Category: Environment

Polymers are substances that consist of repeating units of carbon and hydrogen. Some polymers that occur naturally may include proteins, latex and even cellulose. These materials are commonly referred to as plastics. Some of the polymers are synthetic and are produced from industrial processes.

Polymerization refers to the degree in which repeating components form one outstanding unit. High strength polymers are those that have high level of polymerization, whereas those with one type of repeating units are homopolymers. Those with several and different repeating units are co-polymers.

The mode of classification that is in use for classifying polymers is the method used in their formation. There are two types of polymers which include additional polymers and condensation polymers.

Additional polymers are formed from the combination of many monomers while condensation polymers where the combination of monomers leads to the loss of a water molecule. The vital elements that form the polymers are carbon and hydrogen, although sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen may also be included.

Natural polymer is believed to have originated from South Africa from the trees called Heave and Castile. Its origin dates back from 1735 when natural rubber was first described by French geographic expedition to South Africa.

One of the first pioneers in the application of polymers was Joseph Priestley who in 1770 made a remarkable discovery that led to the use of natural rubber as an eraser. Then in 1909, this synthetic rubber was introduced publicly.

1922 German chemist Hermann Staudinger came up with his macromolecular hypothesis, giving a suggestion that the polymers are actually large molecules formed by the permanent joining of uncountable tiny molecules. Through his experiments, he proved this hypothesis to be true and earned himself a Nobel Prize in 1953.

There are a number of ways in which polymers are used. Such ways include:

In agriculture and agribusiness, polymers can be used to promote plant growth. They can also be used to improve aeration in soil. (Emsley,5).

In medicine, polymers are used to replace heart valves. These polymers include Teflon and Dacron.

Polymers can act as a substitute for natural cotton.

In industrial market, they can be used to make pipes, matrix for composites, insulation or even windshields in fighter planes.

They are also used to replace natural materials such as ivory and woods.

They can be used in cars and planes with reduced amount of fuel to be used due to their light weight.

In consumer science, polymers are used to replace traditional containers. This is because they are light in weight and are also economical.

In sports, they are used in making protective helmets, balls of different varieties and other playground equipment.

Biopolymers are biodegradable polymers. The raw materials for their production may be renewable or synthetic. These types of polymers are not produced widely due to their high cost. Such kinds of polymer include:

Polyhdroxyalkanoate: compostable in an industrial facility. These are produced from a range of bacterial action, which act carbon storage materials. They also act like energy storage materials. They form a stable latex suitable in paper surface finishes and coating and sizing.

Polylactic acid: 100% compostable at 60oc in an industrial facility.

Biodegradable plastics are those that will decompose in landfill (environment). Biodegradable plastics can be produced from organisms in the environment. Micro-organisms can produce renewable raw materials or petroleum based plastics. Since these plastics are made from materials that are natural, for example, cellulose and starch, they decompose easily when in contact with oxygen or even water and sunlight. Micro-organisms use enzymatic break down of the points of glycoside linkage to bring about decomposition of these biopolymers. (Scott,93).

Polymers have varying environmental impacts. Such impacts include:

• Some monomers are said to be toxic or even to some level said to be carcinogenic.
• Burning of plastics produces emission that lead to production of green house gases for example, carbon dioxide. This gas is also a major source for global warming.
• There is also production of methane gas, a product of anaerobic digestion, together with carbon dioxide emitted from decomposition of biodegradable polymer.

Non-biodegradable plastics are buried in landfills. These plastics occupy space that would otherwise have been occupied by other biodegradable plastics. This will result to the same lasting in landfills for a longer period of time, even up to hundreds of years.

Improper composition of plastics also has its impacts to the environment. In regions of the north pacific, there is a floating island of plastics that have been discarded hence bring about the danger to the aquatic life and the birdlife. Many coast areas, as well as the inland, may contain plastics.

Glass

Glass is a solid object with non-crystalline properties. It is amorphous in nature and occurs in various forms. It is principally made up of silica (SiO₂) which makes up a substantial percentage about 75% of its components; other components include lime (calcium oxide), magnesium oxide and aluminium oxide each of which add to its long lasting nature.

Sodium carbonate may be an additive, however it is not preferred as it makes its ability to be converted to the liquid state easily attainable. Huge debates have risen as to the physical state of glass i.e. whether it is a solid or a liquid but in essence glass is a liquid in a super cooled state.

This means that it has rigidity and is static however it does not lose its molecular state. Glass comes in a variety of forms and used in varied applications as it ranges from clear glass to tinted glass and lastly tempered glass.

It is believed that glass has been in existence since time immemorial with natural glass dating back to 5000 BC, in ancient Rome, as an accidental finding by Syrian merchants and the man-made glass tracing its roots in Mesopotamia in 3500BC as the outcome of a coincidental mixture of calcified sand and soda being mixed in a kiln.

Since its advent glass has improved mans way of living significantly. Uses range from home-use to industrial use. Compared to polymers glass is the appropriate material for producing storage equipment due to its hygienic nature. It is essentially absent of toxic components and is quite inert thus its effect on the environment is minimal.

Resistance to wear and tear is an additional feature and the little quantities of glass like lime and silica are constituents of mineral water. The inert nature is evident in its slow conversion to silicates when released to the environment and this property can be utilized in making environmentally dangerous material inert.

Recycling, which is, the ideal waste management strategy can easily be implemented when using glass due to its non-biodegradable nature. A particular glass bottle can be used infinitely as it can be melted and re-melted without losing its properties. (Walker,22).

This is ecologically friendly as it: 

• Cuts down on disposal and transport expenses.
• Minimizes environmental damage.
• Minimizes production costs by reducing the amount of primary materials, especially calcium carbonates and silicates and by extension minimizing quarry exploitation of these resources.
• Reduces amount of energy that is consumed in production as a ton of glass re-melted spares a similar amount of the same raw materials and even more energy.
• Reduces the greenhouse effect that would arise from carbon dioxide production that would have arisen, as a result, carbonate decomposition in case of primary materials.

However, there are also negative attributes to glass being in the environment such as:-

• Glass dust has detrimental health risks to humans and other forms of human life.
• Physical trauma can be incurred from glass particles hanging in the environment.

It therefore goes without saying that the use of polymers in the production of storage equipment has much more negative attributes as compared to the use of glass especially in the detrimental effects that they have on the environment. Recycling is the most efficient ecologically friendly way of management of waste.

Work Cited

Emsley, Alan. Polymers: the environment and sustainable development. New York: John Wiley and Sons,2003.

Scott, Gerald. Polymers and the environment. England: Royal Society of Chemistry, 1999.

Walker, Kate. Recycle, reduce, reuse, rethink . New York: Black Rabbit Books, 2005.

Terrestrial ecology is an organization that deals with study and conservation of plants, animals and soil by ensuring sustainability of natural resources for the benefit of humanity.

The organization has observed that human activities and natural processes cannot conserve the environment if there are no viable objectives that ensure sustainability of natural resources. Human activities such as farming, construction, settlement, deforestation, poaching, hunting and gathering gradually leads to the depletion of natural resources if not checked.

Moreover, natural processes such as erosion, weathering, predation, competition, floods, volcanic, and earthquakes destroy the natural environment thus calling for the ecological conservation. Kjaer explains that, The terrestrial organization focuses on how plants, animals and their habitats are affected by natural conditions, climate and soil, as well as human activities, air pollution, pesticides, genetically modified plants and various agricultural management systems (1).

The organization conducts research on various aspects of terrestrial ecology and gives viable recommendations for the government to make real time policies and laws regarding conservation of environmental resources for sustainability. Due to rampant pollution and destructive natural processes all over the world, the organization has designed effective programs that ensure real time assessment and conservation of terrestrial environment.

The terrestrial ecology has several programs directed at and specialized in soil, plants and animals. The soil, plants and animals are three components of the terrestrial environment that need conservation in order to avoid depletion of natural resources or pollution of the environment.

Regarding conservation of the soil, the terrestrial organization has realized that soil is the dominant factor in the terrestrial environment, which determines existence of plants and animals. The organization has designed programs that assess and evaluate the extent of pollution in the soil with the view of mitigating the effects of pollution and even preventing their occurrence.

According to Wickland, &programs such as field surveys and laboratory assessment of toxic substances in the soil provide an over view of the extent of soil pollution that will enhance formulation of essential measures of conservation (25). Quality of soil in a given terrestrial environment is critical in determining survival of plants and animals in certain environment.

Other programs of the terrestrial organization focus on the study and conservation of the plants and animals. Human beings pollute the environment and the toxic chemicals find their way into plants and animals, thus threatening their existence, which may lead to extinction.

In the environment, animals can least survive because they accumulate more toxins in their system as compared to the plants due to biomagnifications of toxins up the food chain.

Lawson and Smith argue that, &genetic modification of plants and animals coupled with the increased pollution are deliberate human activities in that if not controlled, they may lead to extinction of organisms or reduction of biodiversity in the universe (51).

Therefore, the terrestrial organization assesses genetic aberrations and toxicity in the organism relative to the air, soil and water pollution in order to come up with appropriate measures of environmental conservation.

The terrestrial ecology organization is an international organization that aims at conservation of the worlds natural resources for sustainable benefit of humanity. According to Kjaer, terrestrial ecology collaborates with a number of international partners and has the overall responsibility for several large international research and development programs in various parts of the world, (5).

The research studies carried by the organization have both national and international significance and are imperative in addressing environment issues relating to pollution and human activities. The organization also encourages development of sustainable agricultural systems by designing good agricultural practices that enhance productive farming.

Works Cited

Kjaer, Christian. Terrestrial Ecology. National Environmental Research Institute, (2011): 1-12

Lawson, James & Smith, Richard. Institute of Terrestrial Ecology. Natural Environment Research Council, (2002): 1-36 Wickland, Diane. Terrestrial Ecology. Tennessee Valley Authority, (2007): 1-62

Introduction

The Florida Everglades is one of the last bastions of nature left in the U.S. where human progress has pushed plants and animals alike to the fringes of human civilization. It is the largest of the remaining subtropical environments left within the country consisting of 10,000 tiny islands, various rivers, lakes, streams, prairies, forests as well as a plethora of plant and animal life.

It can be said that the Everglades is a type of microcosm of the various environments seen around the world due to the varied environments contained within a location that is roughly 1.5 million acres in size. Based on current studies, the Everglades at any given time is home to up to 150 species of trees, 40 species of various mammals, various reptiles and amphibians as well as a host of innumerable insect life.

Unfortunately due to human habitation the Everglades and its surrounding areas have been adversely affected resulting in its slow deterioration. Previous studies examining the Everglades reveal that originally the Everglades covered 1/3 of Floridas land mass and its main river was 110 miles long.

Presently the Everglades only covers an area of roughly 1.5 million acres and the river is only 70 miles long. With human development came an encroachment into the natural ecosystem of the area resulting in water, that normally went into replenishing the various rivers and tributaries in the Everglades, being diverted to various farms and urban cities resulting in a slow decline of the Everglades since the 1980.

Plant and Animal Species in the Everglades

As mentioned earlier, the Everglades has a plethora of different animal and plant species, for the purposes of this paper though it would not be feasible to describe every single one of them as such what will be focused on will be the most notable and well known species of animal and plant life in the area. One of the most notable and widely considered to be symbolic of the Florida Everglades is the American Alligator.

At 16 feet long (or longer), it is the largest reptile in North America and one of the most common sights within the Everglades itself. Considered the top predator in the area the American Alligator is usually seen in the news as being involved in various cases of human death but it is usually due to intrusions into their territory that causes such incidents to happen.

Another large species of reptile found in the Everglades is the American Crocodile, smaller and far more secretive that its cousin the American Alligator, crocodiles are usually found in the Flamingo area of the Everglades national park.

It is speculated that their ability to coexist with alligators is due to the fact that they rarely directly compete against alligators and are in a more isolated area as compared to alligators that are more spread out. Aside from reptiles the bird population in the Everglades is one of the largest in North America with various species existing in the low lying marshland areas.

Birds in the area (at 350 species and counting) usually act as a method control for the vast insect population within the Everglades however as a result of human encroachment more low lying areas are being drained resulting in decline in the bird population.

Unfortunately such a result has encouraged a boom in the insect population which presents itself as a definite health hazard due to potential for the spread of disease through flies. While there are numerous plant species within the Everglades the most prolific is Saw grass, it is a type of grass that belongs to the sedge family and is one of the most common types of grass seen within the area.

It adaptive characteristic is the fact that the grass itself is actually quite hard and sharp which has been noted as being able to cut through certain types of clothing. Various speculations as to how this form of adaptation came to be range from it growing in this manner due to the inherent natural climate or as a method to prevent its consumption by various animal species.

Environmental challenges

As mentioned earlier one of the challenges currently facing the Everglades is continued human expansion which threatens to drain the Everglades of all its vital water. On average a single city within the U.S. consumers several million gallons a day in order to maintain a population of millions.

Within Miami, one of the largest cities in the U.S., being an hours drive away from the Everglades this means that the city directly sources its water from various man made canals and tributaries that feed off the main rivers within the area. Combined with the various home owned and corporate farms within the area this results in the draining of millions of gallons a day, faster than the river can replenish itself with.

The result is slow deterioration of the marshlands which continued to shrink the Everglades year. It has been estimated that if nothing is done within the immediate future the Everglades will disappear by 2035 or 2050 as continued human expansion and consumption shrinks the natural resources available within the immediate area.

Introduction

So often, I look at the beautiful scenes and I grateful to God for wonderful and excellent work. The world is full of unlimited beautiful sceneries while the underground is full of valuable resources. While we live, it is our priority to protect the environment and its core components. It is extremely unacceptable to destroy our ecosystem, especially, considering the fact that we need it for a safe future.

My great concern about some environmental valuables makes me a strong believer that our ecosystem requires maximum protection. In this paper, I seek to look at mercury, which is one of the precious elements on earth. The paper is going to examine the source, location, mining methods, economic value and the environmental concerns on mercury. The paper is brief, concise, and direct to the main objectives.

Discussion

Most people may find it very difficult to give a concise explanation if you ask them about the condition of mercury at a room temperature. Moreover, the simple question is what is mercury? I know this question can raise a hot debate in the public domain with both negative and positive responds. Mercury is a versatile material perfect in existence of several years. This element has a dual existence character (Wolke 56).

At a room temperature, mercury is in a liquid condition, while under other conditions the element exists as a metal. Liquid-metal also refers to mercury due to its twin characteristics. Mercury has extremely high density, and surface tension. Mercury is a good conductor of electricity that expands and contracts in a uniform manner when responding to the changes exerted by temperature and pressure.

Sources of mercury

The liquid-metal element occurs naturally and found in the volcanoes and the weathering of rocks. However, not all mercury occurs naturally from the mentioned place, as sometimes it occurs as the air pollution born by coal-burning power plants. Mercury that dominates the world market is mainly obtained from mines in China and Spain.

The environmental concerns tied to production of mercury

Mercury is widely used in the gold mining. Nonetheless, the gold miners are required to be certain on how easily they can contaminate the environment, including persons within the surrounding. Mercury occurs naturally, but about a third of the worlds atmosphere mercury comes from a natural process such as volcanic activities.

Unfortunately, human beings form the rest (Wolke 87). Activities like coal burning and use of gas in vehicles pollutes the environment. However, mercury production faces several restrictions. Mercury has been limited to use of obsolete technology and require the use of the high technology to reduce the release of mercury. Some countries have imposed sanctions on the production of this element in pursuit to eliminate the excess emission of mercury in environment.

The cost relative to other similar materials

Mercury though destructive, its economic value is relatively high. Mercury has various important uses which makes it expensive (Wolke 47). Some of its important uses include its function in a gold-mining process. Market value of mercury keeps upward movement compared to its immediate competitor. However, the liquid-metal presents more destruction of the environment, the element is still positioning a strong market appeal to the customers.

The environmental concerns on recycling or reuse of mercury

Several environmental steps are strategically important to check on recycle of mercury. Substantial amount of recycled mercury can find its way even after a long period. Environmentalists are in the process of seeking the best ways of managing its disposal. Mercury disposal needs special knowledge as it is very dangerous to ecosystem, including human beings that are the subject directly or indirectly (Wolke 52).

The environmental concerns for using mercury

From the beginning, I am extremely concerned with the environmental safety of our ecosystem. Although mercury poses a number of merits, it has a great impact if perfectly controlled.

From doctors desk, mercury exposure leads to unhealthy problems. Scientists through various works with supporting evidence show that close contact with mercury causes impairment of the nervous system plus the kidney. Children are at a high risk with mercury, which affects the child ability to learn and process the information. Recent study shows that mercury can result into serious illness while in some cases it kills.

According to the research provided by the Minnesota Health Department, infants and children are at a very high risk when they inhale or feed on mercury (Wolke 52). This has heightened the debate with environmentalist demonstrating much commitment trying to deter the pollution, various rules and regulations have been set in order to ensure that mercury pollution is in control.

Though much has been through implementation of environmental law, mercury pollution still increases. The developed countries are well aware of the adverse effect of mercury on health and environment and have adopted measures to reduce the uses of the substance. Nonetheless, the liquid- metal has substantial merits.

Conclusion

Although the economic value of some products is extremely appealing and attracting to the manufacturers, it is much appropriate if they consider the environmental impacts caused by them. Environment protection is essential for a bright future. The governments in conjunction with environmental management teams have to continue with their efforts to ensure that the surrounding is safe.

Works Cited

Wolke, Robert. Impact, Science on Society. Michigan: Saunders, 1975. Print.

Introduction

The essay, What a Certain Visionary Once Said, by Tomson Hemingway is an attempt by the author to relay his feelings over what he perceives as a loss of connection to the natural world by present day society due to its constant quest for modernization. He does this by relaying visions of flat prairies, unspoiled forests, vast untouched landscapes and a certain wildness to the surrounding areas that Hemingway indicates is a scene few people appreciate today.

This is in contrast to the brick, mortar and asphalt scenery people are used to that has become synonymous with a modern day existence. In fact it can be seen in the essay that Hemingway indirectly criticizes the modern day lifestyle of mankind by indicating that the waters far from civilization are purer and cleaner and thus safe to drink without any worries.

What must be understood is that most rivers that go through various cities and population centers in the world today such as the Yangtze River in China, the Ganges in India, and the Pasig River in the Philippines are polluted and unsafe for human consumption. This is a direct result of modern day industrialization and as such most people today are rather reluctant to drink from water sources that are not from a bottle or untreated from a faucet.

Contrasting Nature and Modern Lifestyles

Hemingway indicates that in places far from todays population centers there is a certain beauty and purity to the area where a person can sit back, relax and absorb the sounds and sights of nature. This view is in direct contrast to the rapid and fast paced lifestyles most people experience wherein speed and efficiency take precedent over slow meaningful appreciation.

From start to finish the essay is a way in which a person can contrast their modern day lifestyle with the visions of pure wilderness that Hemingway is attempting to relay. In fact it can even be assumed that what Hemingway is attempting to accomplish in this essay is that he wants people to question whether the modern lifestyles they are enjoying at the present is truly worth what they lost in terms of their connection to nature and an appreciation for its unique wonders.

Towards the end of the essay the author mentions that not only does the Earth have an emotional, psychological and spiritual life but it is not really ours in the first place. One interpretation of this is the belief of the author that the entire planet is a living, breathing entity that is not ours to bend to our will but rather for us to appreciate, examine and enjoy the natural wonders it has.

Conclusion

In conclusion it can be said that the entire essay is a form of critique against modern day lifestyles where the author uses examples drawn from nature in order to show the difference between what was lost and what was gained. Overall the essay was a fantastic piece of literary work and speaks volumes of how as a species we have lost our connection to nature and that in itself is a great tragedy.

Introduction

The current global warming effects from ozone depletion to carbon gas emissions have made scientists, architects and world leaders, in seeking new modalities to curb the vice; that seem to threaten lives of many and that of future generations. Currently, the modern architectural designs; adopted by architects, focus of environmental sustainability mechanisms unlike the ancient ones. Building environmental sensitive houses does not create any harm, be it to the client or the owner.

In fact, the design of green architectural homes reduces any operating costs associated with it and on the other hand, it results into lesser environmental impact. Just like the shift from traditional agriculture to environmental friendly biotechnology, architects are busy designing sustainable homes geared towards a sustainable industry.

For example, traditional homes seem to cause heating up of buildings hence, environmental degradation. Furthermore, these houses involve high costs of construction. Perhaps, the reason why many people prefer green buildings nowadays is that, they have less construction costs.

Under the current global economic downturn together with an emphatic energy crisis, people cannot afford to build expensive homes. Therefore, it is apparent that, any future architectural designs especially homes-must address energy conservation and liquid clarity concerning low maintenance costs. (Zander Para.1-5).

Sustainable Architecture

On of the modules towards the future of green technologies in architectural industry is sustainable architecture. Sustainable architecture addresses environmental risks associated with the incessant construction of traditional buildings. It simply implies enhanced functionalities, more savings and reliance on energy, mutually in civil workings and in residential constructions.

For example, according to U.S Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), green technologies in architectural industries promote environmental conservation through proper waste management and less consumer costs. Additionally, these houses have balconies and backyards for urban gardens consequently, more food production.

Future green technologies in architectural designs will comprise of new architectural mechanisms, which is simply a combination of prehistoric and industrial routines. These techniques will for example, see setting up of photovoltaic gadgets to produce electricity and fixation of solar thermal collectors to heat water instead of burning charcoal which is riskier to the environment.

In addition to this, architects use simply available materials for these future green technologies of architectural designs. Materials like coked earth, bamboo, recycled stone, recyclable metal and plastic components not only are they sustainable and less toxic, but also, durable, cheap and save energy loss. (Fair Companies Para. 4-15).

Natural and Green Constructions for Green Architecture

Statistics collected by American Institute of Architects indicate that, buildings with greenhouses emit more gases than other economic sectors like transport and energy. However, future green technologies will see architectural designs economical in terms of water, energy and cost of materials hence, less-toxic and healthier homes.

Ancient buildings do not really show environmental conservation techniques. Nevertheless, architects can modify these buildings using new and environmental friendly materials without necessarily demolishing them, for green revolution in future architectural designs.

Future architectural designs will also provide a platform of observing climatic conditions using natural resources like rain, wind and sun to achieve environmental safety. This is bioclimatic architecture where, energy use is not dominant; it preserves combustion and emissions.

For example, cross ventilation of ancient buildings create variations in room temperature and pressure. Nevertheless, bioclimatic architectural designs can change this effect to a better one. Another example is that of greenhouses. Currently, exterior windows with vertical shutters help in preventing greenhouse gas emissions in summer hence, fastidious air conditioning parameters. (Fair Companies Para. 20-33).

In conclusion, future green technologies in architectural industries will see an industry driven towards environmental conservation via green technologies in architectural designs and constructions. Notably, ancient buildings have in one way or another, contributed to environmental degradation. It is therefore up to architects to make designs that prop up thermal reassurance, waste management and generally observe sustainability to climatic conditions.

Works Cited

Fair Companies. The Future of Green Architecture. 2009. Web.

Zander, Carly. Ashville Architecture Firm Building for the Future by Going Green. 2008. Web.

Introduction

Fossil fuels have served as the primary source of energy for the past century, helping man to achieve a previously unprecedented level of development. This source of energy has been harnessed to power industries and fuel transportation means therefore helping in the growth of the modern civilization.

However, the ability of fossil fuels to continue playing a central role in fulfilling the energy demands of mankind has been called into question due to a number of reasons. The great industrial expansions experienced all over the world and the exponential population growth have put an enormous strain on fossil fuels.

Addition to the concern about the possible exhaustion of fossil fuels, this energy source has been blamed for negative environmental impacts. Because of these concerns, there have been calls for more focus on renewable energy sources, which currently make a minor contribution in the global energy supply.

While the development of renewable energy sources promises to enhance global energy security and mitigate the negative effects of fossil fuels, this alternative has not been received universal approval.

There has been opposition to these means with some people viewing fossil fuels as the only reliable source for satisfying the global energy needs renewable energy as unfeasible. This paper will argue that fossil fuels have no future and the world needs to develop renewable energy sources to satisfy the energy demands of the world.

A Case for Developing Renewable Energy Sources

Fossil fuels are nonrenewable sources of energy, which means that there is a finite amount of fossil fuels on earth and the current fuel reserves will one day end. The world can therefore not afford to depend primarily on a source of energy that cannot be expected to last indefinitely. A report by the oil giant BP reveals that the worlds crude oil reserves are currently at 1,200 billion barrels (Issitt and Warhol 1).

With an annual consumption rate of 30 billion barrels, the current oil reserves will only last for the next 40 years. The revelation that the life span of the fossil fuel reserves on the planet is not that long should push the world to seek alternative energy means. If renewable energy sources are not pursued, the world will face energy crisis once the fossil fuel reserves run out since fossil fuels are the primary energy sources for the world today.

Renewable energy sources can such as solar energy can be relied upon since it will last for as long as the sun shines. The future energy supply for the world will therefore be guaranteed through such a source. The early development of renewable energy sources will also reduce the current strain on fossil fuels. This will enable fossil fuels to last longer even as the world makes the gradual move to alternative sources of energy.

Fossil fuels have an adverse effect on the environment due to the greenhouse gases emitted when these fuels are burnt. The greenhouse gases have resulted in many adverse environmental impacts including global warming and acid rains. The global warming phenomenon has especially caused environmental issues to take a center stage in global affairs. World leaders, policy makers, and scientists have tried to come up with a way to mitigate global warming which is mostly blamed on fossil fuels (Gurmit 34).

Since the world needs energy to sustain its development, the only way to mitigate the negative environmental impacts of fossil fuels is by coming up with an energy source that has reduced or zero negative impacts on the environment. Renewable energy sources present a feasible way to produce energy without the negative environmental impacts attributed to fossil fuels.

Alternative energy source such as wind energy and solar power are clean sources that do not emit any harmful gases to the environment. Solar energy uses the sun to generate clean energy with little or no green house gas emissions. Wind energy uses the wind to turn turbines with zero carbon emissions.

The overreliance on fossil fuels by the world has decreased the energy independence of most Western nations, which do not have their own fossil fuel reserves. The nations have been forced to increase their dependency on oil producing nations, which have immense power because they possess this valuable resource.

For example, the United States relies heavily on imported fuel to satisfy its energy needs. Issitt and Warhol document that 80% of US oil is imported from the oil producing nations (4). This is a very significant amount of oil considering the huge energy demands by industries and citizens in the US. The high dependency on foreign nations to supply a countries energy needs can be risky.

To begin with, such a situation places the oil-producing nations great political power. This is best elaborated by the oil embargo placed by the Arab producing nations on the US in 1967. This embargo was placed in reaction to the United States support for Israel during the Arab-Israeli war. The restriction led to a shortage of fuel in the US and a rise in oil prices therefore affecting the economy.

Renewable energy sources would ensure the self-sufficiency of a country since it would be able to produce its own energy in a sustainable manner. Renewable energy sources will also save non-oil producing nations money since their foreign spending will be drastically reduced if they do not have to import fossil fuels.

Renewable energy sources will help preserve the natural environment since energy will be harnessed with little damage to the environment. Fossil fuels have also contributed to the degradation of the natural environment.

As demand for these fuels has increased, oil companies have had to expand their operations to new areas that are natural habitats. The American government is considering engaging in drilling operations in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge in order to produce more and cheaper fuel for the American population (Moselle 79).

As the current oil reserves dwindle, nations are expanding their explorations in an unsustainable manner. Renewable energy sources would serve as a more permanent solution to the energy demand problem that the world faces. These sources if well exploited would provide man with an unlimited amount of energy for an indefinite period.

Arguments against Renewable Energy

Opponents of renewable energy sources assert that these alternative means cannot satisfy the immense energy needs of the country. These proponents of fossil fuels contend that while fossil fuel reserves are decreasing, it would be impossible to replace them and a more feasible solution would be to look for more energy efficient ways to make the fossil fuels last longer (Bowman and Marcus 11).

To support these arguments, these opponents of renewable energy observe that alternative energy sources are inefficient and very expensive. This assertion is true since fossil fuels are comparatively cheaper and the most efficient energy form. However, it should be noted that fossil fuels technologies have been developed for decades, which is why they are so efficient. If renewable energy sources are given the time to develop, they will become as efficient (Talal and Steven 2217).

Increase in use will also reduce the cost of renewable energy so that they are eventually at par or even less than fossil fuel prices. Governments and technology companies should therefore invest more in alternative energy source research and development in order to accelerate this.

Renewable energy source development is taking long and this has led opponents to question the feasibility of these alternative energy sources. Western governments including the US have been engaged in research efforts for the past 4 decades with billions of dollars invested in the development of feasible replacements for fossil fuels.

Bowman and Marcus document that in its efforts to promote renewable energy production in the past 4 decades, the US government has lost billions of dollars and continues to loss more as additional money is dedicated to these efforts (1).

Proponents of fossil fuels argue that this money could be better used advancing research in the improvement of efficiency in fossil fuels or exploration of new fossil fuels reserves. While it is true that significant amounts of money have been used in trying to develop feasible renewable energy technologies, the effort has not been in vain.

Renewable technology such as solar power has made great developments and plans for wide scale production of electricity in some regions have already been implemented (Moselle 152). While renewable technology is not yet as matured as fossil fuels, this should not be used as an excuse to abandon an energy source that will ensure sustainability.

Conclusion

This paper set out to argue that fossil fuels have no future in the world and as such, renewable energy sources need to be developed and used in place of fossil fuels. The paper begun by noting that fossil fuels are a finite non-renewable resource predicted to run out soon, and when this happens, the world will face an energy crisis if it does not have an alternative.

The paper then articulated the negative environmental impacts of fossil fuels and the dependency that these fuels create as non-oil producing nations are forced to rely on the oil producers. The paper has admitted that renewable energy technology is still in its development stage and therefore inferior to fossil fuel technologies.

However, considering the significant benefits that renewable energy will bring, additional investments should be made to improve this technology and lead to a wider embrace of these alternative energy sources. By doing this, the energy security of the globe will be ensured and the negative environmental impacts currently caused by fossil fuels mitigated.

Works Cited

Bowman, Jeffrey, and Marcus Griswold. Counterpoint: Alternative Energy Wont Solve All the Demands of World Energy Consumption. Points of View: Alternative Energy Exploration 4.1 (2009): 1-10. Web.

Gurmit, Singh. Exploit Nature-Renewable Energy Technologies. New Delhi: Aditya Books Pvt. Ltd., 2009. Print.

Issitt, Micah and Warhol Tom. Alternative Energy Exploration: An Overview. Points of View: Alternative Energy Exploration (2009): 1-5. Web.

Moselle, Boaz. Harnessing Renewable Energy in Electric Power Systems: Theory, Practice, Policy. New York: Earthscan, 2010. Print.

Talal, Yusaf and Steven Goh. Potential of renewable energy alternatives in Australia. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews 15.5 (2011): 2214-2221. Web.

Material Culture Summary: Architexturality: An Argument in Favor of Creative Preservation of the Urban Built Environment

This article was written by Michelle Metro-Rolland. It explores how the various levels of historical structures are preserved in the cities that are struggling with rapid development and modernization (Critical Conservation par. 1). Most cities that have historical structures were analyzed. Moreover, various ways of preserving the structures were identified.

The article has been introduced with definition of the term city environment. Moreover, the importance of history in the development of the cities has been highlighted. The writer identifies the well being in several city landscapes in the United States, Europe, and the Far East.

The historical structures offer an in-depth understanding of the political, economical, and social practices of the people who developed the cities (Rypkema 4). The author argues that while the past should be appreciated, it is also vital to embrace modernity.

The article identifies available methods that are used in the preservation of urban structures. Several international bodies that enforce international laws and policies are currently available. They mainly target the preservation of historical sites in the cities (Critical Conservation par. 2). These bodies create awareness on the need of preserving monumental structures located in cities. Some of these organizations include UNESCO, HUL, and ICOMOS.

The art of preservation of the monumental structures emerged in the late 19^th century. Currently, several countries have et up laws and policies that are aimed at preserving important historical structures in their respective cities (Rypkema 4). The author managed to identify several challenges facing the preservation of structures that belonged to old cities. The most outstanding challenge is the deplorable status of the old structures.

Most of them are inhabitable and thus, pose danger to the city dwellers. The environmental conditions of the houses are also not suitable for settlement. Furthermore, modern lifestyles and living conditions have made most of these structures to be inhabitable. Since such structures cover large city areas in Eastern Europe and the U.S. it becomes quite cumbersome to maintain those structures in their original states.

The author is also quite categorical that most of the monumental structures in the cities are privately owned. This poses a significant danger towards the preservation of such structures since governments have limited control on development projects carried out on privately owned properties. However, the author highlights some ways in which privately owned monumental structures have been renovated and utilized in the modern world.

As much as the use of the structures is not similar to the original use of the structure during the historical times, it has proved to be an effective way of preserving the monumental structures without undertaking major modifications (Rypkema 5). Some of the structures that are owned by the state are used as museums and tourist attraction centers. As a matter of fact, reusing the structures proves to be a better way of preserving them (Built Environment par. 6).

The writer acknowledges the importance of buildings as a form of history preservation since movable historical artifacts can easily be lost, stolen, or destroyed. The author appreciates the modernization of the cities but believes that it can still be done without destroying the historical structures.

He also visualizes that any city is a very rich historical landscape that can offer the story of its settlers and the changes that have taken place in the social-political settings of its environment (Built Environment par. 5).

Works Cited

Built Environment. 2013. Web.

Critical Conservation. 2013. Web.

Rypkema, Donovan. Celebrating Our Urban Heritage: Globalization, Urban Heritage, and the 21st century Economy. Global Urban Development Magazine 1.1(2005): 1-8. Web.

Introduction

Costa Rica (a country in South American) is located between Nicaragua and Panama. With a total land size of 19,653 sq miles, Cost Rica boarders Caribbean Sea and North Pacific Ocean.

The greatest distance connecting its principal point is 200 miles. This paper discusses Costa Rica with respect to preserved Rainforests and other related geographical phenomena. The country is not highly populated and has a total population of only 3.5 million people. It has five major geographical areas namely the Pacific, Caribbean, North Central Plains, Central Valley, and the Northwest Peninsula.

It has seven provinces namely Alajuela, Heredia, San Jose, Limon, Guanacaste, Cartago, and Puntarenas (Infocostarica 1). Different regions of Costa Rica exhibit different geographical and climatic conditions. The regions have features such as volcanoes and mountains, rivers, forests, and valleys. The rainy season is one of the features of Costa Rica. This has increased the number of rivers and rainforests tremendously. Some of the major rivers in Costa Rica include San Juan, Tempisque, Sixaola, and Pacuare.

There are numerous mountain ranges stretching across the country. A major mountain ridge is the Costa Rican ridge that includes Cordillera of Guanacaste, Cordillera Central, Cordillera of Tilaran, and Cordillera of Talamanca. The volcanic ranges in Costa Rica include the Guanacaste Range, the Central Volcanic Range and the Talamanca Range.

The Rainforests

Costa Rica is featured with various rainforests (a habitat of about 10000 species of trees and plants). More than a quarter of this Central American country is used as biological reserve and for wildlife refuge. It is also among the most bio-diverse countries in the world (Govisitcostarica 1).

The forests in Costa Rica can be classified as rainforest, cloud forest, and topical dry forest. However, the rainforests are the most common in Costa Rica. They are mainly located in the south western parts of the country. Moreover, they exist in the Atlantic lowlands and characteristically featured by tall trees as well as drooping vines. The trees in the forests are tall and some reach up to 70 meters.

The forests are habitat to many animals and many species of plants. Some of the rainforests include Arenal Volcano National Park, Barbilla National Park, Carara National Park and Braulio Carrillo National Park. The cloud forests are mainly located on the slopes of volcanoes and mountains. The tropical forests, on the other hand, are mainly in the North Pacific coast of the country.

The rainforests of Costa Rica are characterized by high levels of biodiversity. Rainforests possess nearly 12000 species of vegetation as well as 1240 different kinds of butterflies. Species of birds in Costa Rica nears 838 while reptiles constitute 440. This is a critical ecological provision when observed decisively. In addition, there are 232 species of mammals (rainforests.mongabay 1). There are five different layers in the rainforests and these are the emergent, the canopy, the under storey, shrub and ground.

Each of these layers has particular plants and animals that are adapted to the conditions in them. The rainforests are also characterized with many rivers and many waterfalls. Geographically, this is a critical provision in the context of biodiversity and environmental viability. It is important to protect the rainforests as advocated by the government.

Rainforests receive approximately 2000 to 6000 mm of rain per year and are in the altitude of between 0-1000m above sea level. The highest temperature in the forests is usually 33⁰C while the lowest is usually 22 degree centigrade (costarica21 1). The tropical rainforests have a variety of plants and trees.

Some of the animals in the rainforests include the green basilisk, the green iguana, the two toed and the three toed sloth and the poison dart frog among many others. There are also different types of birds in the rainforests and these usually attract a lot of bird watchers.

Preservation of the Rainforests

Costa Rica has established and enacted critical conservation plans mandated to protect the mentioned rainforests considerably. The plan aims at protecting more than ten percent of the country so as to have large forest coverage. The implementation of the plan has began and one strip of forest covers over 40 miles without any interruption. The forest strip covers 9 ecological locations in Costa Rica. It extends to areas 12500M altitude.

In 1995, the state initiated a credible program mandated to guard 18% of the Costa Ricas rainforests. The 18 percent land coverage was to be converted into national parks. In addition to this, another 13 percent of the country was to be given to individuals so that they make private reserves. The state besieged regions with enormous biodiversity for protection. Land owners were issued with certificates of forest protection by the government.

These certificates paid the land owners an average of $50 annually for every hectare of forest cover that they protected. This is the method through which the government funded the project. To this end, around two third of the countrys rainforests are under protection. The country has also initiated a number of programs to promote growth that can be sustained.

The Forest Project of the Foundation for the Development of Central Volcanic Mountain Range is one of the projects that that aim at promoting sustainable development. This project manages around 13000 hectares through the development of plans that land owners can use to manage forests (climatepath 1).

Threats to the Rainforests

Costa Rica earns remarkable revenue from ecotourism. The amount that tourism earns the country in terms of foreign exchange is higher than the amounts earned through the sale of timber. Rainforests have a lot of bio-diversity and this attracts tourists. This is a critical provision when considered decisively in the realms of economic growth and other viable developmental provisions.

The parks that the country has are accessible and the safety standards are high. However, the number of tourists at the parks is at times restricted so as to avoid damage to the forests. The encroachment of the forests by hoteliers has also led to a lot of controversy in the country.

Despite the efforts exerted by Costa Rica to protect rainforests, the country has faced numerous challenges due to deforestation. Costa Rica once had a 99 percent forest cover. This environmental viability has reduced gradually. The present situation nears only 35 percent of forest cover.

The main reasons for deforestation in this country is harvesting for timber and conversion of land for agricultural purposes. Loss of biodiversity and the effects on the climate are the two most severe consequences that destruction of the rainforests has on Costa Rica (Coztarica 1).

The threats that rainforests of Costa Rica face also include high population growth, forest sustainability challenges, and human interferences. Areas with rapid population growth in Costa Rica are in the tropics. In these areas, people clear land for sustenance farming.

Clearing of land, however, continue since rainforest soil loose nutrients quickly after a few years of farming. The other threat to the rainforests in this country is the global and regional climatic change. Global climatic changes have made the tropics warmer and have had the effect of changing the rainfall patterns and thus affect rainforests adversely (costarica21 1).

Conclusion

Costa Rica is a country rich in bio-diversity. The country has numerous geographical features with five major geographical regions and seven provinces. These regions have different climatic conditions. The country receives a lot of rains and has many rainforests. The abundant rain has made the country to have many rivers. The rainforests in the country act as homes to many animals and plants. They have five different layers.

Each layer only harbors plants and animals adapted to it. this is a critical provision when scrutinized critically. The trees in the forests are usually tall and can reach up to 70 meters. The government of Costa Rica has put in place forest conservation plans and has involved citizens in the preservation of the rainforests. The goal is to ensure that there is a large forest cover in the country.

There are also projects that develop management plans to assist in the management of protected forests. The forests have earned the country revenue through tourism even though there are many challenges. The major challenges are deforestation, clearing of forest for farming, population growth, and global climatic changes that threaten the rainforests of Costa Rica.

Works Cited

Climatepath. Costa Rican Rainforests. 2012. Web.

Costarica21. Costa Rica Tropical Rainforest. 2012. Web.

Coztarica. Tropical rainforest  a Costa Rican treasure. 2012. Web.

Govisitcostarica. Costa Rica Rainforests. 2012. Web.

Infocostarica. Geography: Overview, by Infocostarica Staff. 2012. Web.

Rainforests.mongabay. COSTA RICA. 2012. Web.

Deforestation is one of the biggest global problems, it being a practice that is hard to control, because world forest reserves spread over international borders. Although global governments and environmental protecting organizations have always put measures to curb the practice, still deforestation remains one of the biggest threats to the survival of not only the worlds flora and fauna, but also to the survival of the human species.

One of the most affected forest reserves are the worlds tropical rainforests for example, the Amazon and the African tropical rainforest, which covers a better portion of the Congo basin, Corte Devoir, Zaire and some sections of West Africa.

In America, the Brazilian Amazon rainforest is one of most affected rainforest, a fact that research findings attribute to the nature of development initiatives and extensive agricultural ventures undertaken by the people of Brazil.

Over the recent past Brazil has been on the limelight, because of its contribution, as far as the Destruction of the Amazon tropical-rainforest reserve is concerned. Such destructions are primary causes of the current unpredictable climatic changes that are root causes of the prevailing environmental, social, and economic problems facing countries, for example, drought and global warming.

The Amazon tropical rainforest is the home of thousands of flora and fauna species, which are rare in other forest reserves, because of the favorable environmental conditions of the forest.

In addition to thriving of flora and fauna, since time memorial the Amazon tropical forest has been the home of many indigenous tribes, a number that is decreasing rapidly hence, unless the government puts in place mitigating measures to curb deforestation, likelihoods of these tribes disappearing are high. In Brazil alone, human activities have led to the disappearance of more than ninety Brazilian Indigenous tribes, which played a central role in the production medicinal herbs.

On the other, it is important to note that, the Amazon forest is of significance as far as climatic control is concerned, because of its significance in the recycling of carbon dioxide. Compounding these factors and the fact that most Brazilian environmental protection bodies initiatives to conserve the forest have yielded little, the issue is of great concern, because the Amazon is a global and not a national heritage.

One primary cause of the increased deforestation in Brazil is the increased rate of subsistence farming, as most individuals are have encroached and cleared the Amazon forestland for agricultural projects. Two main farming practices commonly practiced by Brazilians are breading and rearing of cattle and planting of soybeans. These practises require large pieces of land hence, the continued destruction of the Amazon forest to sustain the practices.

Another factor that has contributed to the increased destruction of the Brazilian Amazon is the increased infrastructural development ventures by the government, for example, the construction of the two thousand miles road project of 1970s, which passed through the forest.

On the other hand, because the forest is reach in varied tree species of highest timber, another primary cause of the increased rate of deforestation is logging, a practice that consumes more than twenty three thousand three in a month.

Although agriculture contributes greatly to Brazils economy, it being one of the biggest producers of animal and soybean products globally, in most cases most agricultural practices adopted by farmers do not take into consideration the effects of their practices on the well-being of the environment.

Brazils deforestation has great effects on the global climatic conditions, because of the role played by the Amazon rain forest on climate control. Excessive production of greenhouse gases and clearing of vast amounts of vegetation has led to the increased build up of green house gases. Such accumulations are major causes of global warming, a fact that has led to increased global calamities, for example, flooding and drought.

In addition, because of the richness of the Amazon forest with many species of flora and fauna, destruction of the forest reserve has led to the disappearance of the worlds indigenous and rare species of flora and fauna; hence, the need for workable solutions to the problem.

In conclusion, although the Brazilian government has put up measures to control the rate of deforestation, there is need for it to review its land control and tax policies, as a measure of ensuring its farmers do not reap big profits from their farming activities, at the expense of the environment.