which causes gradual tissue deterioration that is concomitant with HLB progression. Fruits produced by affected orange trees are usually disfigured and discolored. It has to do with the fact that fruits from healthy citrus trees start developing their signature orange color at the stylar end first, whereas peduncular end remains green (Wang & Trivedi, 2013). The process is reversed on HLB-affected oranges, which often causes oranges to drop before harvest (Wang & Trivedi, 2013). The affected trees are also characterized by excessive leaf loss that results from the alteration of normal root function. The qualitative and quantitative reduction of crop yields has led to a steep price increase of orange-derived products. Therefore, orange farmers have invested more than $100 million in research to combat the progression of HLB (Neate, 2016).
Management of HLB
HLB is transmitted by the Asian citrus psyllid (ACP).
The management of the disease falls into two categories: chemical control of ACP and chemical control of HLB (Feely, 2016).
The chemical control of the condition is associated with an ethical dilemma.
HLB is extremely hard to manage; therefore, the production of orange crops in affected areas is expensive (Feely, 2016). The disease is transmitted by the Asian citrus psyllid (ACP), which, in addition to spreading the infection, causes indirect damages to orange trees. According to Boina & Bloomquist (2015), the damages are caused by heavy ingestion of phloem sap by adults and nymphs and injection of toxins through saliva (p. 808). The psyllid is the disease vector of the HLB-causing pathogenCandidatus Liberibacter asiaticus (Boina & Bloomquist, 2015). After psyllids have been established in a region the control of the disease is reduced to the management of their population. High reproduction rates of the insect make the task extremely difficult.
The approaches to the management of the condition can be divided into two categories: chemical control of ACP population and chemical control of HLB transmission (Feely, 2016). Chemical control of ACP is performed through the foliar, soil, and trunk application of insecticides (Feely, 2016). The chemical agents affect the psyllids nervous system, which causes a rapid death. Due to a high frequency of the insects flushing patterns, farmers use a high volume of insecticides that drench the soil underneath orange trees. Soil application further exacerbates the issue of chemical pollution. Chemical control of HLB is conducted with the help of trunk-injected antibiotics (Boina & Bloomquist, 2015). This method of control presupposes frequent intervention, which increases the change of Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus developing resistance to antibiotics (Boina & Bloomquist, 2015).
Unfortunately, the agricultural use of insecticides is associated with numerous ecological consequences. It has to do with the fact that insecticides are highly biologically active substances that can threaten the ecological integrity of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems (Stehle & Schulz, 2015, p. 5750). The expansion of agricultural capacities in the Western world has led to the increase in insecticide use by 750 percent in the period from 1955 to 2000 (Stehle & Schulz, 2015). Despite stringent environmental regulations, insecticides inevitably enter non-target areas.
The exposure of surface waters to dangerous chemical agents is one of the most problematic consequences of the pesticide use. A study conducted by Stehle and Schulz (2015) shows that in more than 50 percent of cases the amount of pesticides in surface waters exceeds threshold levels. Another study shows that the normal ecosystem functioning and resilience are threatened by the pesticide use because it affects microbes and invertebrates that function as decomposers and pollinators (Chagnon et al., 2015). In case of waterbodies, the use of chemical agents damages fish populations who are both consumers and predators. It follows that Florida orange harvest crisis is associated with an ethical dilemma of whether pesticides can be used to save harvests, while simultaneously indiscriminately distinguishing many creatures and endangering the integrity of entire ecosystems.
Market Utilitarianism
Market utilitarianism favors market solutions to ecological problems (Kernohan, 2012).
Under market utilitarianism, every individual should be left to their own devices.
Market solutions hinge on the protection of private property rights.
OToole and Baxter argue that since every individual should be left to their own devices, environmental problems must be resolved with the help of market solutions (as cited in Desjardins, 2013). It follows that an answer to the ethical dilemma is a proper protection of private property rights, which will stop farmers from polluting the environment.
Critique of Market Utilitarianism
Basic premises of market utilitarianism are challenged by environmentalists (Desjardins & McCall, 2014).
The opponents of market solutions for environmental problems claim that they are based on unrealistic assumptions about the nature of the world.
In the real world, information is much more diffused than in abstract mathematical models.
Transaction costs are often associated with externalities (Desjardins & McCall, 2014).
Market utilitarianism has always been criticized for its overreliance on mathematical abstractions that do not take into consideration environmental externalities. Diffusion of information is a barrier to effective market-based solutions to the problem of insecticide pollution.
Shallow Ecology
Shallow ecology presupposes that humans are the only species of value (Fryer, 2014).
The worldview is inherently anthropocentric.
The protection of the environment is a means to improving the well-being of humans.
Shallow ecology is a limited outlook on the environment that regards nature as a means to human ends (Fryer, 2014). When viewed from the perspective of shallow ecology, Florida orange harvest crisis has to be addressed in order to farther interests of people who consume fruits. Furthermore, the damages caused by the insecticide pollution might make it difficult to obtain resources in the future. It follows that shallow ecology and market utilitarianism are closely aligned concepts.
Deep Ecology
Unlike shallow ecology, deep ecology is a worldview that is concentrated on causes of environmenal issues such as pollution (Desjardins, 2013).
Deep environmental perspectives are not human-centered. The proponents of the philosophical view argue that nature has intrinsic value; therefore, it is worth protecting for its own sake (Desjardins, 2013).
In the framework of deep ecology, the use of insecticides is immoral because it harms many species.
Anthropocentrism is an underlying cause of all ecological problems (Desjardins, 2013).
Key Principles of Deep Ecology
All nonhuman life-forms are intrinsically valuable.
It is wrong to measure the value of non-human living organisms against interests of humans (Desjardins, 2013).
Humans cannot interfere with ecosystems except for satisfaction of their vital needs.
To resolve the ethical conundrum under discussion, a radical approach is needed. Namely, instead of trying to develop less harmful insecticides for controlling ACP populations, it is necessary to change human perception of the environment. People have to realize that in an attempt to increase the production of orange crops they eradicate organisms whose lives are intrinsically valuable.
Biocentric Ethics
Biocentric ethics are environmental ethics that are characterized by reverence for all life forms (Kernohan, 2012).
The biocentric outlook presupposes four basic tenets:
Humans are members of earths community of life (Desjardins, 2013, p. 141);
All living organisms are interdependent;
All life forms pursue their own ends in accordance with the reality of their means;
Humans are in no way shape or form superior to other living beings.
Practical Implications of Biocentric Ethics
With respect to the ethical dilemma, biocentric ethics have the following practical implications:
With respect to the ethical dilemma, biocentric ethics have the following practical implications:
The rule of nonmaleficence calls for the discontinuation of harmful farming practices because they threaten living organisms.
The duty of noninterference demands Floridas farmers to refrain from misbalancing local ecosystems.
The rule or restitutive justice necessitates active steps towards the restoration of water resources harmed by chemical pollutants.
Strict adherence to biocentric principles will help to restore Floridas ecosystems damaged by actions of farmers seeking excessive profits.
Challenges
The practical application of biocentric ethics to the ethical dilemma is associated with several challenges:
The current philosophic paradigm promotes human interference in nature because humans are regarded as separate from nature (Desjardins, 2013, p. 143);
Environmental changes are resisted by influential organizations that profit from the status quo;
The American policy arena is dominated by conservative initiatives that are supported by anthropocentric arguments (Nolt, 2014);
The American public is, arguably, not progressive enough to espouse biocentric ethics in their entirety.
Predictions
If the rate of the current ACP population growth continues, the states farmers will discontinue their operations in several decades.
Brazilian orange producers will rely on the use of harmful insecticides to increase their production of the commodity.
The reliance on intrusive farming techniques will result in substantial and possibly irreversible ecological damages.
The discontinuation of orange production in Florida will push farmers towards other crops the growth of which is also associated with the use of chemicals.
First Solution
The first ethical solution to the problem is to discontinue harmful farming practices that devastate local ecosystems.
To this end, it is necessary to conduct a comprehensive political reform.
To introduce meaningful changes in a legal structure of the state, support of the majority of Floridas population is needed.
The support can be achieved by attracting media attention to the problem.
It is also necessary to initiate street protests and social-media campaigns.
Second Solution
The second solution will eliminate the need for insecticides, thereby sparing ACP populations and local ecosystems.
Genetic engineering can produce orange trees that are resistant to HLB, thus making ACPs non-harmful for crops (Feely, 2016).
Hybrid orange trees can be grown around the world, which will help to reduce chemical pollution in countries such as Brazil.
In addition to resolving the ethical dimension of the problem, the solution will help to free monetary resources necessary for restitutive justice.
Boina, D. R., & Bloomquist, J. R. (2015). Chemical control of the Asian citrus psyllid and of huanglongbing disease in citrus. Pest Management Science, 71(6), 808-823.
Chagnon, M., Kreutzweiser, D., Mitchell, E. A. D., Morrissey, C. A., Noome, D. A., & Sluijs, J. (2015). Risks of large-scale use of systemic insecticides to ecosystem functioning and services. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 22(1), 119-134.
Desjardins, J. R. (2013). Environmental ethics: An introduction to environmental philosophy (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
Desjardins, J. R., & McCall, J. J. (2014). Contemporary issues in business ethics. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
Feely, E. (2016). Saving the orange: How to fight citrus greening disease (and its not through genetic engineering). William & Mary Environmental Law and Policy Review, 40(3), 893-916.
Florida agriculture industry cant shake citrus fall, land loss. (2016). Web.
Fryer, M. (2014). Ethics theory and business practice. New York, NY: SAGE.
Kernohan, A. (2012). Environmental ethics: An interactive introduction. Peterborough, Canada: Broadview Press.
Miljopolitik. (n.d.). Web.
Neate, R. (2016). Feeling the squeeze: Florida faces worst orange harvest crisis in a century. The Guardian. Web.
Nolt, J. (2014). Environmental ethics for the long term: An introduction. Abington, England: Routledge.
Stehle, S., & Schulz, R. (2015). Agricultural insecticides threaten surface waters at the global scale. PNAS, 112(18), 5750-5755.
Talent management: predictions for 2017 and beyond. (2017). Web.
Where there was once a tree, there is once a house. Where there was once a forest, there are now corn fields. Over the past couple of centuries, the human race has managed to destroy miles upon miles of land and sea, including a variety of plants and animals. Seemingly, as a coping mechanism after realizing the mistake, humans now disassociate themselves from nature, imagining it as something out there.
Nowadays, people are haunted by the idea of pristine wilderness, which raises several philosophical questions about the role of humanity in environmental conservation. This paper examines the argument that nature is a man-curated garden through the detailed analysis of such works as The idea of a garden by Michael Pollan and Changes in the Land by William Cronon.
The idea of a garden presents a fascinating case study focused on the ecological restoration of Cathedral Pines, a site that was substantially damaged as a result of 1989 tornadoes. Michael Pollan, the author of the work, rejects the concepts of environmental purists and offers his take on the role humans play in nature. Pollan notes the importance of refuting the arguments related to a classic environmental battle, which pushes environmental purists against hard-core pragmatics (X, p. 193).
On the one hand, Pollan disregards the idea that nature exists solely for human benefit. Thus, the author does not consider nature a garden in that regard. Nature is far more than apple trees and cherry blossoms.
While at times humans need to take advantage of the resources to survive, Pollan stands in opposition to the idea of environmental exploitation. Nevertheless, Pollan does not take the argument of environmental purists seriously as well. Accepting that any human environmental intervention is unnatural would be to support the wilderness ethic, which reaffirms the notion of a human-nature relationship displaying the pattern of an inverse correlation (X, p. 195). The idea of a garden proposes to follow a more complex chain of reasoning, given the philosophers frequent disregard for history and the flaws in the idea of natures self-restoration.
Nature is a garden as it is impossible not to consider it a man-made creation at least in some aspect due to the impact human activity has had on natural processes. Most importantly, the effects of human activity are not necessarily negative. In The idea of a garden, Michael Pollan argues that it is ultimately flawed to assume that nature and humans are separate. Viewing nature as ahistorical is ultimately wrong because there is no way to pinpoint a certain period or a single moment the nature has been pristine.
First, it undergoes a continuous cycle of change and transformation, altering as a result of volcano eruptions, ice ages, and bacteria growth. According to Pollan, looking back at nature even before human activity would be rather disappointing, considering an ice age, for example, which is a stark contrast to the human ideal of wilderness.
Second, one could argue that there was a time in human history when people simply succumbed to natures peculiarities. Thus, their activity had minimum effect on the environment, which would conclude that nature should not be considered a garden, which humans essentially take care of. However, since the dawn of the first civilizations, nature has not been undisturbed, with the Amazonian rainforest falsely considered a natural creation, when, in reality, it is a human-made patchwork of gardens.
Another aspect, which is crucial to consider, while discussing nature as a garden, is human responsibility. Like a gardener, the human population must care for, restore, and improve their environment. Pollan uses a curious financial analogy to convey his argument related to the scope of human responsibility regarding the preservation of natural resources. Some might believe that people can ignore the land they live on, with a certain invisible hand doing everything for them in regulating and guiding natural processes.
The libertarian economic theory, which offers a perfect equilibrium model, emphasizes the role of an unobservable market force that can secure complete economic balance under the conditions of non-interference from outside sources. Pollan explains that due to the impact human activity has already had on Mother Nature, it is counterintuitive to rely on a quasi-divine force to resolve all the problems (X, p. 199).
If left untouched, nature might create mass destruction, which may lead to species extinction and the complete reduction of biodiversity. With the harm already caused by human activity in regards to climate and pollution, this destruction is not theoretical, but rather inevitable unless there is at least a minimum level of oversight from a self-aware species such as Homo Sapiens. Therefore, The idea of a garden confirms that people do have the responsibility to conserve and garden nature.
Interestingly enough, both Pollan and Cronon reject the analysis of nature as being entirely ahistorical. While Pollan references the transformation endured by Cathedral Pines, William Cronon examines the ecology of New England in Changes in the land. Thus, much akin to Pollon, Cronon agrees that natural environments are not necessarily pristine. Even in the absence of human intervention, they are in a constant state of change and transformation, which is often far from the idea of wilderness people have.
Some might argue that when the European settlers colonized the United States in the 15th and 16th centuries, the nature of the lands was truly conserved and unspoiled. To assume that would be to erase the footprint of the human activity of the Native population on the local environment, according to Cronon. After all, Cronon argues that the Indians were no more static than the colonists in their activities and organization (p. VIII). Thus, nature cannot be considered pure, and is, in fact, the result and reflection of its interaction with humans, which makes it a garden.
Despite the similarities in the arguments of Pollan and Cronon, their views on nature conservation are quite different. Pollan considers nature a pet, which should be taken care of as it would harm itself and others otherwise. Cronon, on the other hand, seemingly equates the environment to a pig, a cow, or any other farm animal, which has to be controlled but only to produce benefits to the human population.
Thus, Cronon disregards Pollons views on peoples moral obligations and the notion of environmental responsibility. Although Changes in the land certainly criticized the destruction caused by colonization, it almost supports it as part of the inevitable man-made progress.
The ideas humans have of perfect wilderness are largely shaped by false notions and flawed assumptions, which neglect how impossible it is for nature to remain changeless. The idea of a garden by Michael Pollan as well as Changes in the Land by William Cronon challenge the arguments of environmental purists and confirm the absence of permanent stasis in the environment.
Thus, they agree that human activity is an essential factor in forming and altering nature, which makes the environment a garden. Pollan emphasizes this notion by pointing out the hoax of natures self-regulation and human responsibility to conserve. Cronon, on the other hand, seemingly highlights how much of a farm or a warehouse humans have made nature out to be, neglecting restoration and focusing solely on generating profits and various benefits.
References
Cronon, W. Changes in the land. Hill and Wang.
Pollan, M. The idea of a garden. Publishing House.
The Waste Management, Inc. is a NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION that demonstrates the Biocentric Preservation philosophy of action. This is so because the organizations activity is structured around measures making it possible to preserve the rights of living organisms to exist by means of taking care of the environment removing garbage from using safe technologies and efficient strategies. The organization explains its purpose to secure safe garbage utilization by their desire for humans to coexist in harmony with the other living entities.
The Environmental Action is a NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION that demonstrates the Utilitarian Conservationism philosophy of action. This is so because this organization makes its contribution to helping American people and government in using the land recourses in the best way possible. The members of the organization work hard to preserve and revive the health of the planet.
The Ecoworld is a NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION that demonstrates Modern/Global Environmentalism. This is so because they strive against developments of modern industry which harm environment. The organizations activity is built around solving such significant problems as striving with the consequences of global warming and related health and environmental issues.
The Wyoming Outdoor Council is a NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION that demonstrates the Legal Confrontational Action Philosophy. This is so because they solve serious environmental problems by means of legal actions as they are first of all, an advocacy group.
The Earth Liberation Front is a NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION that demonstrates the Criminal Confrontational Actions Philosophy. This is so because they achieve their goals by means of varied sabotage actions, for example, economical sabotage. In addition, the group resorts to the use of such criminal confrontational actions as Guerrilla warfare; in particular, they perform military raids, use traps and ambushes.
The Wilderness Society is a GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION that demonstrates the Biocentric Preservation philosophy of action. This is so because they participate in varied actions connected to preserving biological species in their original places of dwelling. The organizations activity is centered around the idea that humanity must coexist in harmony with the other living entities. Its members believe that if humanity harms the surroundings it inhabits and the other species in the territory it thus harms to itself (Cunninghma 53).
The National Park Service is a GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION that demonstrates the Utilitarian Conservationism philosophy of action. This is so because the organization has its purpose to use the resources offered by the nature in order to make the best use of them for local people, and this is definitely so in the case of recreation parks and zones.
The Environmental Defense Fund is a GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION that demonstrates Modern/Global Environmentalism. This is so because they strive to participate in solving such serious environmental problems as global warming, air and water pollution, and ecosystem restoration.
The Environmental Defense Fund is a GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION that demonstrates Legal Confrontational Actions. This is so because they solve serious environmental problems by means of legal actions as they are first of all, an advocacy group.
The Wilderness Society is a GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION that demonstrates Criminal Confrontational Actions. This is so because in some cases the members of this organization resort to the use of particular actions which may somehow be connected to illegal practices. However, this is not confirmed that much on the reason of its being a government organization, and this status does not make it possible to commit significant actions which may be related to criminal confrontational actions.
Works Cited
Cunninghma, William, et al. Environmental Science (A Global Concern) 12th ed. United States: McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math, 2011. Print.
It is paramount to recognize that ecosystems are never conservative and stable but instead are subject to the constant pressures of external factors. Such factors can either have a driving effect on the development of biocenoses or inhibit any biological activity. Human economic activity leads to the second scenario in the worlds oceans, resulting in dead zones. Terminologically, such zones should be referred to as the water areas of the worlds oceans with severe oxygen deficits. Hypoxia of the waters may be provoked by eutrophic processes: fertilizer through groundwater and interstitial waters entering the seas catalyzes enhanced algae growth.
The consequence of this effect is a reduction of oxygen levels, as prokaryotes that absorb algae actively consume it. As a result, hydrobionts cannot live in such areas. Examples of dead salt zones are the Baltic Sea, East China Sea, coastal area of Atlantic near east coast US, while freshwater uninhabited (or sparsely habitable) zones may be represented by Lake Erie in the US.
Biological activity can also be inhibited by chemical toxins called biocides. This term combines a combination of herbicides, insecticides, and pesticides that have traditionally been used by humans to improve the economic performance of farmland. However, biocides often have adverse effects that affect both biogeocenosis life and human health in the long run. Rachel Carson, who studied the clinical effects of the popular insecticide DDT, proved that this toxin could accumulate in the human body, leading to the development of pathological conditions: cancer or genetic defects. As a result, the use of DDT was banned in the United States in 1972.
Wetlands are essential parts of the ecosystem. They provide protection and quality of clean water and provide habitat for many hydrobionts. In addition, such wetlands are reserves for preserving natural floodwater surpluses. At the same time, draining such systems is undesirable because they act as an excellent filter for water. Consequently, the preservation of wetlands is a priority for the ecological security of the region.
One of the negative factors of anthropogenic activities on natural ecosystems is irrigation. The diversion of water from freshwater sources to fields and farms depletes natural water reservoirs. In North America, the Ogallala Aquifer was the aquifer that provided municipalities with plenty of freshwaters. The aquifer extends from north Texas to the lower South Dakota border. Accordingly, the climate of these zones is based on the desert and semi-arid types, which are characterized by high summer temperatures throughout the area: as a result, agriculture is in great need of freshwater sources. Therefore, about 50% of all the Ogallala has been used up as a result of irrigation processes.
In the Central Asian region, such a body of water is a former salt lake called the Aral Sea. As in the North American horizon, the Aral Sea was depleted by irrigation processes initiated more than sixty years ago. As a result of the Aral Seas water potential, its volume was reduced by twenty percent already ten years after the initiation of irrigation programs. The areas once occupied by the Aral Sea were the borders of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan (former USSR): accordingly, it was a continental climate with large temperature amplitudes. In addition to the climate, the driving force for the use of the Aral Sea resources was the inadequate policy of the Soviet authorities, who decided to develop the tselina land.
Finally, the construction of large dams and levees makes a significant contribution to changes in the landscape and natural areas. In his desire to regulate flow processes, a man rarely understands the seriousness of the consequences of changing the movement and velocity of rivers. Profound transformations occur both in upstream flows and downstream after dams. Upstream artificial structures turn into reservoirs, naturally flooding forests and destroying habitats for terrestrial native animals and plants. At the same time, due to the stagnant state of freshwater, the currents after the dam have a deficit of salts and sediments.
This, in turn, leads to changes in water chemistry and reductions in the biodiversity of the river ecosystem after the dam. In addition, the delta of rivers narrows after the dam, causing localized soil erosion and a reduction in the number of aquifers. Finally, the dam construction has negative consequences for humans as well: downstream villages and farms are deprived of fisheries as a source of food. All this leads to the fact that artificial structures on water deltas have many adverse effects on the local ecosystem in both the short and long term.
Nowadays, many people do not find it necessary to pay much attention to wood and recognize its role in the world. However, wood is not only an important commodity that everyone can use but a significant natural resource that has to be stored and respected. It plays a prominent role in human life throughout history. At this moment, about 245 countries use 55 different food products (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2016). For example, India and China are the two greatest food producers and consumers where a large area remains under forests, and the United States has reduced its exports considerably (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2016). Despite the intentions to use wood in a variety of ways without thinking about consequences, wood has to be considered as a helpful natural resource with many positive impacts on the environment, human health, and well-being.
Positive Impact on the Environment
Wood as a renewable resource has a positive impact on the environment. In todays world, green business gains recognition as compared to concrete and steel, wood helps to enlarge energy efficiency and minimize energy consumption (American Forest Foundation, n.d.). In addition, such important forms of fuel like fossil fuels cannot be renewed, and they may eventually run out and become unavailable to people. Other achievements like petrochemical-based plastics are frequently used as good alternatives to wood, but this material is also not renewable ( Wood and wood products, 2002). Finally, the conversion of wood products requires a lower level of energy and pollution volumes than those of plastic or steel products creation ( Wood and wood products, 2002). People cannot predict and control their petrochemical-based resources, and wood is a resource that may be renewed with time.
Reduction of waste and pollution is another important benefit of wood as a natural building material in the environment. Pollutants may be of different forms and challenge the ecosystem in a variety of ways (Rinkesh, n.d.). Global warming, an increased number of diseases, and the quality of life are not the only evident outcomes of human civilization and modernization. People succeed in industrial and technological development without noticing how harmful their actions are to air, water, and soil. Air pollution occurs due to smoke from chimneys and factories (Rinkesh, n.d.). Water pollution includes industrial waste and severe contamination (Rinkesh, n.d.). From this perspective, wood waste is organic, and its utilization can be helpful to the environment. It is impossible to avoid or reduce the amount of waste from wood production. However, new outcomes are associated with waste because of wood. For example, people may employ leftovers as fuel to produce energy and wood ash as an effective soil fertilizer.
Many modern building materials contribute to the greenhouse effect, and wood is the one that does not. One should be interested in why wood products production, implementation, burning, or storage is not considered a direct threat to the environment. The point is that responsibly sourced wood remains a renewable building material and a natural source that can remove the level of carbon from the air ( The benefits of wood, n.d.). Compared to other building materials, wood products have a lower carbon footprint and remain an appropriate alternative to substitute fossil fuels ( The benefits of wood, n.d.). Trees are necessary to sustain a natural balance in the environment, as well as important for human progress. Therefore, people must use this resource wisely and think about the consequences of their decisions and relationships with nature. It is evident that wood may help the environment in several important ways, and its role in climate change cannot be ignored.
Wood in Everyday Life
Not long ago, people tried to do everything possible to get rid of wood constructions and use bricks or steel to strengthen their buildings and improve their statuses. Nowadays, fashion changes its direction, and it becomes interesting and beneficial to have wood products at home, school, or work due to its effects on health and well-being. The natural environment is one of the major contributors to positive health outcomes like stabilized blood pressure, reduced aggression, stress control ( Health & well-being, n.d.). In addition, it turns out to be easy to incorporate nature into a building project and add the required number of elements made from wood ( Health & well-being, n.d.). Many users of this material in their homes believe that their choices prove their respect for nature and protect their health. Comfort and health are enhanced in human lives along with wood products and architectural approaches. As a result, inhabitants of wooden-made houses demonstrate a possibility to lower blood pressure, normalize their heart rates, and avoid stress-associated problems.
Wood is a natural resource that can be used by people to find out the necessary protection and establish a barrier between the heat, cold, and appropriate living conditions for humans. As a natural insulator, wood promotes warmth and thermal stability ( Health & well-being, n.d.). The investigations by the US Environmental Protection Agency (as cited in Health & well-being, n.d.) show that approximately 90% of Americans spend their time indoors, including their homes, workplaces, schools, and other buildings. It means that the quality of the material and the temperature within plays an important role in human health. Wood does not harm but improves health, and its implementation in modern buildings is a solution with several benefits to protect people physically and emotionally.
Numerous peoples attempts are directed to the improvement of their health and avoidance of various irritants. Many investigations prove that visible wood lowers stress, improves health, and becomes an economically advantageous building selection ( Health & well-being, n.d.). The immune system of a person undergoes considerable changes and challenges because of the inability to control blood pressure and heart rate. Therefore, such problems as a lack of focus, low productivity, bad task performance, and health decline are observed in modern people ( Health & well-being, n.d.). Wood and its associated thermal, physical, and emotional comfort help humans in several ways, including vital signs control.
Conclusion
In total, it is true that wood plays a significant role in human lives and supports the environment. In this essay, attention was paid to several important properties of wood. Firstly, it is a renewable source that reduces waste and controls pollution. Secondly, wood is a building material that removes barriers between nature and humanity. Finally, wood is a contributor to human health, emotional well-being, stress controller, and vital signs stabilizer. The benefits of wood and forests in the environment, human health, and well-being may vary, but the essence remains the same wood products have to be produced and used as building and industrial alternatives in various spheres of life.
The construction of a K-8 school near a toxic waste site at Greenpoint in Brooklyn, New York, has caused an uproar. The site for the new school is situated on the southwest corner of Franklin and Dupont Street and is directly opposite a site designated by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation as a superfund location. This means that the site is toxic and unsuitable for settlement. Despite the inherent danger in building a school at the location, the citys mayor is keen to see the project progress. The extent to which the former occupant of the site polluted the environment is astonishing. The deposited chemicals have led to the loss of non-human life in addition to threatening the biodiversity of the neighboring streets. This is an important environmental issue owing to the fact that the degraded environment poses serious health risks to the people in the area. Taking a stand against the construction of a learning institution in a polluted site will save people from catastrophic illnesses and ensure that the area recovers its natural essence.
K-8 School Construction
The proposed school is located across the street from NuHart Plastics, which is considered one of the most environmentally toxic places in Brooklyn. The degree of the areas toxicity designated it uninhabitable given the number of hazardous chemicals deposited at the site. The NuHart Plastic processing building and the adjacent structures were used to process vinyl plastic. The site is believed to house underground plumes of highly volatile chemicals that have percolated to the surrounding streets. It is worth noting that these agents have been associated with a myriad of illnesses such as vital organ damage, central nervous system damage, and congenital illnesses.
Building a school in a toxically polluted environment disregards the mental and physical well-being of people who would be involved in the facility. The developer brokered a deal with the city, which stipulated that the project will only commence if the area will be cleaned (North Brooklyn Neighbors). The process is expected to include the extraction of the contaminants after the plant is completely demolished. In addition, wells will be constructed on the sidewalks to pump toxic chemicals from under the street. There is, however, some concern that the cleaning exercise would expose residents to toxic substances. The construction of an underground barrier aimed at preventing the spread of toxic chemicals to the surroundings is a step in the right direction. Despite the potential health risks associated with the location of the school at the toxic site, the city and the School Construction Authority (SCA) are adamant about proceeding with the project for fear of making losses.
The young generation must be protected from the health hazards and mental challenges associated with environmental degradation. It is the elected leaders responsibility to ensure that the sites chosen to construct schools are safe. While ensuring that the required changes are implemented may not be easy, the adoption of radical measures may facilitate the rehabilitation of the polluted site and the protection of innocents from exposure to dangerous chemicals.
Radical Environmentalism
The contemporary political environment demands that environmentalists are understood on the basis of their departure from mainstream environmentalism. Their views are vital in shaping responses to institutions focused on promoting commercial entities that ignore the environmental impact of their activities, such as New York Citys mayor. These environmentalists embrace the concept of deep ecology while supports the rejection of bureaucratic change models and advocates for reforms that go beyond the simple exploitation of nature (McKibben 154). In addition, it supports the development of a biocentric viewpoint which is focused on the re-integration of human beings into nature through various forms of ethics and values. Deep ecology aims to address the challenge of human alienation from nature and anthropocentrism.
Humanitys immediate future is under threat from the devastating effects of human activity against nature. The reforms needed to health the ailing planet are revolutionary because they are far-reaching and systemic. As such, organizations must re-examine decisions that could potentially expose people to toxic substances. Environmentalists must be willing to adopt an alternate conceptual paradigm that defines new values and different social institutions. The adoption of radical actions is perhaps the only way to ensure society adopts measures aimed at limiting environmental degradation.
It is vital to note that revolutionary ideas and radical strategies change as the rate of environmental destruction increases and mainstream initiatives fail to defend the planet. As a result, radical groups separate from their parent organizations. For instance, the Earth First movement, which originated from the Sierra Club in the 90s, evolved to become an institution focused on preserving the environment (McKibben 152). Environmentalists are increasingly adopting radical tactics in a bid to stop the rapid degradation of the planet. It is worth noting that these organizations are fueled by the scientific communitys findings in climatology, and arctic ecology demonstrates the destruction of habitats and the extinction of species.
Biocentrism
Effective revolutions must have a clear political message that resonates with the people. Contemporary environmentalists are yet to master this skill, given that they present an inarticulate political message. Their communication lacks a well-defined framework aimed at heralding social change. Bill McKibbenss The End of Nature proposes a deep ecology argument that defined shallow ecology as the political and cultural struggles over resource scarcity and pollution (McKibben 154). It remains inextricably linked to anthropocentrism, which posits that human existence is central to the universe.
Deep ecology is premised on the rejection of human-centered ideas of the relationship between the environment and society. Humanity must recognize and accept natures intrinsic value in order to ensure its preservation (McKibben 154). Therefore, deep ecology advocates for the adoption of a system of ethics based solely on biocentrism and the extension of justice and equality to nature. The principle requires the abolition of consumerism and the pursuit of individualism. As such, the construction of a school with the intent of making a profit on a toxic site that could pose real health and mental risks to students and personnel is ill-advised. Deep ecology also advocates for the purposeful reduction of the human population. This, they believe, will limit the strain on the earths finite resources and promote sustainability. Proponents of deep ecology argue that humanity must direct its material and technological progress towards the respect of biodiversity.
The Earth First! movement embraces the biocentric philosophy of deep ecology. They target ski resorts, timber factories, and animal testing facilities. Their political message, which has its basis on deep ecology, highlights the fact that nature must be valued and accorded rights seeing as biodiversity is more important than consumerism. Radical environmentalists caution against the looming adversity in humanitys immediate future. The adverse events can be divided along biocentric and anthropocentric lines (McKibben 148). Revolutionary environmentalists fight for all nature and the preservation of the evolving natural world.
The Earth First Movement argues that their aggression is informed by the fact that there is value in non-human life, a catastrophic loss of biodiversity is underway, and corporate institutions exercise extensive power over the government. The catastrophic loss of life is captured in Cormac McCarthys description of a desolate and lifeless landscape (McCarthy 2). While radical environmentalism proposes varied strategies to save the planet, it has failed to suggest an alternative to global capitalism.
The scientific community is keen to highlight the extent of environmental degradation. The evident loss of biodiversity and pollution are changing the planet. For instance, the damage caused by the chemicals released by the NuHart Plastics plant in Brooklyn is capable of affecting both non-human and human life. Such acts of human-induced environmental damage should be captured by the media so that radical environmentalists are viewed as heroes rather than terrorists. Individuals championing the abolishment of the K-8 schools construction plans and the cleaning up of the area should be lauded for their actions. It is essential to defend nature and reserve it for future generations.
The level of change in human society required to ensure that people share the planet with other inhabitants is immense. Revolutionary environmentalists remain focused on ensuring that the necessary changes are made to see their dreams become a reality. The toxic soil under the NuHart Plastics building is unsuitable for biodiversity. Plant and animal life is incapable of thriving under the conditions. However, the elimination of the poisonous substances may see a return on non-human life at the site.
Silent Spring
Racheal Carsons book titled Silent Spring highlights the interconnectedness of nature. It argues against the belief that human beings must control nature and use it to fulfill personal needs. The author notes that humanitys desire for control is fairly recent, given that in the past, living organisms interacted with the environment rather than effect changes to their surroundings (Carson 13). The irresponsible use of power upsets the delicate balance that governs nature. Carson posits that the effects of human activity are often long-lasting. For instance, the chemicals deposited by the vinyl company in Brooklyn are likely to interfere with the soils composition and biodiversity of organic life forms. The loss of insect life is likely to impact plant life, especially among species that depend on insect vectors for pollination.
Carson views environmental protection as a moral responsibility that must be taken seriously. It is irresponsible to use chemicals indiscriminately, especially in situations where alternatives are available (Carson 33). It is evident that carrying out practices that clearly hamper life demonstrates humanitys greed, irresponsibility, and immorality. Her views echo the condemnation of the construction of the K-8 school next to a toxic site. The mayors focus should be directed towards the rehabilitation of the area to facilitate a return to normalcy. The construction of buildings will not only endanger peoples lives but strain the environment leading to further degradation.
The condemnation of the proposed k-8 school is informed by Carsons view that conscious individuals must not accept risks as inevitable. She insists that people have the right to understand the risks to their well-being and the environment. It is vital to explore the scientific evidence findings on issues regarding environmental pollution. For instance, the proposed school will be built on a site laden with trichloroethylene and uncontrolled phthalates, which are associated with a myriad of diseases such as end-organ damage, obesity, and low sperm count (North Brooklyn Neighbors). Business and science benefit from accountability, especially when the public demands accurate information and challenges suppositions. The actions of individuals force businesses to seek alternatives. The mayor and the New York School Construction Authority must find an alternative site to construct the school and rehabilitate the polluted area by stopping the spread of chemicals to adjacent streets and neutralizing the toxins in the soil.
Conclusion
The decision to construct a school in close proximity to a toxic site is shocking. It demonstrates how greed has driven corporate entities to prioritize profits at the expense of human life. In addition, the environmental degradation that resulted from irresponsible industrial activities has not been effectively addressed. It is essential that the public prioritizes environmental conservation and promote the harmonious existence of other life forms. It is vital to note that nature does not exist to serve humanitys needs. Unfortunately, the belief that humanity must control the natural world has led to consumerism and the wastage of finite resources. Recognizing natures inherent value is essential because it allows people to develop a relationship that ensures the extension of justice and equality to all aspects of nature.
Title: Brooklyn school to be built next to hazardous waste?!
Author: North Brooklyn Neighbors
Brief Summary: The article discusses the construction of a K-8 school on a toxic site. The petition is intended to stop New York Citys mayor from implementing plans that could potentially expose children to poisonous chemicals.
Statement of suitability: Since my issue is environmental issues, this article is suitable because it identifies an environmental issue and highlights the dangers associated with exposure to dangerous chemicals.
Statement of credibility: This article is credible because it is sourced from a reputable organization called change.org.
Key quote: Locating a school near these dangers represents a thoughtless disregard for the physical and mental well-being of the future schools occupants.
Address: N/A
Title: The end of nature.
Author: Bill McKibben
Brief Summary: The book gives a detailed account of the earths environmental degradation and the manner in which human activity contributes to the destruction.
Statement of suitability: The book is suitable given that it addresses key environmental issues relating to human activity and their impact on biodiversity.
Key quote: We used to think that the earth changes in an infinitely slow pattern.
Statement of credibility: The book is credible given that it is authored by a renowned environmentalist who has a wealth of experience with regard to global warming and the impact of human activity on the planet.
Address: N/A
Title: Silent Spring
Author: Rachel Carson
Brief Summary: The book is the genesis of the worlds grassroots environmental movement. It focuses on the negative impacts of chemicals that were a significant element in American agriculture. The author highlights the need to take up an active role in environmental preservation.
Statement of suitability: The book is suitable because it highlights key issues with regard to the dangerous nature of chemicals on the environment and on human health.
Key quote: Man undoes the built-in checks and balances aimed to hold species within bounds.
Statement of credibility: The book is credible in view of the fact that the author was a respected marine biologist who was passionate about environmental preservation.
Address: N/A
Title: The Road.
Author: Cormac McCarthy.
Brief Summary: The book gives details of a tedious journey a father takes with his young son over several weeks across a landscape plagued by an unspecified catastrophic event that destroyed civilization and most of life.
Statement of suitability: The book is suitable in view of the fact that it highlights the potential dangers associated with environmental degradation. It shows what the world would look like if measures aimed at preserving the planet are not implemented.
Key quote: Charred and limbless trunks of trees stretching away on every side.
Statement of credibility: The book is credible because the author is a respected novelist and screenwriter credited with highlighting humanitys plight in creative ways.
The core objective of this research paper is to examine water scarcity and its effects to the environment. This research paper will lean towards a descriptive approach. Several causes of water scarcity will be reviewed in this research and subsequently suggest solutions to the problems will be discussed.
In conclusion, this research paper will make a number of recommendations to ensure significant strides are achieved in curbing water scarcity. Besides, after reviewing the recommendations applied, this paper will determine ways in which the research results can be dispersed. Introduction
Introduction
This report will assess the increased demand for water resources as a result of its unavailability. Besides, the paper will also consider the solutions and recommendations for supplying water to all. Water is a valuable resource to humans and the world as a whole.
If water resources continue to diminish, the environment will continue to experience the struggle of surviving since the environment, and forests particularly depend on water resources. Huge industrial demand for water, increased populations and agricultural demands for water increase the scarcity of water. Australia, for instance, is estimated to maintain its domestic water needs rise to 70 percent in the near future. Water Scarcity
Water scarcity is a problem that is experienced all over the world. It is estimated that over a billion people are annually hit by water scarcity. The U.S. department of state puts a figure of 1.1 billion people who lack safe drinking water while 2.4 billion cannot access basic sanitation. Interestingly, water scarcity also occurs in regions that contain freshwater and sufficient amounts rainfall (Postel 85).
This is because sufficiency of water supply depends on water conservation methods, distribution channels available in the community and the quality of water as stated by Postel (192). Besides, meeting the demand for household water use, farms, industry and the environment requires substantial conservation methods and timely distribution methods. It is estimated that one out of every three people on each continent of the globe is affected by water scarcity.
As the world population grows the need for more water also increases. Besides, more urban cities are coming up, and urbanization increases the household and industrial consumption. 1.2 billion people across the globe live in areas where water is not present or is physically not available. This is a fifth of the worlds population.
Fig. 1.1 (Tag Archive for Water Scarcity).Fig. 1.2 (BBC NEWS).
As shown by the above figure, water scarcity is fast becoming a major challenge in developing countries where a quarter of the world population lives. This is due to lack of proper technique of supplying water from sources such as rivers and aquifers to where it is needed most (Berk 190). In places where water shortage is experienced, communities are forced to use unsafe drinking water for drinking and washing their clothes.
Unsafe drinking water increases the chances of water borne diseases such as dysentery, cholera and typhoid fever being transmitted to humans. Furthermore, water scarcity can lead to other diseases including trachoma, which is an eye infection that leads to blindness, plague and typhus (Pereira and Lacovides 299). When people are faced with water scarcity, they institute measures to store water in their home. These measures can include using water tanks or sinking wells.
This method leads to a breeding ground for mosquitoes which are known carriers of malaria and dengue fever among others. In the face of all this problems associated with water scarcity, there arises a need to address the issue of water scarcity before it gets out of hand. Better water management policies ensure safety of the communities relying on the water as breeding grounds for insects are eliminated, hence a reduction in water borne diseases like the schistosomiasis which is a devastating illness.
According to Sherbinin (26) the shortage of water and agricultural production in poor urban settings utilizes waste water. More than 10% of the worlds population consumes foods that have been grown using waste water.
These irrigated foods can contain harmful chemicals or disease-causing organisms. It may almost seem ironical to note that the world has enough water for everyone. However, the problem that leads to water shortage is poor distribution. Water scarcity is a natural occurrence in some areas. However, in others areas it is a man-made phenomenon (Sherbinin 26).
Similarly, the world is endowed with sufficient water resource to cater for approximately 6 billion people. According to Pereira and Lacovidae 302) scarcity has contributed to uneven distribution channels, wastage. This is because of poor harvest and utilization strategies. Poor methods of handling the water resource have led to water Pollution. Hence, this has created a big challenge that threatening the ecosystem and human population.
Types of Water Scarcity
Physical Scarcity
Physical scarcity of water is prevalent across the world. As the name suggests, access to water sources is physically limited. This happens when the demand for water surpasses the lands capacity to provide the much-needed water. This form of deficiency is primarily associated with the dry parts of the world, including arid regions of the globe as clearly illustrated by the figure below.
The northern part of Africa and some parts in Asia and Australia are the worst hit by this physical scarcity. However, we have some regions in the world which do not fall in the dry land category but have man-made physical scarcity. For instance, the Colorado River basin has been over used causing physical water scarcity downstream (Pereira and Lacovides 299). Thus, scarcity can also be attributed to over management of the river resources.
Below is Figure 1.3 showing water scarcity distribution around the globe (BBC NEWS)
Economic Scarcity
The most problematic type of water scarcity is economic water scarcity. This happens when no concrete measures are taken to ensure water availability. This situation persists largely due to lack of good governance, and lack of good will to change the situation. Therefore, economic scarcity is demonstrating the lack of resources in terms of funds or monetary benefit to utilize available sources of water.
The sub-Saharan Africa falls under this model of economic water scarcity. Unequal water resource distribution is generally experienced in the Sub-Saharan due to several reasons. These reasons are tied to political and ethnic conflicts, which are a common occurrence in this part of the world.
As shown in Fig 1.2 much of sub-Saharan Africa falls under economic water scarcity. However, Odgaard explains that in the presence of good governance mechanisms, this situation is manageable (140). In most cases, access to clean and safe water can be as simple as constructing small dams for communities to harvest rain water. Besides, the principal objective should be to provide relief for the already suffering communities.
To ensure clean water is available to world population, water harvesting techniques should be developed. These need not be complicated as it may mean rain water collection from roof tops and construction of water storage tanks. Without question, this situation can be tackled with the construction effort from the local community, availability of funds and engineering.
Water Scarcity in the U.S
As highlighted earlier in this research paper, water shortage is a global concern that is affecting communities and the environment and threatens to affect many others if substantial measures are not taken to tackle the scarcity.
However, it is difficult to compare the struggle of an African woman walking long distances in search of fresh water with water scarcity as experienced in the United States. The Colorado River is beginning to run dry in some places; this sounds almost impossible considering the size of the river. Huge water bodies like Lake Mead found in Arizona may become obsolete.
These are some of the dramatic changes that are facing the United States with regard to water scarcity. With this realization, more and more people are starting to connect with situations in dry regions of the globe. More so, the effects of water mismanagement are starting to be felt. Research indicates that Lake Mead may run dry by the year 2012. This is a serious issue considering the lake currently supplies up to 22 million people with water.
Figure 1.4 shows Lake Meads receding water levels (KTAR).
This is proof enough that water scarcity is not just a problem of people who never had water but rather a problem for all. Demand for more water and problems associated with pollution is contributing factor to water shortages. The daily demand for water means that the availability of the same will be affected in the future. Many people may thirst in the future if the current trend of wasteful toilet flushes and showerheads are not minimized.
Key Causes of Water Scarcity
Water scarcity has been caused by increased demand. These demands can be categorized into five major contributors to water shortage. Firstly, industrial water consumption enhances their production has created a strain on water resources. Most industries require having sufficient water supplies in order to perform optimally and produce goods or services.
Besides, most mining and oil industries use water in their operations. Thus, water scarcity makes these industries to be more susceptible to water shortages. Secondly, agricultural water needs for farms where there is unreliable rainfall create a huge demand for water, thus exerting more pressure on the already strained water resources.
Fig. 1.5 (Links between population and fresh water).
As the world population grows, more demand for water is experienced as illustrated by fig 1.4. The world population recently hit 7 billion, and the figure could only mean that pressure to supply water for all is expected to rise. Consumer demand is closely linked to population growth as more and more households require water to maintain their households.
Economic growth is a positive step towards improving the lives of people in a given community, but calls for the need to supply resources to fuel it. One of it is water; hence as more economic growth is experienced more demand for water is created.
Suggested Solutions to Water Scarcity
Environmentalists maintain that immediate solutions have to be devised. Low cost solutions come in handy. In China for instance, farmers are already making use of these inexpensive water conservation methods with great results (FFTC). However, low cost solutions, for example, creating still water conservation may harm the population downstream (Berk 190). Therefore, it is important for the conservation efforts to involve everyone to provide an amicable solution for all.
Fig. 1.6 showing the global water usage (Umwelt Bundes Amt).
Conclusion
In order to ensure water scarcity is effectively tackled, total commitment to set targets and solutions is required. Figure 1.5 clearly indicates that the demand for water is rising, and as a matter of urgency, conservation efforts will bear fruit if every one of us realizes that they have a role to play.
Constant assessment of the strategies governing water bodies and their utilization will ensure that positive progress is achieved. Though much effort has been focused on water conservation, its use and proper management should be emphasized as it will ensure clean water service delivery for us and generations to come. Moreover, focus on climate changes and environmental degradation should also be improved, and a positive environmental culture encouraged.
The environment constitutes of the lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and the atmosphere. Synergy between the four components of the environment is crucial to the stability of the environment. The biosphere constitutes of all living things. The diverse views regarding the ethical approach the human beings should employ to address current environmental issues is a key concern among philosophers.
While some individuals propose the need for humans to incorporate aspects of moral obligation in their interaction with the environment, opponents of the non-anthropocentric environmental ethics consider an anthropocentric system as the only suitable basis for interacting with the environment. An analysis of animal rights, living things and ecological systems illustrates the need for moral obligations in environmental ethics.
The moral obligation of human beings arises because all living things have a natural value. The sole condition for the attainment of an intrinsic value is that an element in the environment possesses the characteristics of a living thing. In this regard, other than human beings, other living things in the environment deserve moral respect. Therefore, to revere the worth of all living things, human beings should adopt the non-anthropocentric environmental ethics.
The basic concept of the value of a living thing depends on the ability to enjoy benefits or suffer due to unfavourable conditions in the environment (Williston 2012, p.57). Thus, the growth and development of all elements in the biosphere is subject to human activities. An appropriate ecological system determines the existence of all living things including humans.
The lack of an ecological equilibrium increases the vulnerability of living things to unfavourable environmental factors. The adoption of the non-anthropocentric environmental ethics is crucial to the sustenance of ecological equilibrium. Moral obligation incorporates moral rights and aspects of being morally considerable.
Although human beings are the only sentient beings and thus have the greatest degree of moral standing in the environment, they should interact with the environment without being morally inconsiderate. Despite the fact that it is difficult to measure the level of pleasure or pain that some living things such as trees experience due to human activities, the non-anthropocentric environmental ethics ensure that human beings do not violated the moral standing of other living things.
Anything with wants and needs has a moral standing (Williston 2012, p.115). Living things such as trees need water, light and nutrients. In this regard, human beings have an obligation to uphold moral respect when interacting with the environment. The observable strive by living things to grow and develop clearly illustrates the need of the non-anthropocentric environmental ethics to create an accommodative environment.
The perception of land has always been in terms of its economic use. In this regard, the interaction between human beings and land often overlooks aspects of land ethics.
Personal or community land that does not possess economic value is subject to human destructions. Areas such as wet lands, dunes and deserts lack the key factors that prohibit human beings from destroying land. However, evaluating land in terms of its role in sustaining ecological equilibrium introduces the need for a non-anthropocentric approach on the valuation of land.
Land, irrespective of its economic value, plays a key role in the sustenance of biological production and resources used by living things. In this regard, the lack of moral obligation in human beings when interacting with land amounts to a violation of the moral standing of living things. Because land is a key element in the ecological system, it shares the same level of ecological value awarded to plants and animals.
Thus, since human beings have a moral obligation towards plants and animals, they should observe the non-anthropocentric environmental ethics when interacting with land. Land ethics promote sustainable human practices that ensure the management and use of natural resources expands to incorporate the definition of a moral community. In this regard, the value human beings attach to land should incorporate love, respect and admiration.
Amoral community eliminates the aspect of superiority granted to human beings so that they become members of a large biotic community. Promoting proper interconnection between the lithosphere and biosphere requires the adoption of the non-anthropocentric environmental ethic (Williston 2012, p.213).
Moral inconsideration towards land poses various threats to members of the biosphere. Thus, benefits or damages to land due to inconsiderate human activities are likely to replicate in the biosphere and thus affect the sustenance of moral obligation even among human beings. The biosphere greatly benefits the lithosphere and thus the two components of the environment should work in synergy.
Concepts of moral obligation towards land apply to the protection of the hydrosphere and atmosphere. These two components of the environment are crucial in the sustenance of ecological equilibrium. Pollutants have adverse effects on the sustenance of growth and development of living things. Thus, human activities that introduce harmful component in the environment disregard the value of other living things.
Adopting the non-anthropocentric environmental ethics ensures that the interconnection of various components of the environment does not hamper growth and development, which is a key obligation for human beings. Although environmental conservation enhances aspects of class differences and thus hampers the focus on the elimination of human dominance in a biotic community, it is a key role for human beings considering their level of consciousness.
The implementation of the non-anthropocentric environmental ethics does not mean that human beings should relinquish their roles and status in the ecosystem. However, they should operate within a framework that recognizes the value of all the components of the environment. The interdependence of the components of the environment means that human beings cannot survive by sustaining their moral obligation only to fellow humans.
Ecological equilibrium is sustainable if human perceptions of the environment promote the recognition of individual organisms and their dependence on other components of the environment. A non-anthropocentric approach promotes the realization that organisms in an ecosystem are interdependent, and that human beings cannot exist in disregard to the moral rights and moral standing of other things in the environments.
Conclusion
Respecting living things involves supporting their growth and development. Protecting the worth of living things does not mean that human beings should desist from activities such as eating. The non-anthropocentric environmental ethics promote the concept of cooperation amongst various components of the environment to sustain ecological equilibrium. The sustenance of a symbiotic relationship between living things eliminates the idea of dominance, which increases human tendency towards moral inconsideration.
Human beings have a greater role in promoting and protecting growth and development because they have the highest degree of rationality among all components of the environment. Human activities should consider the impacts of the interconnection of various components in the environment to avoid infringing on the value and moral standing of all living things.
Reference List
Williston, B. 2012, Environmental ethics for Canadians, Don Mills, Oxford University Press: Don Mills, Ont.
Everglades Snail Kite birds are found in some parts of Southern Florida. Distinguishing between the male snail kite and the female one is easy, by using their physical appearance. The color of their legs is the major distinction feature. The male one has Red legs and cere, with the female one having yellow to orange legs with cere. These birds have features which make their identification easy whether female or male. They have a dark, sharp hooked beak, with the upper side being white in color, and also in their under tail coverts. They have long, broad, and rounded wings which appear to extend beyond tips of tail at rest. With these characteristics one can identify them easily. This is a bird which mainly feed on fresh using their strong curved beaks. This makes it a specialist species (Sauer, Hines and Fallon 2).
American robin is a bird with both of the sexes having similar characteristics especially on the appearance. The only slight difference is that the females are less brightly colored compared to the males. It is a large bird with long legs, a long tail, and a light yellowish bill. Like the other birds of their family, their thrushes are generally spotted. The birds are mostly active during the day. At night, the birds assemble in large flocks. A wide variety of this family is found in Washington and unbroken rainforest. These birds mainly feed on soft invertebrates like the earthworms in breeding seasons. Their diet changes with the change in seasons, in winter they change their diets to berries and other types of the fruits what makes it a general species.
Wood storks are tall birds which stand up to 2-4 feet tall, weighing 7-10 pounds. They are the tallest marine birds with a long neck without feathers on their neck. They are quiet birds and croak like frogs and at times, they hiss like snakes. This quietness is associated with the fact that they lack muscle attachment to their voice box. The birds urinate on their legs to cool or bring their body temperature down. The urine evaporates to the air, the heat energy absorbed cools their legs off by lowering the temperatures. Wood storks are specialist birds or species. They live near water, in places such as swamps, marshes, and ponds where they feed on small fish, tadpoles, and crayfish. This bird is mainly found in North America.
Double crested Cormorants are specialist large birds species which are two feet tall from the ground, with a wingspan of four feet. In most cases they are black in color with an orange throat. Their feet are webbed to enable them to swim in water when looking for food. The appearance of the male birds changes during the breeding season mainly by a curly black crest on their heads. Double cormorants can swim, dive, and as well fly for a long distance to look for places, where they can get food (Sauer, Hines and Fallon). In most cases they are found in groups that are seen when migrating, feeding, and roosting periods.
In breeding seasons double-crested Cormorants work together in colonies in building the eggs laying nests. These nests are built with sticks, twigs, feathers, grass, and trash among other materials. Their habitant is mainly near water, in places such as lakes and rivers where they can catch small fish to feed on (Sauer, Hines and Fallon 4).
Works Cited
Sauer, J R, et al. The North American Breeding Bird Survey, Results and Analysis. 1966-2009. Web.
