The article under consideration called Earth without People is written by Alana Weisman and is dedicated to the problem of environmental pollution and its impact on humanity. In particular, Wiseman attempts to predict what would happen if people were gone from the planet. What is more important, he assumes the Earth would have a better ecological situation on this condition.
The author starts the investigation of these questions from the consequences of this assumption for the Earth. Considering the above, Weisman researches first the proposed situation in North Korea that witnessed the greatest destructions imposed by the military actions and farmers activities.
At the beginning of the article, the author analyzes the connection of human activities with the flora and fauna extinction. Hence, Weisman concludes that the Earth would have three times more species but for the influence of humans. Thousands of tons of rubbish and dangerous chemical substances have been emitted each year in New York thus destroying its natural landscapes.
Further in the article, the researcher makes some approximate calculations of the renewal period on the planet should humans disappear. The analysis shows that the gradual extermination of people would return the planet to its primeval appearance where cultivated plants would revert to their wild forms; this also concerns animals. Within thousand years, the planet would experience the destruction of buildings and other constructions. In the end, Weisman estimates that natural and climate conditions would be rearranged within twenty thousand years. Peoples cruel attitude to nature is explained by their ignorance of a veritable destination of the natural resources granted by nature to humans.
Reflections
It should be stressed that the article discloses an unconventional approach to the study of the ecological situation on the planet. The author provides a detailed examination and accurate calculation of species growing on the condition of peoples participation in natural processes. In that way, he tries to prove that a human has become separated from nature by technological advancement. Therefore, I believe that the articles main idea lies in the fact that humanitys actions are getting to be more dangerous for other species, as the natural balance should be observed.
The historical investigation reveals the origins of species on the Earth, which are hardly understood by people. With the help of the latest technological achievements, it is possible to pursue the history of the biological evolution of species. This examination fosters peoples comprehension of their place in this world. However, the reluctance to realize their biological roots has led to the abuse of natural resources.
The analyzed article also presents the way peoples intrusion influences the biological process and the environmental situation. An interesting assumption can be made about the analysis of peoples means of survival on the Earth, as they are, perhaps, the least designed creatures for living in the wild conditions. Unlike other species, humans have been more adapted to the conditions they created themselves whereas other species have managed to create other survival methods.
The above shows that the main value of the article lies in the necessity to take a closer look at the perspective of human development from the biological and historical angles. Additionally, the article also involves the authors naturalistic position where all species should be equal in terms of living conditions thus emphasizing humans extreme indifference to natural laws.
Works Cited
Weisman, Alan. Earth Without People. Discover. 2005. Web.
Carbon gas emissions profoundly impact humanity by causing global climate change. The subsequent extreme weather events such as wildfires, tropical storms, droughts, and heat waves disrupt ecology, turning Earth into an inhospitable environment (Osmanski, 2020). The bitter irony of the situation is that humanity, the only force that can reverse the negative trend, acts as its greatest promoter. Carbon emissions from global transportation, electricity, heat, and industry heavily impact the environment. For instance, the global annual CO2 emissions in 2021 reached 36.3 gigatons, the highest level since 1900 (Figure 1). In this regard, humanity finds itself in a precarious position the need for a global carbon footprint reduction clashes with the inevitable consequences of economic development. Whereas environmental concerns require steady decarbonization, the global economic processes frequently contribute to an increase in harmful emissions.
Figure 1. CO2 emissions from energy combustion and industrial processes, Gt, 1900-2021 (IAE, 2022)
In general, one can list two fundamental strategies for global carbon footprint reduction. On the one hand, emission avoidance compensates for carbon emissions in other locations (McCormick & Mang, 2021). On the other hand, emission reduction focuses on implementing on-site technological solutions, such as electricity decarbonization, in order to lower the local adverse impact on the environment (Williams et al., 2021). This paper provides an overview of the current global carbon footprint and explores two common approaches to this challenge. In addition, the paper examines potential developments and opportunities associated with the carbon footprint reduction effort.
Global Carbon Footprint: An Overview
The last International Energy Agencys (IAE) annual report on global carbon footprint offers a comprehensive and rather disappointing picture of the current state of affairs. Most importantly, the global annual CO2 emission from energy combustion and industrial processes increased by 6% from the 2020 level (IAE, 2022). The IAE (2022) associated this carbon emissions surge with the worlds economic recovery from the consequences of the COVID-19 crisis. The 6% increase in emissions was accompanied by the 5,9% growth of the global economic output (IAE, 2022). In this regard, one can claim that the global economy recovered from the pandemic by unsustainable means.
The global increase in CO2 emissions can be primarily associated with the growing demands of the Chinese economy. According to IEA (2022), the economic rebound in China was particularly intensive for the energy sector, as electricity demands grew by 10% in 2021. Consequently, China had to increase its coal consumption by 56% to satisfy the skyrocketing demand for energy (IEA, 2022). The following increase in carbon emissions resulted in China surpassing advanced economies in CO2 emissions per capita. By the end of 2021, the average CO2 emissions in advanced economies have fallen below 8.2 tonnes per capita, whereas Chinese emissions reached 8.4 tonnes per capita on average (Figure 2). Therefore, the Chinese example shows how economic growth creates a push for fossil fuel use, increasing the global carbon footprint.
Figure 2. CO2 emissions per capita by region (tCO2), 2000-2021 (IAE, 2022)
Overall, the IAE report highlights the correlation between carbon emissions and the high consumption of fossil fuels. In the case of a big country such as China, one can see how electricity production from coal sources can outweigh the decarbonization efforts of the rest of the world. In this regard, it is necessary to list and evaluate the most common carbon footprint reduction strategies. Since economic conditions can hinder global decarbonization in a single major power, one should understand how other countries may prevent the rapid deterioration of the environment.
Common Strategies: Avoidance and Reduction
There are two fundamental approaches to the global carbon footprint reduction process. Firstly, a company or a country may offset a portion of its carbon footprint through avoided emissions. For instance, such initiatives as renewable energy generation or paying a landowner to prevent deforestation can be considered examples of emission avoidance (Naik & Whieldon, n.d.). The emission reduction strategy implies more active involvement in carbon footprint offsetting. For example, a company can reduce emissions directly by capturing CO2 from the atmosphere and storing it in a biomass sink (McCormick & Mang, 2021). Both approaches are associated with specific advantages and limitations, which should be considered before implementation.
Most importantly, carbon emission offsets are useful for building a favorable narrative since certain projects in this category can provide various associated co-benefits. McCormick and Mang (2021) offer an example of giving solar-powered cookstoves to South African women. In this case, the air quality improvement was accompanied by social benefits for women in the region. As a result, the carbon footprint offsetting effort was reinforced with a positive social message. Secondly, the offset initiatives portray decarbonization as a social commodity while the impact of carbon emission on the environment has been undervalued historically (McCormick & Mang, 2021). Lastly, both avoidance and reduction offset strategies can uncover innovative approaches to carbon footprint reduction. For instance, the companies may optimize their business travel patterns, launch special eco-friendly product lines, or organize dedicated events in order to increase public awareness (McCormick & Mang, 2021). Overall, the standard carbon footprint reduction strategies are relatively easy to use, provide co-benefits, and build positive narratives.
However, emission avoidance and reduction are associated with certain limitations, which may decrease their effectiveness. According to Naik and Whieldon (n.d.), the biggest challenge of carbon offsetting stems from the lack of credits generated for counteracting emissions. For instance, capturing CO2 in forests and agricultural soils can offset less than 50% of the annual carbon footprint (Naik & Whieldon, n.d.). In addition, an overzealous attempt to offset carbon emissions may lead to the opposite effect when the public begins viewing offsets as an indulgence for polluting behaviors (McCormick & Mang, 2021). Lastly, implementing the offset strategies requires consistency and long-term dedication, which may become short in supply due to global economic and political complications. Scott and Geden (2018) provide an example of the pressure created by carbon dioxide removal (CDR) on the European Unions global climate stabilization and green growth paradigm. The CDR goal challenged the seemingly objective EU success story of the 23% carbon emissions reduction over the 1990-2016 period (Scott & Geden, 2018). Therefore, global decarbonization should be based on cooperation and strong leadership. Otherwise, temporary setbacks may instigate disappointment and disrupt the whole process.
Potential Developments and Opportunities
The previous section discussed various advantages and potential limitations of common carbon footprint offsetting strategies. Whereas both strategies may face challenges during the practical implementation, the decarbonization process offers several lucrative opportunities for the national economies. Most importantly, the cumulative effect of technological advancements and policies aimed at offsetting carbon emissions can lead to significant savings. In the case of China, Liu et al. (2022) counted that with the current dynamic, 62% of Chinese electricity could come from non-fossil sources by 2030. As a result, the cost of energy production would be 11% lower compared to the current approach (Liu et al., 2022). Secondly, the nationwide adoption of efficient energy generation would make possible the mitigation of climate change consequences at an affordable price. According to Williams et al. (2021), the cost of achieving zero carbon emissions across the United States would be approximately $1 per day. Finally, the gradual switch to carbon neutrality opens the path for further advancements in various technology areas, such as hydrogen and fusion energy (Liu et al., 2022). In this regard, the push for carbon footprint reduction may serve as a step toward the next industrial revolution.
Given these considerations, one can see how the global carbon footprint reduction opens tremendous opportunities for humanity. However, the opportunities of the new era would be accompanied by certain challenges as major economies of the world would undergo a massive transformation. From the Chinese perspective, Liu et al. (2022) predict profound top-down social and economic reforms, which will create winners and losers on a significant scale. Therefore, one can expect severe challenges for political stability as an aftermath of the global transition to carbon neutrality. Likewise, Williams et al. (2021) recognize the need for careful management of social changes during the major shift in the energy sector. The redirection of $800 billion annually from fossil fuels to carbon-neutral technologies would create strong pressure on the social sector (Williams et al., 2021). As such, vulnerable communities and businesses depending on fossil fuels should receive extra support until a sufficient number of new jobs emerges. In addition, governments and businesses should create strong consumer incentives in order to support global carbon footprint reduction (Williams et al., 2021). Otherwise, the slowness in decarbonization might increase costs and diminish potential gains in terms of carbon footprint reduction.
Conclusion
Last year ended with the all-time highest CO2 emissions from energy combustion and industrial processes as the global economy recovered from the COVID-19 pandemic. The 2021 IEA Global Energy Review allows one to comprehend the worlds interconnectedness the joint carbon footprint reduction effort was insufficient for offsetting the increased coal consumption of the rebounding Chinese economy. In this regard, one can see that the global carbon footprint reduction would be unachievable without dutiful cooperation from the global powers, such as China and the United States.
Two of the most common offsetting strategies emission avoidance and emission reduction, provide valuable benefits to corporations and countries. Carbon emission offsets send a favorable social message, imbue carbon footprint reduction with social value, and encourage innovative thinking. However, the lack of credits for counteracting emissions and the absence of strong leadership may reduce the offsets effectiveness. In the worst-case scenario, the idea of carbon footprint reduction may be discredited by poor execution.
Nevertheless, carbon footprint reduction is worth the effort since a sound execution of this process would alleviate the climate change threat and create new opportunities for global development. The potential savings in the energy sector could be invested into promising areas, such as hydrogen and fusion energy. In theory, humanity could use the benefits of decarbonization to make a decisive step in the new era of discovery and progress. However, the lucrative opportunities would likely be accompanied by significant challenges for social, economic, and political stability. Therefore, the global carbon footprint reduction would create winners and losers on a large scale and require timely and well-thought-out interventions from the national governments and corporate leaders. Otherwise, the benefits of the new technological revolution might be severely diminished.
References
International Energy Agency. (2022, March). Global Energy Review: CO2 emissions in 2021.
McCormick, G., & Mang, A. (2021, December 21). Decarbonization series: The pros and cons of carbon offsets. Inogen Alliance.
Naik, G., & Whieldon, E. (2021). Carbon offsets prove risky business for net-zero targets. S&P Global.
Osmanski, S. (2020). How do carbon emissions affect the environment? Green Matters.
Scott, V., & Geden, O. (2018). The challenge of carbon dioxide removal for EU policy-making. Nature Energy, 3(5), 350-352.
Williams, J. H., Jones, R. A., Haley, B., Kwok, G., Hargreaves, J., Farbes, J., & Torn, M. S. (2021). Carbonneutral pathways for the United States. AGU Advances, 2(1), e2020AV000284.
Earth is a unique planet characterized by a high diversity of landscapes, environments, and climates. The million years of evolution contributed to the emergence and development of specific species peculiar to particular regions. These creatures acquired specific survival mechanisms aligned with the characteristics of the biome. As a result, unique ecosystems with their balance emerged. However, the further development and existence of these areas depend on preserving their inhabitants natural habitat and the balance between species. For instance, the tundra biome and Scandinavian tundra ecosystem have unique keystone species necessary for the functioning and invasive species that might threaten animals living there. To save the unique ecosystem, it is vital to understand these creatures impact on the biome.
The Tundra biome is a unique area characterized by specific weather conditions and animals that managed to adapt to them. As with any ecosystem, the region has its keystone species or organisms playing a central role in the survival of other organisms and the development of the local environment (Dodds & Woodward, 2022). The disappearance of these creatures will promote radical changes in the whole ecosystem (Dodds & Woodward, 2022). For instance, in the tundra, the arctic fox is one of the keystone species (Ims et al., 2017). It is an integral part of the nutritional chain of polar bears, wolves, and kitty wakes (Ims et al., 2017). At the same time, it hunts local rodents and smaller animals, helping to preserve the balance (Ims et al., 2017). For this reason, the animal is fundamental for the region.
The emergence of invasive species might threaten the stable functioning of any biome. These can be defined as organisms that are not native to the ecosystem, and that is why they can cause serious environmental harm to the environment and diversity (Dodds & Woodward, 2022). For instance, the red fox can be considered invasive species seriously affecting the tundra biome (Dodds & Woodward, 2022). Similar to an arctic fox, it occupies the same territories and hunts for the same animals (Simpson, 2019). As a result of this competition, the natural habitat of one of the tundras keystone species becomes endangered. To avoid adverse effects, scientists and ecologists try to control populations and mitigate the outcomes (Dodds & Woodward, 2022). It ensures the preservation of balance and a stable biomes evolution.
Unfortunately, due to the external impacts on the biome, tundra faces the risk of the complete disappearance of some species. For instance, the arctic fox mentioned above can be viewed as an endangered animal facing a high risk of extinction. The primary causes include hunting for fur, human activity influencing the natural habitat, and common dogs and parasites (Ims et al., 2017). As a result, the population reduced significantly, and there is a high risk of their complete disappearance. Thus, governments introduce strict prohibitions on hunting to protect arctic foxes (Ims et al., 2017). Moreover, a program focuses on controlling their population, health, and current state (Simpson, 2019). These measures are introduced to ensure tundra biome remains safe and continues to evolve.
Altogether, the tundra biome has its unique species vital for its stable functioning. Arctic foxes are keystone species playing an essential role in the survival of other organisms. They are part of nutritional chains and, at the same time, haunt smaller animals. The area also has some invasive species, such as red foxes. They compete with arctic ones, occupy their territories, and struggle for food. Moreover, human activity and hunting for fur resulted in a decline in the local animal population. For this reason, there is a need for specific measures to protect the region and its species from complete extinction.
References
Dodds, K., & Woodward, J. (2022). Arctic: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press.
Ims, R., Killengreen, S., Ehrich, D., Flagstad, O., Hamel, S., Henden, J., Jensvoll, I., & Yoccoz, N. (2017). Ecosystem drivers of an Arctic fox population at the western fringe of the Eurasian Arctic, Polar Research, 36(1). Web.
Simpson, P. (2019). Tundra biomes around the world. Capstone Press.
A new revolution is dawning: the unconventional oil and gas revolution, which has created a huge economic impact. In particular, this will impact the broader economy, increase the U.S. gross domestic product (GDP), address the countrys unemployment problem and add more revenues to the countrys coffers. Because of the vast demand for conventional oil and gas, the United States has long embarked on oil exploration and in these past few years the country has experienced the increased availability of shale energy. Many Americans have to learn the nature and benefits of shale energy but researchers and the government, in particular, know that this form of unconventional energy will address the large energy demand and the benefits will expand to all the 50 states.
The GDP contribution of unconventional oil and gas (UOG) reached $284 billion in 2012, with upstream operations accounting to $238 billion, and an additional midstream and downstream operations of $39 billion (IHS, 2013). Midstream refers to initial activities encompassing transport from sea to land to pipelines; whereas, downstream refers to converting the natural gas liquids into consumer products which involves refining, processing or upgrading (IHS, 2013)
. A United States study reveals that the total unconventional oil and gas (UOG) produced in the Lower 48 states reached $63 billion for the federal, state, and local tax revenues in 2012, and by 2020 this could reach $113 billion (Hausman & Kellogg, 2015). The higher unconventional energy production, which Hausman and Kellogg (2015) described as supply boom, was triggered by technological development in extraction. Horizontal drilling applied with hydraulic fracturing is an innovation that allows easy and low-cost extraction.
The Energy Information Administration reports that in the U.S. alone, investigators and engineers have pinpointed at least 2,203 trillion cubic feet of gas reserve, enough for the country to survive for 93 years, as estimated by policy makers based on current rates of consumption (Sprague, 2015). Trapped in shale rock in the U.S. are estimated 2,431 billion barrels of what scientists call wet natural gas, while in the Niobrara shale rock, there are about 4.1 billion barrels (Sprague, 2015). In Colorado, there is an estimated 20,666 billion barrels of gas reserve. Colorado is the forerunner of oil and gas development in the West (Noel as cited in Sprague, 2015).
OUG exploration can drill 1 to 2 miles below the earths surface, taking out oil and gas through steam injection, added with chemicals to create ruptures on rock formations (Jemielita et al., 2015). First, engineers use remote sensing technique and apply spectral measurements and chemical tests to retrieve oil and gas information and data. Scientists also use and analyze high-resolution images in order to get the most reliable information about oil and gas (Song, Yang, Zhen, & Li, 2014).
Success in Unconventional Oil or Gas Exploration and Recovery
Since 2006, the United States has been successful in shale gas production, particularly in Texas, which has the predominant Barnett Shale. This has encouraged shale gas recovery technologies for firms to hasten their shale development activity. The combination of two technologies horizontal and hydraulic drilling generated less costly shale gas production and stimulated growth (Kharabah, 2014).
Conventional reservoirs are smaller than unconventional ones but the unconventional reservoirs have larger oil or gas in place and difficult to develop. Unconventional reservoirs need high technology and are much more costly to develop. International gas companies are continuously searching for unconventional gas reservoirs in order to meet the huge demand. The resource triangle for conventional and unconventional reservoirs is shown in figure 1.
Figure 1: US Natural gas production TCF/year, 1990-2040.
Shale refers to a type of clay or mud that can easily split into layers and have transformed into rocks by way of geological circumstance. Shale formations function as source rocks and seals for conventional reservoirs. Gas gets out from the source rock to sandstone or carbonate reservoirs, in which gas is trapped in the sandstone forming a gas reservoir. Shale gas reservoir is considered extremely organic with a permeability ranging from 0.1 mD to 10-7 mD (Siripatrachai & Ertekin as cited in Kharabah, 2014). Natural gas and oil are found in permeable sandstones, shale rocks, and coal foundation (Jemielita et al., 2015).
Gas deposit has been categorized by scientists as: free gas, which is predominant in pores and has low permeability; free gas, which has higher permeability; and the last is adsorbed gas predominant on the shales surface. Adsorbed gas can be primarily characterized by two parameters: Langmuir Volume (VL) and Langmuir Pressure (PL). Methane is the gas produced in shale, but there can also be wet gas. This is shown in figure 2.
Figure 2: Forms of gas in a shale gas reservoir.
Horizontal drilling is the conventional method of drilling shale gas. Horizontal drilling is done after a vertical one wherein the drill penetrates the kickoff point, proceeds to a curve to reach the entry point in the reservoir. The bottom hole is then located. This method helps to infiltrate a maximum distance of gas-bearing rock and a maximum number of vertical rock formations (Jemielita et al., 2015).
Horizontal wells are more recommended than vertical ones, particularly when drilling in a Marcellus shale reservoir. In this kind of reservoir, the natural fractures are vertical and when a vertical well is drilled, very few vertical fractures are intersected. In a horizontal well, many vertical fractures are intersected (Kharabah, 2014), which is considered productive as the well can get as much gas to be brought to the surface as possible. Horizontal wells are very costly: an average newly drilled horizontal well costs about 1.5 to 2.5 times more than a vertical well (Joshi as cited in Kharabah, 2014); but the productive benefits for a horizontal well exceed those of the vertical well.
Hydraulic fractures
Hydraulic fractures are created in the reservoir to allow free flow of oil or gas. There are two types of these, which can be determined by the direction of the stress field (vertical or normal to the horizontal minimum stress) in generated formation. If the horizontal well is drilled parallel to the minimum horizontal stress, it is expected that the fractures created will be perpendicular to the horizontal well, thereby, creating a transverse well, while the other limiting case can be generated if a horizontal well is drilled perpendicular to the minimum horizontal stress, creating a longitudinal fracture (Sprague, 2015).
Hydraulic fracturing uses a combination of water and chemical, others include sand, in retrieving oil and gas deposited in the shale rock (EIA as cited in Sprague, 2015), On the other hand, longitudinal fractured wells are enormously effective in high permeability reservoirs, but in Marcellus shale reservoirs, engineers use transverse fractured horizontal well for productivity instead of longitudinal fractured horizontal well (Kharabah, 2014)
. At a depth of 1,000 to 4,000 feet, steel casings are pushed to the bottom of the shale to prevent water from mixing with the oil or gas. The casing and the wellbore are separated with cement. When everything is in place, drilling proceeds until it reaches 6,000 to 10,000 feet where the oil and gas can be extracted from the shale reservoir (The Groundwater Protection Council as cited in Sprague, 2013).
Economic Benefits
After recovery, natural gas requires fewer processing steps before it is consumer ready. Eighty percent of natural gas used in America is produced domestically; but the country imports over 50% of its needed oil from other countries (American Gas Association as cited in Stoekl, 2012). Oil will be cheap because of the law of supply and demand, coupled with more unconventional oil and gas recovery. This is not to mention the increased oil production (Stoekl, 2012).
Unconventional energy transforms local energies in the U.S., providing jobs and leveling oil prices for the common American consumers (Stoekl, 2012). There has been an annual increase of U.S. GDP since 2012 due to midstream and upstream operations (IHS, 2013). The sector has provided 2.1 million jobs to Americans and expatriates, with 377,000 of the jobs coming from midstream and downstream operations (IHS, 2013). Upstream activity also contributed trillions of dollars to government revenue. U.S. net trade from unconventional energy will reach $22 billion and it will be at a higher level in 2022. States which do not have major unconventional energy activity can provide at least 500,000 laborers through diverse energy-related businesses (IHS, 2013).
Yergin, IHS executive, says that the unconventional energy revolution has created impact in the entire United States, including those states which are not involved in oil production, with the largest economic contribution provided by Texas and Pennsylvania. However, New York and Illinois have assumed roles of producing goods and services relevant to the supply chain. The unconventional energy producing states have contributed approximately 1.3 million jobs (IHS, 2013). John Larson, IHS vice president, indicated that the UOG revolution will have a wider impact on the US economy.
Energy-intensive firms using chemicals, including the food sector, are putting a portion of their capital for energy operations due to decreased domestic prices. It has been forecasted that energy-intensive sub-sectors, particularly those involved in iron and steel production, chemicals like resin and synthetics, including those used in agriculture, will surpass the entire US industrial economy (IHS, 2013).
The chemical industry is one of the greatest beneficiaries of the shale gas boom. U.S.-based chemical companies use natural gas-based feedstocks such as ethane to produce raw materials for a wide range of products including plastics, films, and adhesives (Huh, 2013). It is projected that after 2030 the chemical industry would become the fastest growing industry. Additionally, there has been a dramatic increase in U.S. chemical exports recently, and this is correlated with increasing oil-to-gas ratio.
Environmental Impact
Since natural gas burns cleaner than other fossil fuels, many companies and municipalities are deploying fleets of natural gas-powered cars, trucks and buses in attempt to reduce emissions. Clean Energy Fuels Corporation in the U.S. is rapidly developing a coast-to-coast network of compressed natural gas (CNG) filling stations. An 18-wheeler running on CNG can haul cargo to nearly every major city across the U.S. (Huh, 2013).
However, there are environmental ramifications in the UOG exploration and recovery. While unconventional energy is mostly organic, it can still have environmental impact, particularly in the drilling and recovery activities. Compared with wind and solar energy, which do not need the long process of extraction, unconventional energy extraction affects the ecosystem. The presence of multiple stressors has a negative environmental effect. Unconventional energy development has been criticized as an environmental stressor as it could affect stream sedimentation and the aquatic ecosystem around UOG development (Entrekin et al., 2015).
Entrekin et al. (2015) argue that unconventional energy exploration and recovery from shale rock can negatively affect rivers and streams through water withdrawals, land changes, and other changes in the ecosystem. However, they also indicate that the extent of environmental damage, such as the negative impact on the stream ecosystem, is still unknown. As described earlier, shale is mud that transforms into rock through geological circumstance; shale holds a large reservoir of oil and gas, believed to be present in 41 countries around the world, holding as much as 7,299 trillion cubic feet of natural gas and hundreds of billions of barrels of oil (US DOE/EIA as cited in Entrekin et al., 2015).
Activities like infrastructure installations, drilling and fracturing, water use and waste management can disturb aquatic communities and provide ecological impact. Infrastructure activities include construction of roads and bridges, pipelines, which can affect underlying communities and small-scale farming. Water flows which sustain natural habitats will be altered (Entrekin et al., 2015). There is also the fear of environmental accident that might cause chemical contamination or leaking wastewater storage systems, liquid-truck or train accidents, pipeline leakages, and so forth. Lack of empirical studies on the environmental impact of UOG has exacerbated fears of environmental groups, especially since UOG development has been remarkably fast due to the increased demand of oil and gas.
At present, there are five shale plays in the United States which supply as much as 80 percent of shale gas in the country. Notable among these shale plays is the Appalachian basin and the Williston basin, but development in other areas is rapidly increasing, such as those in Pennsylvania and West Virginia. UOG extraction in New York and the Delaware River Basin has been placed on hold due to suggestion by some groups that more research should first be conducted (Entrekin et al., 2015).
In measuring the environmental effects of human activities, researchers used the vulnerability metric or threat index, which focuses on agriculture, urbanization, and mining. Vulnerability refers to exposure of the ecosystem to environmental stressors, which can be anthropogenic, construction of roads, bridges and other infrastructure, and the natural sensitivity of the ecosystem. Ecosystems are considered most vulnerable if they have the most natural sensitivity and exposure to natural stressors (Entrekin et al., 2015).
Conclusion
The US economy can gain much from refining of crude oil and natural gas liquids production. Rich gas has to be transported to processing plans, be cleaned of residue, transported to the NGL fractionator, and then sold to refiners or retailers. The process adds value to the product and creates more economic activity (IHS, 2013).
In addition to the industries that directly take in natural gas as their feedstocks or as fuels to generate electricity, there are those that will benefit from low cost of natural gas. Many energy-intensive industries such as aluminum, steel, glass, cement, etc. are gaining global competitiveness from a significant reduction in operating costs due to cheap energy. Similarly, residential and commercial customers will benefit from lower costs of power, heating and fuel. Savings from lower gas prices will amount to $926 annually in disposable household income, and these savings would increase to nearly $2,000 per household (Huh, 2013).
This will most likely stimulate consumption, and the effects could be similar to a sizable tax or interest rate cut. Nonetheless, little growth in terms of natural gas demand is expected to come directly from the residential and commercial sectors; some conversions from oil heating to gas are underway in the Northeast, but as the population shifts to warmer regions where electricity dominates the space heating market, it is likely that less gas will be used for heating and more gas will be used to generate electricity for space heating and air conditioning. Some heating-related gas demand shows up as power sector demand for gas (Huh, 2013).
Despite the economic benefits, the U.S. should consider the environmental impact and conduct more empirical studies on the relationship of UOG and the aquatic ecology.
Entrekin et al. (2015) have noted that there is a relatively small but increasing literature exposing the relationship between UOG extraction and recovery and the ecology of aquatic ecosystems (p. 3-28). The geological shape, soil composition, and vegetation can change water, sedimentation, and the movement around the ecological system in areas where there is UOG development. As a whole, the natural environmental conditions, along with prevailing stressors, will certainly affect aquatic communities around these man-made activities.
References
Entrekin, S., Maloney, K., Kapo, K., Walters, A., Evans-White, M., & Klemow, K. (2015). Stream vulnerability to widespread and emergent stressors: A focus on unconventional oil and gas. Plos One, 10(9), 1-28. Web.
Hausman, C., & Kellogg, R. (2015). Welfare and distributional implications of shale gas. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 1(1), 1-45. Web.
Huh, H. (2013). Sustainable development of shale gas and gas-to-propylene (Master of Engineering thesis, Albert Nerken School of Engineering, New York). Web.
Jemielita, T., Gerton, G., Neidell, M., Chillrud, S., Yan, B., Stute, M.,&Panettieri, R. (2015). Unconventional gas and oil drilling is associated with increased hospital utilization rates. Plos One, 10(7). Web.
Kharabah, A. (2014). Estimating ultimate gas recovery from unconventional gas reservoir (Doctoral thesis, West Virginia University, Virginia). Web.
Song, X., Yang, F., Zhen, H., & Li, X. (2014). Synergistic analysis and correlative study on remote sensing and chemical exploration data for oil-gas exploration. International Journal for Remote Sensing, 25(21), 4675-4684. Web.
Sprague, C. (2015). The nexus of farming and energy: Navigating social tensions at the intersection of sustainable agriculture and unconventional oil and gas drilling (Master of Arts thesis, Colorado State University). Web.
Stoekl, A. (2012). Unconventional oil and the gift of the undulating peak. Imaginations Journal, 3(2), 35-45. Web.
Plastic products pollute waterways: 13,000 pieces of plastic waste found on every 1m2;
Plastic infiltrates food: toxins found in plastic (BPA, phthalates) can transfer to food;
Plastic causes danger to wildlife: 700 marine species suffer from the polluted by plastic waters;
Plastic waste pollutes the landfill due to inefficient recycling (West, 2017).
Despite the fact that plastic is a popular material used for manufacturing an array of products, its disposal has yet been inefficient, which led to the exponential pollution of land and waterways. Importantly, plastic waste causes danger to wildlife that gets caught in polyethylene bags or chokes on small plastic parts such as bottle caps. Moreover, food that people consume every day also gets polluted with toxins that can be found in plastic packaging or containers.
Plastic Use Facts
A million of plastic bottles are bought globally every minute (Laville & Taylor, 2017);
50% of all plastic is only used ones and thrown away;
Plastic accounts for 10% of total global waste;
500 billion plastic bags are used worldwide.
Our environment has experienced and continues experiencing an array of sustainability challenges, and human activity has the most adverse influence on the decrease of the environments quality. It this presentation, it has been proposed to reduce the use of plastic products despite their wide popularity. As evidenced by plastic use facts presented in the slide, plastic is currently used and disposed of inefficiently. Because plastic accounts for a large portion of global waste, implementation of an initiative that will raise awareness of the problem is needed.
Alternatives to Plastic
Glass bottles can replace those made from plastic and reused multiple times;
Reusable shopping bags substitute plastic bags;
Plastic straws replaced by metal straws;
Reusable water bottles and coffee mugs substitute the one-use plastic cups.
While plastic products are considered essential in everyday life, it is important to know alternatives that do not have a harmful effect on the environment. Apart from buying in bulk and using bags made from canvas, consumers can make such easy substitutions as replacing plastic one-use water bottles for reusable ones or choosing glass bottles that can be recycled easily and efficiently. However, throwing plastic away and buying substitutes is also inefficient; if a plastic bottle or container can be reused, it is advised not to throw it away.
Benefits of Using Less Plastic
Reduction of landfill and non-biodegradable waste;
Elimination of waste that pollutes oceans and harms animals;
Improvement of health-related outcomes due to the toxicity of plastic;
Reduction of atmospheric pollution associated with the production of plastic.
As expected, benefits of using less plastic are directly associated with the improvement of the environment and the introduction of sustainable practices that will subsequently enhance the quality of life on Earth for both humans and animals. The use of less plastic will reduce the amounts of waste that pollute landfills and oceans, thus avoiding the harm caused to animals. As mentioned previously, plastic toxins (e.g., BPA) can transfer on food and lead to health issues, which means that the reduction of plastic use may improve the overall community health.
Less plastic Initiative: Reduce Plastic Use
Brief overview of the environmental initiative:
Reduce plastic use in local schools, universities, and businesses;
Provide education for the community on the benefits of plastic use;
Implement community activities such as meetings and cleanups of local areas.
It is proposed to implement a Less Plastic initiative that will cover three action areas. The first area relates to the reduction of plastic use in local schools, businesses, and universities since they have the most people located in one place. The second area is community education to raise awareness of the problem of pollution with plastic. The third area is community meetings, workshops, and gatherings for sharing experiences and best practices as well as cleaning up surrounding areas from plastic garbage that is not biodegradable and thus takes years to disintegrate.
Initiative: I. Reduction of Plastic Use by Businesses and Educational Facilities
Encourage facilities to buy products in bulk and thus use less plastic packaging;
Offer workers/students an option of bringing reusable containers or plates from home;
Find community activists who could promote the less plastic message to schools and businesses;
Contact state representatives and ask for support in the reduction of plastic use.
As the first point of the initiative, it is proposed for businesses and educational facilities to take action in reducing the amount of plastic they use for everyday activities. This can be achieved through introducing alternatives to plastic, finding activists who will monitor this process, contacting relevant stakeholders and encouraging their participation. Importantly, it is essential to educate businesses and schools on the importance of bulk buying and the use of canvas or other reusable materials for storing produce.
Initiative: II. Educating the Community
Educate on the cost-effectiveness of less plastic ;
Make and distribute educational material (pamphlets, newsletters, etc.) that inform the public on the benefits of less plastic ;
Introduce educational workshops that teach about practices of reducing plastic use;
Collaborate with grocery stores and malls to encourage the public to purchase reusable shopping bags.
Community education and awareness in the second step of the less plastic initiative. It implies an array of practices associated with the distribution and creation of educational materials for the community. Also, this educational step can be extended to meetings and workshops where participants could share their best practices on the reduction of plastic waste. Lastly, businesses can also participate through encouraging the purchasing of reusable bags made from canvas, cardboard, and others.
Initiative: III. Community Activities and Gatherings
Introduce weekly gatherings to collect plastic waste from parks, playgrounds, schoolyards;
Carry out seminars and meetings for people to share their experiences with less plastic ;
Involve community stakeholders such as businesspeople and politicians;
Identify challenges associated with involving the whole community.
As to the last point of the initiative, it is directly linked to community participation in the discussion and actions to reduce plastic use and disposal. Such practices can include seminars, the involvement of stakeholders such as celebrities and politicians who can influence the public opinion. Another point for consideration within this step is the identification of possible challenges that communities face when it comes to being sustainable. Cleaning up garbage is also important for the initiative because it will teach the community that it takes hard work to eliminate plastic waste.
Stakeholders for the Initiative
Owners, employees, and customers of businesses (Madsen & Ulhoi, 2015);
Students, teachers, and personnel;
Community activists, politicians, policymakers;
Local celebrities that can influence community opinions.
Because the initiative involves the direct participation of people, it is important to identify stakeholders who can play a positive role in the elimination of plastic waste and promotion of sustainable practices for the improvement of the quality of life. As to the first point of the initiative, owners, customers, and employees of businesses are expected to participate the most along with students, teachers, and school personnel. In the community education step, activists, policymakers, and politicians are expected to make a change with the support from relevant influencers (TV personalities, musicians, artists) whose opinions matter to people who live in the community.
Opportunities of the Initiative
Reduction of plastic use within the community;
Introduction of sustainable practices associated with conscious consumption;
Raising awareness of the problem and positively influencing its management;
Presenting an example for other communities worldwide to eliminate the use of harmful plastic.
It is expected that the implementation of the initiative will lead to an array of positive opportunities that communities may use to their advantage in the future. If the initiative is successfully introduced, it will teach the community on how to remain sustainable and make conscious choices in favor of the environment. The initiative can also become an example for other communities globally on how to reduce their plastic use and waste and subsequently mitigate the adverse problems that human activities have imposed on the environment.
Challenges of the Initiative
Lack of public attention to environmental hazards caused by plastic use;
Consumer habit to purchase plastic bottles, bags, containers;
Wide availability of plastic products that are cheaper (short-term) than alternatives;
Lack of government support in reducing environmental challenges.
It is expected to encounter some challenges during the implementation of the initiative. Despite the wide popularity of the plastic use problem in media, the public rarely pays attention because it considers it unimportant. Since consumers are used to purchasing plastic products, it is complicated to convince them not to. Also, plastic is considered cheaper despite the fact that it is most cost-efficient to buy a more expensive metal water flask and refill it when needed than buying water in one-use bottles every day.
Conclusion
Plastic use is a pervasive issue that negatively affects the environment;
Unified efforts are needed to reduce its use;
Less plastic is an initiative that could change public thinking and promote sustainable practices;
Community education, gatherings, and practices to reduce plastic use in businesses and schools can reduce the problem.
In conclusion, it is essential to mention that the problem of plastic use is growing each day and efforts to manage it have yet been ineffective. Because of this, it was proposed to implement the Less plastic initiative consisting of three aspects for promoting sustainable practices and educating the community on the importance of conscious consumption and the use of man-made products made from recyclable, reusable, or biodegradable materials.
Madsen, H., & Ulhoi, J. (2015). Stakeholder pressures, environmental impact and managerial initiatives of SMEs: A longitudinal study. The Journal of the Transdisciplinary Environmental Studies, 14(1), 13-26.
The problem of global waste is becoming the most emerging crisis in the 21st century. Even though developed countries are aware of pollutions danger, taking certain steps to solve this problem, the situation has not changed dramatically. One of the issues discussed by ONeill is waste trading; this practice is contradictory in terms of global waste management (16). Banning the shipment across national frontiers, especially from more prosperous to South countries, has long been the solution (ONeill 17). ONeill suggested improving waste trading, making it more effective (17). However, until the developed North countries sell their waste to the poorer countries, which do not have resources to recycle it, this management approach is inappropriate.
Some of the waste has been exported for many years to developing countries, which have recently opposed turning their territory into landfills. For instance, the United States and other developed countries have shipped most of their waste products to China (Wang et al. 5). In 2018, Beijing restricted the import of 24 categories of waste to improve its environmental situation (Wang et al. 6). This has led to the situation when developed countries of Europe and North America have redirected plastic waste destinations and exported it to Southeast Asian countries.
Nevertheless, other states also refuse to accept the trash, introducing additional restrictions. India, Indonesia and Malaysia began returning plastic waste containers to developed countries if they found different waste types (Wang et al. 7). Therefore, decreasing waste trading will stimulate the implementation of innovative programs to achieve the goal of zero waste , such as preventing waste production and its recycling. Thus, the world should seriously consider the problem of waste management instead of focusing on trade.
Works Cited
ONeill, Kate. The new global political economy of waste. A Research Agenda for Global Environmental Politics. Edward Elgar Publishing, 2018.
Wang, Chao, et al. Structure of the global plastic waste trade network and the impact of Chinas import Ban. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, no. 153, 2020, p. 1-12.
This paper is concerned with analyzing the environmental movement in the US as a potential engine for social change. The movements ideology, membership, and leadership are investigated, with the contrast between the past and present iterations. Several contradictions and issues within the movement that may hinder its goal fulfillment are also highlighted, and it is determined that a slow shift is happening. Afterward, the movements impact on such social institutions as education, politics, economics, and religion is discussed, which, in turn, raises the populations awareness of environmental issues. However, it is emphasized that the change is not significant enough, manifesting in some new social practices. The conclusion reflects the ambiguity of the movements role in changing society but expresses its potential that can be expanded by political activities and the populations acknowledgment of environmental issues.
The Environmental Movement in the US
Humanity and nature have always had a complicated relationship ever since the former began its conscious activities. At first, people feared and revered their natural surroundings, exemplified by ancient myths and gods. However, humans were gradually gaining the upper hand, and it reached the point when their actions were destructive for the planet and themselves, although not everyone can realize that. The environmental (Green) movement acknowledges the issue and attempts to prevent further damage. Although it has a global reach, the paper will focus on the US due to the countrys impact on the environment and understanding of the repercussions. The movements ideology, membership, leadership, and subsequent social change will be considered, offering the historical perspective and various examples.
Ideology
The environmental movement has a complicated history in the US, reflected in the shifts in its ideology. Before the 20th century, it was indistinguishable from the conservation movement, which aimed to protect wilderness against urbanization and industrialization (Spears, 2020). The ideas were rooted in science and transcendentalism, and the movement was divided into two camps where either of those prevailed (Spears, 2020). However, their understanding of the environment was strictly non-human, which could be responsible for people still misunderstanding the movement and believing that humanity is unaffected by the harm caused to nature (Spears, 2020). Other movements emerged in the 20th century, such as anti-pollution regulation and energy conservation, which formed the crux of the modern-day environmental movement (Spears, 2020). Its current ideology is concerned with how people can live to sustain their surroundings, although that idea has different interpretations (Schreurs & Papadakis, 2020). However, all those who share the ideology wish to somehow improve the world for nature and humanity.
As mentioned, the environmental movement is not a monolith, hosting varying points of view and interest. For instance, the movements radical version wishes to dismantle capitalism, as they hold the system accountable for environmental issues (Woodhouse, 2018). Others may disagree that the capitalist system is the problems root and aim to promote the gradual implementation of socio-political policies (Woodhouse, 2018). Only time will tell which attitude will ultimately benefit the movement and its values.
Membership
The environmental movements composition is varied, reflecting that the primary issue concerns the whole population regardless of a persons background, although it has been a long way until this point. Initially, only educated white men expressed worry regarding the environment, which was evident due to their status (Spears, 2020). As more demographic groups began acquiring rights, they also expressed interest in some of the environmentalist issues. For example, both as health care workers and patients, women were concerned with improving public health, which inevitably made them consider the environments state as a factor affecting it (McCammoon et al., 2018). The African-American population also started engaging with the movements ideas, as environmental justice, which views the issue from the point of its impact on the race, became prominent (Pellow, 2016). Eventually, the Green movement lost its elitist nuance and became accessible to everyone (Spears, 2020). Altogether, the Green movement is all-encompassing, attracting members regardless of their race, gender, income, and other factors, as everyone is affected.
Despite the movements supposedly universal nature, it is more likely to draw people with certain socio-political views and income levels. Right-wing authoritarians are not inclined toward pro-environmental attitudes and may not believe in climate change, which precludes them from joining the movement (Stanley et al., 2017). Meanwhile, fear exists that the environmental movement is dominated by the affluent, addressing their needs most of all (Dauvergne, 2017). While those tendencies do not negate the existing diversity, they reveal the contradictions that will have to be addressed.
Leadership
As the environmental movement has many branches, defining a single leader is a challenge because most prominent figures are involved with their field of interest. Historically, such scientists as John Muir and Rachel Carson are considered some of the first leaders, and the latter is attributed with establishing the movements modern form (Montrie, 2018). Nowadays, the leading figures happen to be in charge of a particular organization, political, profit, or non-profit, and they attempt to improve the environmental situation with the available tools. For instance, Ralph Nader and Jill Stein would be considered leaders due to their affiliation with the Green Party and participating in presidential elections (Schreurs & Papadakis, 2020). Priscilla Oliver, a former president of the National Environmental Health Association (NEHA), also used to be a leader through the organizations influence and her encouragement of environmental leadership (Oliver, 2019). Company CEOs also contribute to the movement by following the principles of sustainability and pushing their enterprises to develop ecologically viable solutions for production and final products, which others will adopt (Hoffman, 2018). Thus, the movement is abundant in leaders who implement and advance its ideology.
Another point worth considering while discussing the environmental movements leadership is its diversity. As previously established, people of various backgrounds join the movement due to the universal issues it is trying to address. Therefore, its leadership should be reflective of the overall composition. While it is already true for smaller organizations and the NEHA, the said companies and bigger non-governmental bodies still lack diversity (McCammon et al., 2018). It may not be critical but could impact those newcomers who join a movement because of its leaders or notable representatives.
Social Change
The environmental movement is ambiguous regarding producing any social change as it does not affect interpersonal relationships as much as those between society and nature. However, it may still be seen in the way people treat the environment. Previously, environmental concerns allowed women and people of color to establish and strengthen their positions in society, which was a part of social change caused by the feminist and the Civil Rights movements (Spears, 2020). Currently, the environmental movement wishes to achieve sustainability, potentially leading to a new perception of certain practices (Harper & Snowden, 2017). People will assess their actions (consumptions) and those of manufacturers or politicians (production) from the point of being sustainable, which will eventually lead to changes (Harper & Snowden, 2017). While the shift to sustainability is already happening, it may be hindered by politicians refusing to acknowledge environmental issues or companies only claiming to adhere to the principle (Fredrickson et al., 2018). However, that does not imply that the movement has gone unnoticed in various social institutions.
The Movements Impact on Social Institutions
Due to the elements discussed previously, the environmental movement has managed to raise awareness of the issues on a national level. It has led to the incorporation of environment-related topics into the curriculum, both in social studies and natural sciences, which promotes environmental literacy among students (Hollstein & Smith, 2020). As far as politics is concerned, the environmental movement is responsible for the creation of the Green Party and the Green New Deal, although both are subject to controversy (Galvin & Healy, 2020). Regardless, many laws targeting environmental protection have been passed since the 1960s, including the Clean Air and Water Acts (Schreurs & Papadakis, 2020). Economics-wise, the movement has caused a shift toward sustainable production and made being environmentally friendly an important part of a companys strategy (Hoffman, 2018). Religion has also been impacted by the movement, as evident from the emergence of religious environmentalism organizations (Ellingson, 2016). The environmental movements ideology is consistent with most teachings, so the trend does not appear surprising (Ellingson, 2016). Overall, the environmental movement has brought certain changes to such social institutions as education, politics, economics, and religion, facilitating sustainability.
Conclusion
As previously stated, the environmental movement has impacted social institutions, but the change may seem subtle and not palpable by the majority. For example, a person not involved in mass production, education, or politics might not be aware of the planets issues. However, such events as Earth Day and National CleanUp Day exist, along with local initiatives, and many people tend to participate in them (Dietz, 2020). While those are not staggering changes influencing the American society at large and transforming its values, they demonstrate some established practices that may draw people not deeply interested in environmental issues.
In conclusion, the debate whether the environmental movement can be considered a genuine engine of social change remains open. On the one hand, it has impacted many social institutions and introduced several practices, and its ideology can resonate with anyone, which is evident from the varied membership. On the other hand, the movement remains controversial, and the shift is toward sustainability is ongoing, but it is not clear whether it will achieve the goal in a timely manner. The environmental movement has a great potential to reform society and ensure its sustainable existence with nature, although the feat will require more political actions and the universal acceptance. While the latter is impossible for other movements, such as feminism and anti-racism, environmental issues affect everyone, so the realization will probably make social change more pronounced.
References
Dauvergne, P. (2016). Environmentalism of the rich. The MIT Press.
Dietz, T. (2020). Earth Day: 50 years of continuity and change in environmentalism. One Earth, 2(4), 306-308. Web.
Ellington, S. (2016). To care for creation: The emergence of the religious environmental movement. The University of Chicago Press.
Fredrickson, L., Sellers, C., Dillon, L., Ohayon, J. L., Shapiro, N., Sullivan, M., Bocking, S., Brown, P., de la Rosa, V., Harrison, J., Johns, S., Kulik, K., Lave, R., Murphy, M., Piper, L., Richter, L., & Wylie, S. (2018). History of US presidential assaults on modern environmental health protection. American Journal of Public Health, 108(S2), S95S103. Web.
Galvin, R., & Healy, N. (2020). The Green New Deal in the United States: What it is and how to pay for it. Energy Research & Social Science, 67, 101529. Web.
Harper, C., & Snowden, M. (2017). Environment and society: Human perspective on environmental issues (6th ed.). Taylor & Francis.
Hoffman, A. J. (2018) The next phase of business sustainability. Stanford Social Innovation Review, 16(2), 34-39. Web.
Hollstein, M. S., & Smith, G. A. (2020). Civic environmentalism: Integrating social studies and environmental education through curricular models. Journal of Social Studies Education Research, 11(2), 223-250. Web.
McCammon, H. J., McGrath, E., Hess, D. J., & Moon, M. (2018). Women, leadership, and the U.S. Environmental movement. In H. J. McCammon & L. A. Banaszak (Eds.), 100 years of the Nineteenth Amendment: An appraisal of womens political activism (pp. 312-333). Oxford University Press.
Montrie, C. (2018). The myth of Silent Spring: Rethinking the origins of American environmentalism. University of California Press.
Oliver, P. (2019). Environmental health leadership: Where do we go from here? Journal of Environmental Health, 82(3), 6-7. Web.
Pellow, D. N. (2016). Toward a critical environmental justice studies. Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race, 13(2), 221236. Web.
Schreurs, M., & Papadakis, E. (2020). Historical dictionary of the Green movement (3rd ed.). Rowman & Littlefield.
Spears, E. G. (2020). Rethinking the American environmental movement post-1945. Taylor & Francis.
Stanley, S. K., Wilson, M. S., & Milfont, T. L. (2017). Exploring short-term longitudinal effects of right-wing authoritarianism and social dominance orientation on environmentalism. Personality and Individual Differences, 108, 174177. Web.
Woodhouse, K. M. (2018). The ecocentrists: A history of radical environmentalism. Columbia University Press.
With the speedy growth of urban settings globally, the municipal waste remains a tenacious matter facing cities worldwide. Currently, the amount of generated refuse in many urban settings is nearly stretching out of control, and the numbers are expected to swell following consistent development in urban centers (Johnson et al. 3).
Efficient waste management remains a vital service to partly attain viable, livable cities since the collection and dumping of refuse influence carbon emanations, traffic jamming, quality of air, and considerable investment in operating expenditures (Kontokosta et al. 151). Local authorities need to develop innovative strategies that seek to establish efficiency in desired systems of waste management to lower the volumes of waste taken to landfills. Such new methods can also grow the diversion rates through composting and recycling programs. Historical and real-time data collection and translation coupled with inventive strategies such as applying machine learning arithmetical methods facilitate data-oriented interventions in tackling persistent challenges in city waste management.
Goals and Objectives
This research aims to forecast daily and weekly tonnage of municipal garbage generation across New York City using sophisticated data mining capabilities and other technological approaches such as machine learning. Statistical analysis remains an immense strategy in the planning and management of various waste collection systems. The desire for exemplary determination and a directed urban refuse administrative plan remains indispensable in lowering the prospect of adverse ecological effects resulting from municipal garbage (Kontokosta et al. 152). New York City has all of its refuse collected through an integrated network of contractors who use an amalgamation of direct haul, long trucks, and trains to transport and dispose of them in designated landfills.
The operational budget allocated by the city to ensure the provision of waste collection and disposal run in billions of dollars. Despite the high financial implication involved in waste collection, inefficiency remains a concern. Therefore, like other metropolises, New York City requires robust urban waste management structures for effective waste forecasting to enable excellent service rendition to residents. Specific objectives of the investigation include:
To embed technology such as machine learning in monitoring and predicting waste generation volumes for efficient, dependable urban refuse management systems.
To employ historical data on municipal waste provided by the citys sanitation department to predict refuse generation for enhanced facilitation of services in a financially sustainable and environmentally sound way.
Scope
The study has a three-pronged scope in attempts to realize its core objective. First, it cultivates close partnership with the responsible agency to provide detailed data on waste operations and challenges. In this scenario, New York Citys department of sanitation provided historical data on refuse collection spanning from 2003 to 2005. The submitted data sets comprise collection information for a solitary truck, including a unique vehicle number, tonnage, and time (Johnson et al. 4). It also encompassed the nature of collected material (paper, plastic, glass, metal, or refuse) and the geospatial data of the assortment point.
Second, reviewing and translating the breadth and depth of the provided historical information on the urban waste, spanning to a nearly ten-year period for vigorous statistical analysis and robust model cross-validation (Johnson et al. 4). Data modeling and analysis were performed by the gradient boosting technique, allowing the historical data to be assessed both spatially and temporally to accurately predict weekly tonnage generations for all the selected locations across the city. Lastly, the research shall entail the utilization of Gradient Boosting Regression theory to estimate both space and time for the generated waste in New York City.
State-of-the-Art Review
Numerous approaches have been applied to quantify waste products, including multiple regression techniques, group comparison, time-series analysis, correlation assessment, dynamic system modeling, and input-output analysis.
The above models emphasize the identification of underlying connections between elements, driving garbage production. For example, in the municipal stage, research by Oribe-Garcia recognized tourism activity, educational status, income, and urban morphology as key influencing aspects, resulting in a high waste generation (Johnson et al. 3). Daskalopoulos also established through one regression analysis the linkage of total consumer expenditure and gross domestic product as the leading factor in increased waste production at the country-based level (Johnson et al. 4). The model gives accurate quantification and forecasting of municipal waste.
Previous pieces of literature have also documented ways of improving urban waste management structures by applying diverse dynamics and data-driven modeling approaches to forecast refuse generation. Such approaches have also proved useful in identifying factors that expound waste and recycling attributes. Explicitly, research employing temporal models using lagged refuse data has shined for forecasting and prediction in big portions as a result of time series auto connection noticeable in waste produced at local or regional level (Kontokosta et al. 152). The absence of literature is trying to prefigure waste production for individual structures in larger municipalities.
Challenging aspects are data constraints since few sanitation authorities gather and avail granular refuse collection figures (Kontokosta et al. 152). Moreover, small region approximation challenges can confound efforts to accurately downscale prediction efforts to exactly downscale predictions from the town or locality to individual houses.
Methodology
For efficient and accurate data analysis for enhanced predictability, the employed the simulated gradient boosted regression formula in estimating temporary production. The model functions based on the decision tree regression concept because of its interpretability and competence in managing complex and non-linear relations between data, guaranteeing higher forecasting accuracy (Johnson et al. 7). Spatiotemporal tonnage data was also pooled with other external data sets to construct a Gradient Boosting Model, which further anchored in the past data extending from 2004 to 2015 to permit both temporal and even spatial validation.
Data Collection
The research incorporated data on the waste collection that spans over a decade, with every record containing information for each truck.
Data on total weekly refuse tonnage were recorded in all sections of the metropolis.
Figure1: Illustration of Weekly Waste Tonnage for New York City from 2004 to 2005.
Data Presentation
The research is aware of the significance of municipal waste projections due to their indispensable role in managing left-overs. Reliable and effective prediction gives city authorities the capacity to boost waste collection, dumping works and establish long-term plans for disposal strategies (Kontokosta et al. 152). The research presents various mediums, including charts, tables, and graphs for adequate visualization and understanding by stakeholders. Data were also resampled to a weekly average to match the temporal frequency of the refuse generated figures.
Data Analysis
Overall, the data collected through the designed model shows the capability to forecast waste production with temporal accuracy and is highly granular across many streams of refuse. The collected and analyzed data is critical for improved planning, better decision-making, and enhanced operations (Johnson et al. 5). Furthermore, separate geographies manifest their gathering timings of either three or two days a week; the researchers aggregate the daily gatherings data to compare with the issued historical ones based on the mutual temporal gauge.
Inference/Conclusion
The study has contributed to creating a transitory analytic framework for refuse production in the city. Using data sets drawn from various sources coupled with earlier garbage gathering statistics from the towns sanitation unit, the researcher established a predictive model for waste management. Moreover, simulation through the gradient boosting method was built to calculate weekly refuse data across multiple streams with an 88 percent accuracy rate.
Next Step
First, the research has provided much-needed insights for the metropolis establishments to initiate testing as well as comprehend the effectiveness of trash management interventions. Second, the findings in the study can be implemented in developing incentive arrangements to shove individuals to change their waste dumping behavior. Single valuing approaches, for example, charge as you dump, can trigger equity apprehensions (Johnson et al. 9).
However, by perfectly forecasting individual construction waste production volumes and reconciling them with demographic variations and building populations, an enhanced equitable pricing model can be crafted. Other inducements comprising demand valuing during high-garbage periods can also be embraced. Moreover, innovative ways such as machine learning techniques can be used to inform urban planning and operations.
Ever since ancient times, humans have lived with some kind of relationship with the environment. Nature provides mankind with the elements of survival food, water, shelter, fire, clothing, etc. and also helps him dispose of the waste. Apart from such products, nature is also beautiful and has been a source of spiritual and cultural inspiration as well as emotional sustenance (Fischer and Hajer, 1999, p. 58).
While mankind sometimes struggled to cope with the calamities of nature, people also sought to find spiritual meaning within its boundaries. Thomas Berry writes that the earth needs to be viewed as a primary form of divine presence and such basic spirituality can augur well for the future ecological age (Fischer and Hajer, 1999).
The world today faces problems of overpopulation, pollution, global warming, loss of biological diversity and natural calamities. It is becoming more and more obvious that the Earth and the living things on its surface are a single ecosystem, a complex network of interaction and interdependence that is being seriously disturbed. Only through spiritual interconnection of mankind and various species, sustainable ecological balance may be attained.
According to David Suzuki, the way we see the world shapes the way we treat it. (Lauzen and Hales, 2009, p. 438). If man is able to see a mountain as God, a river as a vein of the land, forest as a sacred space, other species as his kin and the planet as his mother, then there will be greater respect and protection for the environment. That is the challenge, to look at the world from a different perspective (Lauzen and Hales, 2009, p. 438).
Background
The connection of human spirit to nature is not a new concept. In fact, there is archaeological evidence that during prehistoric times, humans have sought to personify and worship nature and its various forces. In ancient societies of south-eastern Europe and in many aboriginal and Native American societies, the earth was worshipped as a feminine deity Mother Earth or the Great Mother (Fischer and Hajer, 1999).
Nature deities are also present in various spiritual traditions such as shamanism, pantheism, paganism, and Hinduism. In the context of Western civilization, the Earth was worshipped as Isis in Egypt, Ishtar in Mesopotamia, Demeter and Gaia in Greece and Ceres in Rome (Fischer and Hajer, 1999).
However, in the course of time, the philosophy changed and humans could not just accept being subservient to nature. Rather Classical Greek humanists including Aristotle and Plato and the early Stoics believed that humans had a divine right to exploit natural resources to their own advantage.
This anthropocentrism became central to Judaeo-Christian principles that justified the domination of humans over all other living things on earth. Moreover, many western philosophers of the Enlightenment period such as Bacon, Descartes, Newton and Hobbes advanced the superiority of man over nature and also laid the foundation of the scientific and industrial revolutions.
Though this led to accelerated progress on the scientific front, this approach also supported the utilitarian instrumental viewpoint of natural resources, leading, in the long term, to an ecological crisis involving environmental exploitation and degradation (Fischer and Hajer, 1999).
Many are working presently to solve the ecological problems through scientific, industrial, political or institutional remedies. However, the spiritual solution appears to be the most promising. Matthew Fox (1988) has written that Mother Earth can be saved only with a new approach that is centered on the sanctity of the planet.
For such an attitude to be developed, every person must have awareness of ones own spiritual dimensions and also about the biological diversity around him. Religions across the world have often been platforms for spiritual connection of mankind to nature.
Shamanic spiritual traditions emphasize that there must be a holistic balance between materialistic aspirations of mankind and the spiritual world of the universe. Native American spiritual teachers give a lot of importance to the place one lives in for spiritual connection to the earth.
Goddess spirituality celebrates the biodiversity in earth and believes in the connection of the human spirit with nature. Belief in Gaia, the Greek goddess of the earth, supports the view of the world as a living spiritual organism and meditational practices and rituals aimed at establishing ones connections with nature.
According to Pagan every living thing in nature has inherent value and power and human beings are interconnected to all other living things in the world (Fischer and Hajer, 1999).
In the context of ecological belief system, nature centered spiritual traditions such as these promote a deep sense of connectivity of people with their environment and also creates a transformational change in them to live in balance with their surroundings.
Ancient Asian religions and philosophies of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Taoism also reinforce spiritual connections between humans and nature (Fischer and Hajer, 199). Hinduism believes in the incarnation of God in various species and also in the reincarnation of humans.
Deep ecology philosophers have found that these spiritual traditions are relevant to the concepts of biocentrism, biospherical egalitarianism (intrinsic value of all life forms), and the need for holistic balance with nature (Fischer and Hajer, 1999, p. 73).
The first wave of environmentalism began in the United States in the early twentieth century with an active role taken by two different people Gifford Pinchot (1865-1946) and John Muir (1838-1914). Pinchot was interested in conserving the environment so that natural resources may benefit the people.
On the other hand, Muir, along with people such as John James Audubon and Henry David Thoreau argued for the preservation of natural environment for the sake of protecting the spiritual health of the people (Kreche, 2004).
Biodiversity and human spirit
Biodiversity refers to the inherited variation of all forms of life and includes three layers the ecosystems, species of animals, plants and other organisms and genes that define the traits of the species.
It is roughly estimated that 1.7 to 1.9 million species have been identified while the true number may be of the order of 10 million and if the micro organisms are included the number could be closer to 100 million.
When there is the danger of species being lost to the world, ecological arguments show that the world is diminished. As a result the global extinction rate for species is increasing at a fast rate and this is evident through the factors of climate change, trapping of species within limited regions, destruction of tropical forests and coral reefs, rise of invasive species and destruction of the ocean floor due to over-harvesting of marine fisheries.
The loss of biodiversity not only means the loss of potential scientific knowledge and the benefits that accompany it, but also the loss of a large portion of humanitys natural heritage.
Edward O. Wilson in his book The diversity of life writes that there are signals around that indicate that loss of biodiversity in the environment is a threat not only to the physical health of human beings but also to the human spirit.
Human spirit in general comes from a respect for life and a commitment to protect biodiversity. Philosopher Holms Rolston III has argued that several billions years worth of creative soil and several million species of teeming life have been handed over to latecomer mankind due to his power of intelligence and morality (Coffin and Pfannmuller, 1988).
Ought not those of this sole moral species to do something less self-interested than count all the produce of an evolutionary ecosystem as rivets in their spaceship, resources in their larder, laboratory materials, recreation for their ride? (Bio Science, 35 (1985):725).
Sometimes, loss of species can indirectly cost women and women their jobs thereby causing damage to their self esteem and leading to destruction of the human spirit.
For example, among the Kenyah Dayaks in East Kalimantan, the role of the woman is intrinsically related to the rice cultivation of the region and in many parts of the Amazon basin, men are reliant on hunting.
The loss of biodiversity hurts them by depriving them of their livelihood and pushing them towards desperation (Colfer, 2008). Scientists and conservationists are also deeply affected by loss of species in the environment.
Forests and the Spiritual Connection
Most of the species of plants and animals are found in the tropical rainforests. From the utilitarian perspective it has been argued that man must protect the rich biodiversity of the earth so that he can tap and benefit from its various applications.
Alkaloids from plants are just one among the numerous resources in nature and they include anesthetics, medicines, muscle relaxants, analgesics, insecticides, etc. There are still over 30 million plant species to be discovered and studied (Coffin and Pfannmuller, 1988). Forests in particular play a unique role in the world in the context of preserving a greater part of biodiversity.
Elvin (2004) has studied China and he observes that the Chinese possess a cultural admiration of whole forests which is now expressed by their admiration and respect for an individual tree symbolizing an entire ecosystem (Colfer, 2008). History shows that humans have considered forests as places of great spiritual power.
Ascetics of Eastern lands often went into forests to obtain enlightenment. However, despite the reverence associated with forests, they were the first causalities to the expansion of civilization. Logging and clearing of forest lands for agricultural purposes have converted wild forest areas to plantation areas.
Diverse environments cater to the innate human desire for beauty and complexity in the surroundings. Forests have complex cultural meanings that are directly linked to the wellbeing, culture and belief systems of forest peoples. (Colfer, 2008, p. 40). Forests can be very healing in nature and in Japan, there is the popular practice known as shinrin-yoku that is undertaken for relaxation.
Shinrin-yoku means walking or staying in forests to promote health. In the nineteenth century, many of the developed countries adopted the development of urban parks and protected forests realizing that trees and nature give human beings a sense of peace and calm.
Plants are also useful in religious and cultural contexts and thereby linked to psychosocial health aspect of the population. Many plants are considered to help in keeping away evil forces. In Zulu and Xhosa homes in southern Africa, various parts of the plant commonly known as imphepho is burned as incense to offer respect to the ancestor spirits.
Sometimes plants are used in communities as a cultural element. For example, in the Western Pacific, kava is used in community meetings. In South and Southeast Asia, betel nuts are used for chewing and also as spiritual offering. Some plants with psychotropic properties provide a spiritual turning point in life and can help catalyze spiritual experience and behavioral change .
Tropical forests in Africa are rich is such potent psychotropic plants. These plants are not just recreational drugs; they can cause profound insights, introspection and deep transformation. Studies show that regular ritualistic consumption of a plant mix known as ayahuasca has helped many people overcome alcoholism and drug addiction.
Likewise, ibogaine, which is an extract from a root bark is found to be an effective de-addictive medicine against heroin, cocaine and amphetamine addictions (Colfer, 2008).
Coastal Systems and the Human Spirit
Hassan et al (2005) observe that the seas and coasts have great spiritual significance for people of all nationalities of varying cultural values. They cite the examples of the Baju peoples in Indonesia, the natives of the Torres Strait in Australia and the native Indians in America who have cultures linked to coastal systems.
Hassan et al (2005) also observe that the true value of oceanic systems cannot be measured as some of the systems that appear to have low value today can become high economic value in the future as a result of rare species they support that may suddenly acquire value in the future either in the pharmaceutical context or in the environmental context.
This means, some of the species in the coastal system have high option value; while they may not be considered valuable today they may become useful and valuable in the future.
Natives of many cultures have always been involved in the protection of species and the environment and for these people the loss of species in the present day scenario must be highly demoralizing (Hassan et al, 2005)
Biophilia
E. O. Wilson (2002) has noted the human beings are biophilic meaning, they are sensitively interconnected to other living beings (Colfer, 2008, p. 25). This means that the loss of species and damage to the environment can be a very painful experience for many people and can hurt them physically too.
The green movement that was launched in the 20th century was probably the result of a global level biophilia (Colfer, 2008, p. 25). According to the biophilia hypothesis the spiritual, mental and physical well being of human beings are intertwined with nature (Colfer, 2008).
The biophilia hypothesis also proposes that humankinds evolutionary experience (past, current, and future) is deeply dependent on the well-being or health of all aspects of the natural environment.
However, ecopsychologists contend that before the earth can be healed, one must first heal oneself by first developing a sense of ecological awareness (Colfer, 2008).
Healing through spiritual connection with Nature
One of the major classes of ecosystem services that are relevant to the discussion of the complexities in the relationship between the environment and the human spirit is cultural services . Studies show that cultural services enhance the health of human beings and also bring them a sense of spiritual connection and fulfillment.
There are some cultures in with people share a relationship with sacred groves and some other that have links with totemic species (Colfer, 2008). Such links have been expressed through the art of the period on mosaics.
Studies show that the health of indigenous people became negatively affected when their lost their contact with sacred groves or when their totemic species became extinct or affected.
More recent studies show that people living an urban life often feel rejuvenation of their health and spirits when they come into contact with nature especially forests (Colfer, 2008). Since ancient times, plants have been used by natives for ritualistic ceremonies and also as medicine.
There is also evidence that some animals can help in speeding up the recovery process for ailing patients. Studies show that staying in natural settings can be hugely stress-relieving for an urban dweller. Traditional healing has always been in relation to the environment and its spiritual connection to man.
According to Gottlieb, the spiritual understanding of ones self is essential to connect with the natural surroundings. Prayers and chanting can open up subtle channels of spiritual communication with nature. There were times when the world would become silent to listen to my songs, to my prayers and to my weeping as I became connected to my spirit .
All elements including water, wind, sky, plants and elements responded to his prayers, he felt, and helped him with the healing process. He learned in healing that all living matter has spirit and therefore must be treated as an individual living spirit.
The natural world, Gottlieb explains has the power to hold its spiritual core in accordance with the laws of nature and this core is the key to spirit reclamation.
Human beings seek their spirits in natural surroundings as they are often a reflection of the nature of the human spirit, presented in the form of landscapes, interactions of various species and in sudden changes in the environment.
Vision-seeking in the natural environment is a means of reuniting with the spirit essence of life (Gottlieb, p. 187). By connecting with nature, the human spirit is able to find its true nature and peace.
Testimonials to Human spiritual bonding with nature
Many writers have written about the connection of their spirit and the natural environment. Carman suffered from a severe spinal injury and during her recovery phase she felt that time spent in the garden was tremendously healing.
She has recorded her healing experiences in the garden in a garden journal (Bridgen, 2007). Dillard, on being diagnosed with pneumonia in 1971, opted to live alone at Tinker Creek in Virginia to connect with the healing powers in nature.
Likewise, Scott, a psychotherapist writes about healing in a natural environment after being severely injured in the back (Bridgen, 2007). All of these stories reflect the connection between the human spirit and the environment that is brought to awareness through a health crisis.
Even people who are not sick have written about their deeply spiritual experiences in the abundance of nature. The Romantic school of thought has focused on the spiritual connection between mankind and the environment.
For Romantics like Wordsworth, man and nature enjoy a certain spiritual reciprocity particularly in the rural situation (Bonnett, p. 34). It is seen that nature has the subtle power to renew and revitalize human spirit and that nature is somehow sympathetic to man.
The Romantic perceives nature as an implicit vehicle for anthromorphism reflecting human emotions such as joy and sadness, and life themes such as youth and mortality . It is also believed that nature has a way of teaching deeper truths to mankind that can be understood only by using imagination, intuition and sensitivity.
This belief attempts to set up a positive, open receptive relationship with the environment that can provide fresh perspectives on the life of human beings on a macroscopic level.
For Coleridge, only through the powers of imagination the mind can be connected to the external world of nature. According to John Clare nature is neither a mirror nor vehicle for human emotion; it is a separate entity with its own messages.
Conclusion
The earth is a rich land with about 100 million species of with only 1.5 million have been identified and studied. This rich biodiversity of the earth is to the advantage of mankind ecologically, economically and spiritually.
More recently, environmental exploitation and degradation are destroying the ecological balance in the world and species are being lost forever to the world and this is due to the exclusive focus on economic benefits and ignoring the spiritual benefits of the biodiversity of the land.
A transformational change can only be brought about by the connection of the human spirit to the environment. Such spiritual connections of human beings with earth have been noted by many people in the realm of healing, religion and cultural services and can be realized if people develop an awareness of the spirit in them and in other living things and reach out to establish a connection.
References
Bonnett, M. (2004). Retrieving nature: Education for a post-humanist age. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Coffin, B. & Pfannmuller, L. (1988). Minnesotas endangered flora and fauna (Minnesota Archive Editions ed.). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
Colfer, C.J.P. (2008). Human health and forests: A global overview of issues, practice, and policy. London, UK: Earthscan Publishers.
Fischer, F. & Hajer, M.A. (1999). Living with nature: Environmental politics as cultural discourse. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Gottlieb, S.(2004). This sacred Earth: Religion, nature, environment. Milton Park, UK: Routledge Publishers.
Hassan, M.R., Scholes, R. & Ash, N. (2005). Ecosystems and human well-being: current state and trends: Findings of the condition and trends working group of the millennium ecosystem assessment. Washington, D.C. , Island Press.
Krech, S. (2004). Encyclopedia of world environmental history: A-E volume 1 of encyclopedia of world environmental history. Milton Park, UK: Routledge Publishers.
Lauzen, L. & Hales, D.R. (2009). An invitation to health. San Francisco, CA: Cengage Learning.
Wilson, O.E. (1992). The diversity of life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Planning systems are different from one region to another and from one country to another. In Australia, things are much more the same.
Since each state and territory has their own principle legislation for the land use planning system, it is still worth noting that the overall administration of the planning system is generally done by larger government departments. Planning portfolio is mostly intended to achieve integration with other portfolios such as environmental conservation.
The approaches to urban and land use planning differs from one state to another. Also the legislation and policies do differ.
In the state of Queensland, the government engages the public in most parts of the decision making process since land use will affect the local population. In the state of New South Wales, the public is also engaged in decision making process although the ministry of Planning is directly involved in the planning process.
State and territory planning systems in Australia
In Australia, there is no national method that guides the use of urban and land use planning. This means that the states and territories have to develop their own distinct planning systems to address the issues of land use and planning. In addition, each state has to come up with its own policies, legislation and approaches to land use and planning.
In the process of formulating policies throughout the states, there is often the aspect of overlap in which some policies in one state may be similar to others in a different state.
Knowing the similarities between these policies, legislations and approaches is not as important as understanding the way in which the different planning systems function in assisting the transfer of knowledge and good practice between jurisdictions (Young 2008).
Comprehending the role of planning systems is also important because it provides the basis for broader policy development planning or in relation to the promotion of particular priorities like environmental sustainability (Cameron 1978).
The administrative aspects of planning in Australia are such that they fall under ministerial dockets. Thus, a change in government or ministerial reshuffle is always accompanied with a reorganization of administrative functions of the panning agencies.
A good example is in New South Wales. Between 1997 and 2006, the planning portfolio was under the former department of urban affairs and planning (DUAP): Planning NSW: and the department of infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources (DIPNR).
This was an attempt to combine various environment related departments with land use planning so that they fall under one large umbrella agency. Currently, the planning portfolio is under the single function Department of Planning (DOP).
Table1: The administrative arrangements for land use and environmental planning in the Australian states and territories are tabulated below.
State/territory
Agencies with environmental policy and land use planning responsibilities
Australian capital territory (ACT)
ACT planning and land authority Environment ACT
New South Wales (NSW).
Department of planning Department of environment and conservation
Northern Territory (NT).
Department of planning and infrastructure Department of natural resources, environment and the arts
Queensland (QLD).
Department of local government, planning sport and recreation Environment protection agency
South Australia (SA).
Planning SA, within department of primary industry and resources Department of transport, energy and infrastructure Department of energy and heritage
Tasmania (TAS).
Department of justice (land use planning branch) Resource planning and development commission Department of tourism, arts and the environment Department of infrastructure, energy and resources
Victoria (VIC).
Department of sustainability and environmenta Environment protection authority
Western Australia (WA).
Department of planning and infrastructure Western Australia planning commission Department of environment and conservation
Adapted from Gurran.
In addition, each state has its specific objectives relating to community or social well being. This reflects more recent recognition that planning systems affect social outcomes for different individuals and groups in the society. The likely outcomes are therefore considered during plan making and even when development proposals are assessed.
SWOT analysis
Comprehensive examination of the internal and external environment is important to be undertaken by a planning agency during the planning process. SWOT analysis is a way of examining these factors (Bohm 2008). Those environmental factors that are related with internal affairs of the specific environment are called strengths (S) and weaknesses (W).
However, those factors whose influences are out of the specific environment are called opportunities (O) and threats (T). Therefore, an analysis of all these factors is called SWOT analysis (QuickMBA 2010). The SWOT analysis framework helps to simplify the whole planning process.
Figure 1: Systematic diagram showing how SWOT analysis fits into the environmental scan.
The strengths of a planning strategy are based on its policies and legislation. The policies can be used as foundations on which effective environmental conservation, urban, and land use planning can be built.
The weaknesses of the planning strategy refer to the absence of certain legislation or policies that may have otherwise acted as effective guides to sustainable environmental conservation, and as a framework for urban and land use planning.
On the other hand, opportunities may refer to the positive external environmental factors that have been revealed as a result of formulation and enactment of the policies. This can also include the merger of policies by two or more states due to an overlap of the same policies and can be advantageous to all the states involved.
The changes in the external environment may also present threats to the existing policies and legislation. These changes may destabilize the policy framework within a state. Such influences may arise from the federal government and thus overrule some aspects of the legislation present in a state (Chapman 2011).
It is important for a state not to rush into formulation of policies and enactment of legislation that may seem to be obviously advantageous to the people. This is because such legislation and policies may seem to be a lucrative opportunity to the people but on a critical view, their hazardous nature is gradual but far reaching.
Thus, a state may have a better chance at developing competitive policies that will benefit people and cause minimum destruction to the environment. Hence, a state can overcome a weakness by sealing loopholes so that it can be well prepared to pursue a compelling opportunity.
Comparison of plan making in Australia
SWOT analysis can be used to compare different planning strategies and policies in different jurisdictions. This paper discusses the similarities and contrasts between planning strategies in New South Wales and those in the state of Queensland.
Planning in the state of Queensland
The government of Queensland has formed an engagement initiative that forms a substantial engagement model. The model was formed in 1990s and it involves extensive community consultation in prerequisite stages of all public projects that affect the environment in one way or another.
These projects are mainly concerned with infrastructure, natural resource management and regional development. Queensland is a massive territory that is inhabited by a population mainly consisting of aborigines and Europeans (Stimson & Williams 2001).
The local government association of Queensland was formed mainly to mediate land use and other disputes which sums up as a system that builds up public sector capability. The government of Queensland also performs other duties such as environmental protection, desalinization, and lifelong learning projects.
The government has introduced several guidelines, manuals, handbooks and training programs to support community engagement process. By doing this, the government aims at improving quality, accountability and transparency in public programs.
Although the level of engagement differs throughout the state, regional planning has become an increasing focus within Queensland. There are regions of various size and character within the state. These regions have a sense of identity and commonality that makes them viable units for social, environmental and even economic planning (Grammeno 2009).
The state of Queensland has a relatively recent regional planning process called Central Queensland: A New Millennium (CQANM). This planning process provides an opportunity to reflect actively on the purposes of pubic projects and the processes applied. The success of CQANM is based upon strong relationships with sectoral networks and also on building relevance and credibility with groups and communities.
Its success is also built on its ability to translate planning into tangible actions that recognize regional priorities and optimize the resources applied in the region. In addition to this, a Community Engagement Division (CED) has been set up at the Prime Ministers office to oversee the engagement process.
This office also does interagency coordination, and monitors and evaluates the outcomes of such processes (UN: Economic and Social affairs 2009).
In addition to the preceding points, the Queensland initiative is currently undergoing an evaluation of the system including an evaluation on its effectiveness. The findings are revealing because they involve a number of functions that are supposed to be performed by the public service. Thus, the role of public service managers is to reconcile the competing and contradictory expectations of the public.
They should plan and provide services from a whole-of-state perspective as well as ensuring that competing needs are met. Public service managers should plan and provide services regionally while also ensuring that sub regional and local competing issues are addressed.
They should provide services at regional, sub regional and local levels while at the same time ensuring that competing demands of a departmentally organized system of governance.
Planning in New South Wales
The state of New South Wales has undergone through substantial amendments and environmental policy making since 1998. The major reforms by the NSW government include major legislative change in the form of the local government Act 1993 and consequent amendments to the EP&A Act.
The amendment of the EP&A Act was meant to partially integrate the types of approvals available under two statues namely; an inquiry into the governments regulation affecting development and, two green papers released in may 1996. The green papers invited public comments and later culminated into the Integrated Development Assessment, and an accompanying exposure Draft Bill.
As a result, three principal areas of reform were introduced by the Integrated Development Assessments. These reforms increased the role of the private sector in the assessment process (Davoudi, Crawford & Mehmood 2009).
The integrated development consent involves the introduction of three single assessment system for development, building and subdivision control.
It also involves the rationalization of other local government approvals relating to building work with a development consent granted under EP&A Act. Last but not least, the integrated development consent links approval requirements under other Acts with development consent under the EP&A Act.
In New South Wales, matters concerned with planning and environment have their origins at the declaration of the state governments environmental impact policy resided with the then State Pollution Control Commission, SPCC. Thus, Environmental Impact Assessment and other environmental factors have been controlled by statute in the form of the EP&A Act.
This means that the relevant state planning authority is responsible for the management of Environmental issues such as Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). In this case, the authority lies solely with the minister for Planning (Elliot & Thomas 2009).
The government of NSW is currently taking on measures that will enhance its commitment in working with councils to reduce the time it takes for public projects to develop, by up to 50 percent (NWS Government: Department of planning, Undated).
There are certain measures that have been taken which will streamline the plan making process so that the Local Environmental Plans can be processed in a shorter period of time. In New South Wales, the Local Environmental Plans are prepared as a guiding factor into the way land use can be planned. These guides single out the areas that are protected from particular projects that might adversely affect the status of the receiving environment (World Bank: South Asia Region: Rural Development Sector Unit 1999).
Also, there are a series of important environmental considerations that are accompanied with these plans. These considerations include the EIA and economic concerns since these plans affect the growth of New South Wales (Thompson 2007).
In NSW, the ministry of planning is in charge of reviewing local environmental plans (Hillier & Healey 2010). The local environmental plan is prepared in such a way that it must have a statement of objectives, an explanation of the provisions of the proposal and a justification of the objectives and outcomes.
In addition to the above, the local environmental plan must have maps containing the appropriate details and also the details of the community consultations that are to be undertaken.
Conclusion
Planning systems are different from one region to another and from one country to another. In Australia, things are much more the same. Since each state and territory has their own principle legislation for the land use planning system, it is still worth noting that the overall administration of the planning system is generally done by larger government departments.
The administrative aspects of planning in Australia are such that they fall under ministerial dockets. Thus, a change in government or ministerial reshuffle is always accompanied with a reorganization of administrative functions of the panning agencies.
The strengths of a planning strategy are based on its policies and legislation while The weaknesses of the planning strategy refer to the absence of certain legislation or policies that may have otherwise acted as effective guides to sustainable environmental conservation, and as a framework for urban and land use planning.
On the other hand, opportunities may refer to the positive external environmental factors that have been revealed as a result of formulation and enactment of the policies
Reference list
Bohm, A. (2008). The SWOT analysis. Seminar Paper. Norderstedt: Auflage.
Cameron, R. (1978). Year Book: Australia. No. 62, 1977 and 1978. Australia: Australia Bureau of Statistics.
Davoudi, S., Crawford, J. & Mehmood, A. (2009). Planning For Climate Change. London: Earthscan Publishers.
Elliot, M. & Thomas, I. (2009). Environmental Impact Assessment in Australia: theory and practice. Ed. 5. Sydney: The Federation Press.
Grameno, G. (2009). Planning Occupational Health & Safety. Australia: CCH Australia Limited.
Gurran, N. (2007). Australian Urban Land Use Planning: Introducing Statutory Planning Practice. Sydney: Sydney University Press.
Hillier, J. & Healey, P. (2010). The AShgate Research Companion to Planning Theory: Conceptual Challenges for Spatial Planning. Surrey: Ashgate Publishing Ltd. NWS Government: Department of planning (Undated). Local Plan Making. Web.
Stimson, R. & Williams, J. (2001). International Urban Planning Settings. Oxford: Elsevier Science Ltd.
Thompson, S. (2007). Planning Australia: An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
UN: Economic and Social affairs (2009). People Matter: Civic Engagement In Public Governance: World Public Sector Report. United Nations Publication.
World Bank: South Asia Region: Rural Development Sector Unit. (1999). Intersectoral Water Allocation, Planning, And Management. New Delhi: Allied Publishers.
Young, G. (2008). Reshaping Planning With Culture. Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing Limited.
