Category: Environment

Introduction

Ecology as a study of the interrelation of beings and their environment has taken a broader concept, influencing other disciplines from a wide variety of fields. The ecological perspective can be seen as an approach in which the focus is on the interactions and the transactions between people and their environment (Greene, 2008). This can be seen through the main elements of focus in the ecological perspective; one of the main concepts in studying the ecological traditions lies in social theories and development psychology. The core of the ecological perspective is ecology, which serves as the basis for the interpretation as well as source for the major terms employed in the concept (Bronfenbrenner,1979).

With more and more practical implementation of the ecological perspective in a variety of disciplines, there is an interest in studying the theoretical foundations of this perspective.

This essay will provide a comprehensive overview of the theoretical concepts in the ecological perspective, its strengths and weakness, and several examples on the way this perspective is integrated into practical aspects.

Theoretical Concepts

The ecological perspective refers to several ecological models that study a numeral factors within the environment that shape peoples behaviour. The factors of the environment might be related to both, physical and socio-cultural surroundings, which include environmental and policy variables within a wide range of influences at many levels (Sallis et al, 2006). The purpose of such models is to seek and identify the causes of a particular behaviour in the environment, according to which an intervention might be designed (McLeroy et al., 1988).

One of the ecological models as proposed by Bronfenbrenner defines the ecological perspective as the scientific study of the progressive, mutual accommodation, throughout the life course between an active , growing human being and his or her environment. This model derives its main terms from the field of ecology, in which the ecological environment is the arrangement of structures, each contained within the next (Bronfenbrenner, 1977), while the levels of influence in such environment are employed in Microsystems meco-system, macro- system and exo-systems. The microsystem levels can be described as the personal interactions within a specific setting.

The setting can be seen as the place in which the person can engage in different activities and play different roles, e.g. home, school, hospital, etc. The physical features of the place, the roles played, the time, and the activity, all represent elements of the setting. A mesosystem, on the other hand, represents the interrelations between major settings, for example, for a student, mesosystem might be represented through the interrelations between home and a school or college.

The exosystem contains the structures, in which a person does not participate, but influences the immediate setting in which the person is located. In that regard, the exosystem can be seen as the forces in social systems, such as governmental institutions and structures, example, the distribution of goods, communications, transportations, and other social networks (Bronfenbrenner, 1977). A macrosystem is mainly concerned with the patterns of the culture and subculture, examined in structural terms as well as carriers of information and ideology. The work of Bronfenbrenner can be considered as the traditional representation of the ecological perspective, upon which this perspective was further expanded and modified.

The aforementioned model was slightly modified to categorise the level of influence into two broad categories, intra- individual (person) and extra  individual (environment). The intra influences included individual attributes, beliefs, values, attitudes and behaviours, while the extra influences included such aspects environmental topography, social and cultural contexts and policies (Spence and Lee, 2003). It can be stated that the changes that result from a particular influence are mostly categorised into two approaches, which are adaptation and coping. Adaptation can be defined as the capacity to conduct adjustments to the changes in the environmental conditions (Zastrow and Kirst-Ashman, 2007).

The latter is utilized in improving the individual-environment fit, which can be achieved through changes at intra-individual or extra individual levels (Spence and Lee, 2003). Coping on the other hand, refers to a form of adaptation that implies struggle, and its generally used to refer to the response to negative conditions. The structural model of the environment adapted from Bronfenbrenner was categorised in a hierarchical multilevel and multidimensional fashion, which describes a dynamic system that operates in space and time. The way the system was adapted can be seen in Fig 1.

It should be noted that the theoretical models of the ecological perspective reviewed in Spence and Lee(2003) outlined other classifications of the environmental influences, among which are the availability and the constraints of resources, the physical structure, the social structure, and cultural and media message. The influence of resource is a significant factor, as it will be outlined in the implications sectors, where to understand a phenomenon the assessment of the factor of resources is essential. The resources were also outlined in Berkman and Glass (2000) in which model the social networks were connected to health.

The model was adapted to the health context and thus, the micro level influence included factors that were affecting health behaviours such as the forces of social influence, levels of social engagement and participation, controlling the contact with infectious diseases, and access to material goods and resources (Berkman and Glass, 2000).

Another adaptation to the ecological model was that in which the levels of influence were expanded into a broader context to include intrapersonal factors, interpersonal processes, institutional factors, community factors, and public policy (McLeroy et al., 1988). Such model was modified specifically for analysing health promotion, where the outcome of the influence of aforementioned factors is patterned behaviour, that is the subject of the analysis in this conceptual model.

The rationale for the provided adjustment can be seen as different levels of factors will facilitate assessing the unique characteristics of different levels of interventions. It should be noted that interventions is an essential aspect in the assessment of the theoretical foundations of ecological perspective, where the theory serves as a method of conceptualising a particular model.

Within the field of environmental psychology, the ecological perspective was one of the areas of emphasis through the span of the fields development. With a variety of ecological models, which were adapted into different fields, for example, health promotion, physical activities, developmental psychology, these models share many common characteristics, which form the ecological perspective in general. These characteristics include the focus on the dynamic interaction between the individual and his/her environment, the focus on the person and the environment as a single entity, combining concepts from many disciplines, and taking a context-specific view of behaviour (Greene, 2008).

It is noted that the ecological perspective shares common concepts from the systems theory, which is the transdisciplinary study of the abstract organisation of phenomena, independent of their substance, type, or spatial or temporal scale of existence (Heylighen and Joslyn, 1992). The common characteristics can be seen when assuming the complex phenomena are the people and their activities. Additionally, common notions exist between the two theories, for example, interface, which is the point of interaction between the individual and the environment, where the difference might be seen in that the emphasis in ecological perspective is on interfaces concerning individuals and small groups (Zastrow and Kirst-Ashman, 2007).

Sharing concepts with systems theories, the ecological perspective also contribute to the ecosystem perspective, a perspective which was derived from the systems theories and ecology. Being mainly applied in social work, the ecosystems perspective focus on the complexity of transactions occurring within a system, guiding the balance between the individual and the environment (Mattaini, 2008).

Strengths and Weaknesses

The strengths and the weakness of the ecological perspective can be divided between those general to the perspective and those specific for a particular ecological model.

The strengths can be outlined through the benefits of the different features of the ecological perspective. One of such features is taking account of the contexts of the environment. The reliance on such attribute as well as the variety of contexts that might be integrated in a specific model makes it easier to allows apply the ecological perspective to a variety of disciplines and fields.

The areas of social work practice, in which the knowledge about the context can be valued, include prisons, hospitals, and schools. In the example of school, the value of the ecological approach is suggested through relating the knowledge about the context to the key occupation group in such setting, e.g. teachers or other professionals (Davies, 2002). Similarly, working with children and their families, the importance of the understanding the context can be seen one of the ecological approachs strengths that advocates the use of such approach in social work.

The context in such case is within the childs family, the community and the culture, understanding which facilitates obtaining an insight into the childs development (Beckett, 2006). Additionally, such strength allowed the inclusion of the ecological approach in the national Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families, in which the assessment of the childrens needs is conducted taking account of three domains, developmental needs, parents or caregivers capacities, and wider environmental factors (Department of Health, 2000).

Nevertheless, it should be stated that the utilisation of contexts might present challenges to researches. Such challenges are mainly statistical and are mentioned about the area of ecological psychology, although it might be assumed that the same can be witnessed in other areas as well. A representation of such statistical challenges can be seen in the usage of physical variables to address individual outcomes, rather than general outcomes (Winkel et al., 2009).

Another strong argument in favour of the ecological perspective can be seen in its broad approach toward studying the relationship between the environment and the individual. The fact that many of the levels of influence include those to which the individual is not directly attached, but still influenced by them, is one of the strengths of the ecological perspectives. Additionally, it can be stated that the limitations of the prevailing scientific approaches to study human development contributed to considering the ecological perspective, proposed by Bronfenbrenner.

The broadness strength can be rephrased as the ability to examine multiperson systems without limitation to a single setting, and taking into account both the immediate setting and the environment beyond (Bronfenbrenner, 1977). The broadness strength can be rephrased as the ability to examine of multiperson systems without limitation to a single setting, and taking into account both the immediate setting and the environment beyond

The weakness of the ecological perspective can be seen in the models adapted for social behaviour, although as stated earlier they might apply to other models as well. The weakness is mainly represented through the lack of specificity for conceptualisation of a particular problem.

The lack of such specificity combined with broadness approach highly subjected to interpretation. For example, the approach mentioned earlier in terms of generally assessing children in need, can be seen the same in terms of asylum seeking and refugee children specifically (National Childrens Bureau, 2006). Thus, it might be stated that the broadness of the approach makes it applicable to various contexts, and at the same time, the conceptualization of such applicability can be a difficult task.

In other cases, implementing the ecological approach while working with the population should make account of the ecological fallacy, which can be defined as relating the knowledge about a groups past behaviour to generalise them as real events(example, children brought up in deprived areas always end up as poor adults) (Adams et al,2009). Such weakness can be evident when working with such groups as confined individuals.

Thus, actual risk assessment has little success in some social work cases(Davies, 2002). For example, an experienced child protection service user may develop a strong capacity to predict situations of high risk drawing in part of what is observed in the environment which the child is found as well as the formal assessment risk framework but the outcome of this may have an adverse effect as that situation is most likely to be different from previously assessed ones(Healy,2005)

The same can be said about the identification of the interventions for specified problems (McLeroy et al., 1988). Such weakness is mainly mediated through the various adaptations of ecological models, which take the main framework and modify it to suit specific purposes. Additionally, other weaknesses can be viewed in terms of model applied for specific purposes, rather than general disadvantages.

For example, in health promotion, the limitation of the McLeroy model was said to be vague in terms of distinguishing the levels of intervention and settings (Richard et al, 1996). Additional weaknesses, which might be generalised toward all models under the ecological perspective, are concerned with the implementation in practice. Also, social work like any other discipline may find designing and implementing ecological programmes a challenge due to the complexity of the approach and the costs involved in operating it (Richard et al, 2004).

Theoretical Implications

The basis for the theoretical implications of the ecological perspective can be seen through guiding and design intervention programmes, through addressing the way an interaction occurs at various levels of the specific theoretical model. Hence, following such principles within different areas and disciplines, the framework serves as an indication for which factors should be enabled, enforced and facilitated.

Taking for example the field of education, the ecological perspective might be used to provide a model for the integration of the technology in school. Such example was investigated in Zhao and Frank (2003), where the authors utilized an ecological metaphor of introducing a zebra mussel into the Great Lakes to identify the factors influencing the implementation of computer uses. Following the common elements of the reviewed framework, it can be stated that the school represent a setting within Bronfenbrenner systems, while Great Lakes is the setting within the chosen ecological metaphor.

The difference in the approach proposed in Zhao and Frank is in using an ecosystem, rather than setting, and thus, the context was narrowed to the schools, rather than societies. Paralleling computer uses within species and innovative technologies with exotic species, the authors constructed a framework for the interaction between the elements of the ecosystem. Such framework allowed narrowing down the levels of the influences, with the ultimate goal of determining the technology uses in classroom.

The test of the framework revealed that the dynamics of the school as an ecosystem affect the interactions between the new and existing species, that is computer uses and innovative technologies. Having a hypothetical ecology core, the framework based on the ecological perspective had practical implications among which is the focus on teachers as facilitators of change, the provision of training opportunities (Zhao and Frank, 2003).

With the following being related to the field of education as well as to the technology field, it can be stated that the implications of the ecological perspective are not necessarily applied through ecology metaphors and parallels to the nature. The field of sociology can be seen as of the most prominent examples of the application of ecological perspective. The purposes of applying the ecological perspective in social context might vary from identifying factors and determining cause to understanding the dynamics within a specific setting. As an example of the latter, the ecological perspective was applied in Jiang and Begun (2002) to understand the factors influencing the changes in the local physician supply in a particular area. The modelling process can be seen through the following steps:

• Applying the dynamics of growth in a population to the population of a particular specialty type of physicians, and formulating a model.
• Identifying the intrinsic properties of the selected population. In this case the dimensions identified for such purpose include the width of the physicians niche and capital intensity.
• Describe the environment. In this case the dimensions for description are munificence, concentration, and diversity.
• Outline the resources in the environment, e.g. the size of the patient population, the hospital supply, and the economic wealth of the environment.
• Applying the factors and the descriptions to the identified model.
• Testing the model.

The abovementioned utilization of the ecological perspective was proven applicable, and accordingly, several practical mechanisms were derived from such study. These mechanisms might be useful to identify the determinants of changes in one of the dimensions of the population or the indicated resources, such as the size, the specialty. Similarly, such model can be implemented in social work practices, as it will be illustrated in the following sections. The practitioner investigates each of the properties/characteristics of the systems participating in interaction processes. Accordingly, the individual or the population will be investigated as well as pressure factors causing the problem. Finally, an intervention is planned to deal with the factors contributing to the causality of the problem.

Another practical example of the application of the ecological perspective can be seen through investigating the changes that influence a particular part of the population. An example of the latter can be seen in a study by McHale, Dotterer, and Kim (2009), in which the methodological issues for researching the media and the development of youth were investigated in the context of the ecological perspective. The emphasis in such approach can be seen through the focus on activities, being a reflection of development, as outlined by Larson and Verma (1999), cited in McHale, Dotterer, and Kim (2009).

Another ecological influence on studying the development of youth can be seen in the multilayered contexts, within which individuals are embedded (McHale et al., 2009). It can be stated that the multilayered contexts are a representation of the levels of influences, whereas the youth, as a population are the subject of these influences. Thus, the environment in such perspective is not perceived as a separate entity, but rather as a collection of those levels of influences, that is contexts within the scope of the aforementioned model. The ecological model chosen for the depiction of such influences was the traditional Bronfenbrenner model, while the factors of influence were obtained through a review of the literature, as stated earlier.

The core of the model, which is the individual or the child in this context, is represented through a set of characteristics, such as the activity level, sociability, interests, activities, and others. Additionally, the most proximate level of influences to the child is the microsystem level, comprising of such factors as family, peer group, community neighbourhood, and schools (McHale et al., 2009). The applicability of this model can be see through outlining the context of the youth development, where the established framework narrows the areas of research to specific directions, which might imply particular methodological considerations. One of such considerations can be seen through the identification of variables, specifically in quantitative researches that investigate causal relationships.

The same can be seen about extraneous variables, which the framework might indicate. Other suggestions for the utilization of the ecological perspective in youth development researches might include highlighting the influence of specific factors, e.g. family income, or education, on youth activities, and assessing the role of the individuals themselves in their activities.

With the ecological perspective having a social context, such contexts often intersect with health approach. Among the attempts of integrating the ecological perspective into health improvement is a proposed model which is aimed at identifying the factors that will contribute to the success of tobacco control programmes (Richard et al,2004). Similarly, the factors integrated into the perspective were derived from literature, namely Scheirers framework which was successfully used in fields such as mental health.

The factors of the levels of influence were assigned to identify the factors of success, which were then tested as variables in a case study. The ecological perspective proved to be successful for its designated purpose, despite some limitations, and helped to identify configurations of environmental, organizational and professional characteristics that will facilitate the implementation of the programme (Richard et al, 2004).

Illustrations of Theory in Social Work

Generally, it can be stated that the application of the ecological perspective in social work is mainly concerned with assessment and communication. Taking the example of practitioners working with families, the assessment might imply identifying factors related to the families culture, subculture and race.

One of the methods of working with family can be seen through group therapy and family therapy. Family therapy, which is grounded in the ecological perspective, is specifically emphasized, as most clients have family systems to work with. The assessment might be performed through the way through analyzing communication occurring between the family members participating in the therapy. For example, the practitioner might consider the way messages are sent and received within the family unit as well as the paths of communication. Such elements of the communication will provide an insight into the social environment in which the family functions, which can be seen as a part of the treatment.

Another model used to identify family problems is Minuchins model (Pardeck, 1996). Utilizing such model, practitioners will attempt to identify the factors of pressure, external for the family unit as well as coming from within. Such factors can be seen through either a pressure on a single member of the family, pressure on the entire family, pressure occurring when moving through life cycles, and idiosyncratic factors unique to the family.

The identification of the type of pressure can be implemented through the communication approach previously mentioned. The intervention can be seen in making corrections to the source of pressure, restoring the balance between the family unit and the environment. The correction can be seen through elimination the source of pressure, if possible, helping the family develop coping mechanism to deal with the pressure, inspecting the larger system in which the family functions, suggesting policies that might have a positive impact on the familys interaction, and other. The weakness of such approach can be seen in the ecological fallacy, mentioned earlier.

On the one hand, practitioners might generalize the intervention or previous knowledge, assuming that all families experience the same pressure. At the same time, such generalization might not be applicable in present context.

Child protection is concerned with protection children from maltreatment, which according to the ecological perspective is the result of interaction between several factors and systems. Thus, the role of the practitioner can be seen in identifying the interactions that occur and the causality of maltreatment. The practitioner will gather information from the settings, in which the child interacts, including family assessment, in which the family background, history, and structure will be analyzed, the cultural differences, environmental factors in the community, such as poverty, violence, etc, and the services available to the family and the child.

Identifying the external factor, individual factors of the child should be assessed as well, in terms of growth, development, identity development, and others. Such information will be used by the practitioner to identify risks and protective factors, based on which an intervention will be planned to change the conditions and the behaviors that cause risks of maltreatment to occur. With the goal of the intervention set, the plan of the intervention will be implemented.

Ecological Perspective in Issues of Inequality and Discrimination

With discrimination and inequality being social phenomena, the ecological perspective can be used to explain them. Inequality, in that regard, occurs when a differentiation exists in hierarchical structures. Differentiation is perceived in ecological theories in static and dynamic perspectives, where in terms of statics, differentiation is the difference between groups concerning a particular variable, while in terms of dynamics, differentiation refers to processes that produce and maintain differences within and between groups. The ecological perspective helps in explaining inequality, viewing it as complex and multidimensional phenomenon (Maclean and Harrison,2006).

These factors include such distinct clusters: cultural differences, religious differences, compositional differences, and differential treatment (Micklin and Poston, 1998). In terms of discrimination, it can be viewed as a behaviour, which is recognized as a function of the person-environment interaction. Thus, the ecological perspective not only helps in understanding such behaviour and the influential factors, but also the interventions that might be designed in social justice advocacy (Greenleaf and Williams, 2009). Although the latter is mainly connected to the field of psychological counselling, it might be used in social work as well.

Nevertheless, the utilisation of the ecological perspective in explaining such aspects as inequality does not imply individualistic approaches, that is to say the ecological perspective does not operate on the micro-level, as ecologists view questions of such scale as unimportant. It should be stated that being perceived as unimportant does not necessarily mean that the ecological perspective is not applicable in such cases, where several studies found the ecological perspective to be relevant(Micklin and Poston, 1998). Social workers are aware of the importance of context in service users lives and ,understanding and responding to the individual in their environment is an essential part of social work practice(Healy,2005)

Conclusion

It can be concluded that the ecological perspective is a useful approach to analyse and explain various phenomena. The principle of examining the interrelations between the individual and the environment allows designing a framework that can be utilised in various fields and disciplines. The ecological perspective has a great potential, which can be used not only as an explanation and investigation of a phenomenon, but also as a useful mean for designing interventions for problems relating to social work as well as other disciplines(Payne,2005).

References

Adams, R., Dominelli, L. and Payne, M. (eds.), (2009) Themes, Issues and Critical Debates. Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan.

Beckett, C., (2006) Essential theory for social work practice, London: SAGE.

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Department Of Health, (2000) Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families. Web.

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Greenleaf, A. T. & Williams, J. M. (2009), Supporting Social Justice Advocacy: A Paradigm Shift towards an Ecological Perspective Journal for Social Action in Counselling and Psychology [Online], 2. Web.

Healy, K. (2005) Social Work Theories in Context: Creating frameworks for Practice. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan Heylighen, F. & Joslyn, C. (1992), What is Systems Theory? [Online]. Principia Cybernetica Web.

Jiang, H. J. & Begun, J. W. (2002) Dynamics of change in local physician supply: an ecological perspective. Social Science & Medicine, 54, 1525-1541.

Maclean, S. And Harrison, R. (2008) SOCIAL WORK THEORY;A Straight forward Guide for Practice Assessors and Placement Supervisors.Staffordshire:Kirwin Maclean.

Mattaini, M. A. (2008) Ecosystems Theory. In: SOWERS, K. M. & DULMUS, C. N. (eds.) Comprehensive handbook of social work and social welfare. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons.

Mchale, S. M., Dotterer, A. & Kim, J.Y. (2009), An Ecological Perspective on the Media and Youth Development. American Behavioural Scientist, 52, 1186-1203.

Mcleroy, K. R., Bibeau, D., Steckler, A. & Glanz, K. (1988), An Ecological Perspective on Health Promotion Programs. Health Educ Behav, 15, 351-377.

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Payne, M. (2005), Modern Social Work Theory (3^rd Ed), New York: Palgrave MACMILLAN.

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Environmental degradation is not specific to certain borders. Dealing with it is efficient for environmental protection to solve the many environmental issues faced by modern societies such as water and air pollution, industrial accidents, and hazardous waste among others (Croitoru, Sarraf & Arif, 2010). Concrete is a complex mixture of aggregate, cement, and water that primarily constitutes a basic and vital construction material. There are various ways that apply in the preparation of concrete, which result in varied inherent characteristics. Concrete is a key component in the construction of various structures such as brick walls, bridges, poles, and perimeter fences. Concrete is also useful in the construction of swimming pools, water dams, water reservoirs, water pipes, pavements, et cetera. Concrete technology has been applicable in construction for many centuries (Griffith 2011).

There are various strains of concrete depending on the mode of production and the ratio of its components. Production of concrete seeks to ensure that the final product possesses vital qualities such as strength, durability, and ability to withstand heat and chemical action. Key components of concrete include aggregate, cement, and water. Aggregate refers to large pieces of material that constitute concrete. In most cases, aggregate comprises blasted rock pieces and finer constituents such as sand and gravel (Griffith 2011).

The aggregate is usually complete by a proportionate addition of cement. Portland cement is a very popular additive in the preparation of a concrete mixture. However, other materials serve a similar purpose as that of cement. Such materials include fly ash and slag cement. Another key constituent of concrete is water. Water adds to the mixture of materials thereby producing a viscous substance that produces items in various shapes (Griffith 2011). To ensure the attainment of desired strength and durability, concrete undergoes the process of hydration.

The process of hydration facilitates the reaction between water and cement, thereby establishing a compact bond that guarantees strength and durability. Various chemical components determine the specific properties of concrete. For instance, they slow down or accelerate the hardening of concrete after preparation. Such chemicals also serve as vital components in determining the inherent qualities and properties of concrete. Concrete is relatively ductile and less resistant to tension forces (Griffith 2011). This necessitates the use of strong materials such as copper to reinforce concrete and ameliorate its ability to withstand tension forces and the effects of external agents of wear and tear.

Implications of environmental management for a proposed project

Fresh motors of concrete are toxic to life in the marine. Runoff from equipments washing, leaking, or disposal of concrete eventually drains into waterways. This can cause serious degradation to the environment. In addition, it is also forbidden by law and mostly results in a penalty from the appropriate management system followed by a notice to clean up (Moncmanova
, 2007).

Management of handstand construction

The purpose of proper management of handstand construction areas is to reduce the risk of environmental pollution and maximize the recycling opportunities of concrete. This can be applied during storage of equipment used in paving, cleaning of concrete including rinsing, sweeping, and exposing aggregate, and during concrete application and/or coat sealing during footpath, driveway, paving, guttering, and curb surfacing and resurfacing (Sakai and Noguchi, 2012).

Making concrete objects

In this case, concrete objects include bricks and tile among others. The aim of proper administration when dealing with concrete objects is to minimize the risk of environmental degradation. In case the cutting of concrete is likely to result in runoff entering the system of the stormwater, action should be taken to prevent pollution by either using diversion channels or bunds. This will be critical to divert the runoff from street gutters to areas of containment. At the same time, absorbent materials can be used to soak up the runoff (Holder, Lee & Elworthy, 2007).

Cleaning the unprotected aggregate concrete

The aim of this management system is to reduce the possibility of polluted runoff mixing with the stormwater system. This can be applied during washing down the exposed concrete aggregate and cleaning of concrete (Braganc’a, 2007).

Delivering the concrete

In this regard, the aim of effective management is to prevent the threat of polluting the surrounding environment. This is applied during the ordering of concrete deliveries by site managers. It can also be used during the transportation of concrete to the places where it is needed.

Pumping of concrete

The main aim of an effective administration during this stage is to prevent any risk of environmental degradation. This can be applied to contractors of concrete pumping working at the sites of construction and for site managers in charge of pumping of concrete (UNEP. Industry and Environment Office 1997).

Recommendations for action

The appropriate administration strategies in establishing a wash-down area on a site should include ensuring that it is situated in the right place. The excess concrete from equipment should be scraped off. In addition, a water spray nozzle can be used. The spray nozzle should have great pressure to avoid wastage of water during the exercise. This also ensured the conservation of water. It also minimizes the maintenance of sediment controls (Thorpe & Sumner, 2005).

Wash down water should never be allowed into a sewer system. In this case, there should be an arrangement with the local authorities before this is done. In addition, the water should be prevented from flowing into the stormwater system. For handstand construction management, the best management practice will be to ensure that the concrete or sealing coats are applied during dry weather. This will prevent runoff from entering into the stormwater drains or street gutters. It is also important to avoid on-site mixing of excess fresh concrete. This will also divert runoff from street gutters and contain the runoff in pooled areas such as sandbags. It is also important to consider using all possible disposal options and alternatives. Furthermore, one should treat the water and later dispose of it in the sewer or a waste treatment facility that is approved (Griffith, 2011).

The various objects that contain concrete should be covered. This will help in minimizing erosion and dust issues. Furthermore, an enclosure should be established to allow filtration of the solid particles in the concrete. The best management practices for washing down exposed aggregate concrete is by diverting the water into a level area, recycling all excess concrete, or treating the water by filtration then disposing of it. Sweepings that are collected from the exposed aggregate concrete should be returned to a recycling bin or a stockpile (Dhir, Dyer & Halliday 2002).

The use of concrete in construction is a dominant and ubiquitous reality in the modern construction industry. Therefore, it is important to ensure proper and responsible use of concrete to minimize its effects on the immediate environment. There is a need for the establishment of legislation to govern the production and usage of concrete. Such regulation should seek to minimize and curtail all instances of environmental pollution arising from the use and misuse of concrete

Reference List

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Sakai, K and Noguchi, T 2012, The Sustainable Use of Concrete, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

Stubbs, A & Dering, CJ 2002, Environmental Law for the Construction Industry, Thomas Telford, London.

Thorpe, B & Sumner, P 2005, Quality Management in Construction, Gower Pub., Aldershot.

UNEP. Industry and Environment Office 1997, The Environmental Management of Industrial Estates, UNEP, Industry and Environment, Paris.

Winch, G 2010, Managing Construction Projects: An Information Processing Approach, Blackwell Pub, Chichester.

Today everyone is becoming concerned with his environment. People have come to realize that their lives are tightly knit to their surroundings. This has been made clear by growing knowledge of green environment even deep in the villages.

However, scientists and other scholars have contradicted overtime in defining environmental justice. Concerned environmental bodies and other activist groups still have diverse definition for environmental justice.

As a result, justice in environmental terms has become too relative. Schlosberg believes that all the terms has only led to confusion with little help, he says Yet all of these developments in justice theory, very little has been applied in environmental justice movement (Schlosberg, 2007, Chap 1 Excerpt).

Several researchers have not come to terms when creating distinction between environmental and ecological environmental justice.

However, understandably ecological justice is associated with nature and distribution of factors influencing it, while environmental justice focuses on equity of distribution of resources among the social classes.

In addressing the disparities to Iles concludes that, If both environmental and ecological justice can be addressed using a broad language of distribution, recognition, capabilities, and procedural justice, then a larger frame can be established that link both set of concern (Illes, 2004, p. 92).

Environmental justice is supposed to protect our environment through sustainable development; however, industrial development and economic growth have surpassed mans capability to manage his environment (Schlosberg, 2007).

Currently computer wastes have become a nightmare to environmental activists. In developed countries, governmental regulatory measures and groups concerned with environmental health to some extent have achieved control over these wastes.

In Europe, for example, computers component recycling programs has become useful in curbing environmental pollution. Iles notes, The European Union, along with Japan and Taiwan, has enacted laws obliging electronics manufactures to take back obsolete technology for reuse and recycling (Iles, 2004, p. 98).

Pressure has also been put upon computers designers to develop systems that are environmental friendly. Consequently, bans have also been employed as a method of fighting poor application of e-way in several states as well as manufactures.

Developing countries, on the other hand, are facing difficulty in adopting technological development and managing its environment pollution consequences.

Since many people in these countries are unable to purchase top manufactures designers, they opt to import used and environment harmful components from developed nations.

Worse still, these nations have not come up with policies of managing these wastes. Asia, for example, has become one of the huge importers of these low quality designs. These are the same trend in almost all the developing nations (Illes, 2004).

Despite the trend, the current data lacks the necessary support needed for action and the success of any mitigation will depend on future research as Iles states, more data needs to be compiled on transnational flows of all forms of materials used in electronics and wastes, not just computers; and on the locations and activities of e-waste processing centers (Illes, 2004, p.103).

In spite of this lack of current statistical evidences currently, future dangers associated with poor disposal means in these countries is eminent. There is still a lot that is required to manage computer wastes by the policy makers (Iles, 2004).

Interestingly, despite many international conference over managing e-waste, very little have been achieved. Debates in this conference have been halted by several factors.

In Europe, for example, recycling programs can successfully run, however, in developing countries the program cannot succeed due to their low economic potential. Consequently, improving designer qualities can boost only developed nations, while developing nations might find it expensive to operate in the market.

Currently, there is confusion over the target group that should be focused upon in managing e-waste; government, manufactures or consumers. Additionally, there are very limited research materials that can be used to back up programs (Iles, 2004).

From studies, it is clear that e-waste is a growing concern in this century. Despite, its imminent danger, little has been done in curbing this international issue. However, first income countries are putting strategies to ensure e-wastes are managed within their boundaries.

Even these strategies though, have not achieved a significant level in curbing the problem.

Iles believes that control measures have achieved little success in curbing this problem, he say, while regulatory and policy are growing worldwide, notably take back laws, and trade controls, these constitute a patchwork with many gaps, ill-planned laws, and poorly enforced regimes, (Iles, 2004, p.101).

Consequently, third world nations, on the other hand, have become depositing grounds for e-wastes with very poor waste management system.

This is made worse by their huge cheap computer imports, for example Iles observes that, Asia is becoming a center of computer ownership, thereby creating new domestic sources of electronic waste (Iles, 2004, p.95).

The major contributing factors to this harmful trend are; lack of scientific researches on effects of e-waste due to the fact that they do not have immediate impact, confusion among the policy makers on the focus groups, and legal and economic collisions over technological developments.

Currently, bans are being employed as the main tool in fighting e-waste, however, managing this problem require socioeconomic understanding, enabling regulatory system and psychological development among people (Iles, 2004).

References

Iles, A. (2004) Mapping Environmental Justice in Technology Flows: Computer Waste Impacts in Asia Global Environmental Politics. New York: Roel Int Veld.

Schlosberg, D. (2007) Defining Environmental Justice in Defining Environmental Justice. Oxford: Oxford University Press (excerpt).

Drilling for Oil in Deep Water

Offshore drilling provides job opportunities to the locals in the coastal states improving their livelihood. Infrastructural construction to facilitate oil production and transportation is another added financial benefit of oil drilling to the state government and the people. The implications of these benefits to the state government form the basis of considering offshore drilling.

On the contrary, other factors apart from financial interest have financial implications for the coastal states. The environmental cost incurred is a major factor that influences decision-making. Pollution from waste disposal and oil spills places an additional economic burden on the coastal states. The cost and social benefits obtained from production, accidents, and environmental destruction are important factors that influence the decision to undertake the extraction of natural resources (Enger and Smith 56). Pollution due to inhalation of poisonous gasses or unsafe water causes health-related problems and requires an extra cost for treatment. Oil spills and disposal of waste products pollute water and destroy aquatic animals, and thus, negating the financial benefit of fishing in the sea. Therefore, the overall cost-benefits analysis forms the basis for deciding whether to undertake offshore drilling or not.

Ways to reduce dependency on oil that would make offshore drilling unnecessary

The shift to the use of renewable resources is one way of providing adequate energy for both commercial and residential needs that would reduce oil dependency. Ethanol energy production, solar energy, wind power, and tidal energy provide perfect alternative energy sources extracted for use in the coastal states. The state government should provide incentives in the form of subsidy and loans to encourage production companies to shift their production and invest in renewable energy.

The state government should come up with policies to regulate the use of nonrenewable resources to prompt citizens to shift their sources of energy to renewable resources that are friendly to the environment (Enger and Smith 182). The production policies include tax emissions and trade permits that encourage the citizens to reduce pollution. The cost of oil production should be increased and no subsidy be given to drilling companies. Strict tax policies including importation requirements and tax on environmental pollution are necessary to reduce over-dependency on oil.

Does Ethanol and Corn Fuel Make Sense?

Yes, it is important to provide ethanol as fuel. The economic energy gain of ethanol production is relatively small and may seem unimportant to produce, but the environmental impact proves worth. The United States produced approximately 13 billion gallons of ethanol in 2013 with a slight energy gain equivalent of 4 billion gallons. The energy gain is worth investing in due to large scale production technologies capable of producing ethanol in large quantities as a renewable resource worth using.

The mixture of ethanol and gasoline enhances engine efficiency. The beneficial component of the mixture in a machine is improved performance and reduced air pollution. The socio-economic factors of production affect the decision of energy resource use (Enger and Smith 56). Resource use is a factor of benefits on the surrounding environment and the economic contribution to the state government. Therefore, the reduced environmental harm from ethanol use and the slight economic benefit provides enough reasons to produce ethanol for fuel use.

Should the public be required to use ethanol?

The public should utilize ethanol as fuel. Public use of ethanol for fuel is a collective contribution to protecting the environment for human existence. The unequal exploitation of natural resources among different communities and the resultant unjust environmental harm through pollution requires the concern to protect the poor communities from the dangers of exposure to pollution. The responsibility of sustainable development requires the protection of the environment and environmental resources for the benefit of both the current and future generations (Enger and Smith 23). The low-income communities need protection from the environmental risk of pollution through regulation of waste disposal and excessive resource exploitation. Thus, the public should be required to use ethanol to meet the sustainable development goal of the nation.

Should the production of ethanol be subsidized?

The production of ethanol should be subsidized as a state government incentive to encourage the energy manufacturing companies to embrace the new idea of ethanol use. The high cost of production discourages energy companies from switching to ethanol production (Enger and Smith 218). Since energy production companies need to meet their business financial benefits, government subsidy as a form of production cost waiver encourages a shift of energy production to ethanol that promotes their economic interest. The subsidized cost will cushion the manufacturers from the low ethanol prices and promote ethanol price competitiveness in the market. Accordingly, ethanol production and use shift the population to use renewable energy that is friendly to the environment.

Work Cited

Enger, Eldon, and Bradley Smith. Environmental Science. McGraw-Hill Education, 2015.

Introduction

In the early 1980s, scientists found that the ozone layer was wearing off particularly in the lower stratosphere. Besides, they discovered that the wearing off was intense during the months of September and October. The scientist coined the term ozone hole to refer to the thinning of the ozone layer at the poles and some isolated parts of the planet (Griggs par. 3). The depth of the ozone hole and the area that it covers continue to increase with time. In 2015, the ozone hole expanded to cover an area of about 28.2million square kilometers (Griggs par. 5). The size of the ozone hole did not seem to reduce throughout the month of October. Scientists claim that the Antarctic stratosphere experienced a rare cold temperature, which contributed to the enlarging of the ozone hole.

Analysis

There is a misconception that the ozone hole lies over the source of ozone-depleting gases and chemicals like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). The truth is that the chlorofluorocarbons are found both in the stratosphere and troposphere. Thus, the ozone hole does not necessarily have to be located close to the sources of CFCs. The presence of the ozone hole over the Antarctic and Arctic is not an indication that the poles contain high concentrations of chlorofluorocarbons (Handwerk par. 4). Instead, the low temperature at the poles leads to the formation of polar stratospheric clouds that promote the development of the ozone hole. Scientists have discovered ozone holes in other parts of the planet.

According to scientists, the ozone hole comes as a result of increasing concentrations of ozone-depleting chemicals in the stratosphere that come from spray cans and refrigerants (Handwerk par. 5). Chlorofluorocarbons are the primary causes of ozone depletion. The chlorofluorocarbons liberate chlorine and bromine that tear down the ozone. The depletion rate increases with a decrease in temperature. Besides, the creation of polar stratospheric clouds accelerates the formation of the ozone hole. The ozone hole is mainly large at the poles. At the poles, the CFCs take long to deplete since they embed on the ice particles. During the polar springs, the ice thaws liberating the CFCs gases, which lead to ozone depletion. There exists a unique circulation pattern in the stratosphere above the South Pole in local winter that isolates this area from its environment (Handwerk par. 6). The circulation is referred to as polar vortex, and it accelerates the formation of the ozone hole.

Lack of adequate information about the ozone hole leads to people associating it with global warming. Some people view global warming as a component of the ozone hole. Therefore, it is important to understand the ozone hole, its causes, and its impacts. Information about the ozone hole can enable people to differentiate it from global warming. The terminologies used in the CFCs discourses such as ozone hole and ozone shield are not accurate in the scientific logic. People ought to understand that the ozone hole is a depression on the lower stratosphere and not an actual hole as the term suggests. The issue of the ozone hole was considered to be a serious matter because lay people thought that it would have severe implications for their health. Some people peddled rumors that the ozone hole would cause skin cancer, destroy crops, cause cataracts, and interfere with the growth of planktons. In the United States, people abolished the use of aerosol sprays in fear that they contributed to the emergence of the ozone hole.

Whenever people mention the term ozone hole, what comes into the mind is skin cancer and sunburn. Nevertheless, the ozone hole has many problems apart from exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. The ozone hole has led to the alteration of weather patterns in the Southern Hemisphere. In return, it has resulted in a reduction in food production and adjustment of biodiversity. Scientists argue that climate changes in the Southern Hemisphere have had dire effects compared with the ultraviolet radiation. They allege that the ozone hole has pulled the polar jet stream further south, increasing its strength (Newbern par. 2). The polar jet stream helps to regulate the temperature in the Antarctic region, therefore preventing sea ice melt. The ozone hole has interfered with atmospheric circulation leading to the variation of snowfall, rain, and wind patterns in the Southern Hemisphere. Indeed, the change of the wind pattern has resulted in shifts in areas that receive a lot of snow or rain. Today, the crest of South America continues to receive a limited amount of rain.

The impact of the ozone hole on weather patterns is most pronounced in summer and may also be responsible for more extreme events including floods, drought and wildfires throughout the Southern Hemisphere (Newbern par. 5). These adverse weather conditions contribute to reducing water supplies. Scientists argue that it is hard to account for the overall effects of the ozone hole. In fact, there are numerous undocumented adverse effects of the ozone hole.

Countries have come together to curb the expansion of the ozone hole. Currently, states have instituted policies aimed at regulating human activities that facilitate the development of the ozone hole. In 1987, countries came up with the Montreal Protocol that sought to promote the recovery of the ozone hole. The Montreal Protocol has helped to minimize the liberation of chemicals that cause ozone depletion. In reality, the Montreal Protocol has contributed to reducing the discharge of greenhouse gases. Without the Montreal Protocol, the world would have been hotter than it is today. Advance in scientific knowledge prompted the revision of the Montreal Protocol.

Presently, the protocol regulates the production of halocarbons. Countries that are signatories to the contract are not supposed to manufacture CFCs (Newbern par. 7). The countries can only produce CFCs in small quantities for medical purposes. States that make up the European Community have gone further to implement stringent measures aimed at facilitating the recovery of the ozone hole. In 1995, the countries agreed to stop further production of the chlorofluorocarbons. Additionally, the countries decided to stop using all compounds that cause ozone depletion. The nations anticipated that the ozone hole would fully recover by 2045 (Watts par. 4). However, a study by the World Meteorological Organization indicates that the recovery process will take longer than expected.

Conclusion

Many people misconstrue the ozone hole for global warming. Scientists maintain that even though ozone leads to the greenhouse effect, there is no correlation between the ozone hole and global warming. Nevertheless, the ozone hole is a clear reminder of the consequences of human actions on the environment. The release of chemicals that contain both chlorine and bromine has led to the depletion of the ozone layer at the poles and other isolated parts of the planet. The depletion of the ozone layer continues to increase despite the enactment and implementation of the Montreal Protocol.

Works Cited

Griggs, Mary 2015,The Ozone Hole is Now Larger than North America. Web.

Handwerk, Brian 2010. Whatever happened to the Ozone Hole? Web.

Newbern, Elizabeth 2015, Ozone Hole Over Antarctica Nears Record-Breaking Size Again. Web.

Watts, Anthony. Ozone Hole Worse than in Recent Years due to Colder than Normal Stratosphere in Antarctica. Web.

Introduction

An ecosystem is an environment that is self-sustaining and contains a complex set of relationships between the living organisms (Biotic factors) and the non-living physical environment referred to as Abiotic factors. These include sunlight, air, water, and soil. Ecosystems that share similar characteristics are grouped together from larger areas known as biomes. A biome is therefore a large area that has specific climatic conditions and specific species of both animals and plants. Biomes are mainly described by the vegetation they support. This is because the plant life in that region will determine what kind of animal species will be found there. The worlds major biomes include tropical rainforests, coniferous forests, temperate deciduous forests, grasslands, deserts, freshwater and saltwater ecosystems, and the tundra.

The Tundra

The word tundra is derived from the Finnish word Tunturi, which means a treeless plain. This region is marked by extremely low temperatures making it the coldest of all the biomes. Its land surface is covered by frost. The tundra is also characterized by a climate that is extremely cold for most of the year, little biotic life, and simple vegetation structures that have short growing seasons. The tundra is also further classified into two types (Johnson 93).

Arctic tundra

This region is located in the northern hemisphere of the equator. It surrounds the North Pole and spreads south where it links the coniferous forests of the Taiga belt. The Arctic is a cold region with winter temperatures of  35^o c and summer temperatures of 3 to 15^o c. Since the growing seasons are often short, they range from 40 to 60 days in a year. The tundra is sometimes referred to as a cold desert because it receives low rainfall, ranging from 12  25 cm. During the summer, the frozen ground that is known as Permafrost melts to give little water that supports vegetation growth. The major plants found in the tundra are cold-resistant and include low shrubs, reindeer mosses, a limited species of flowers, liverworts, and lichens. The short vegetation is adapted to the high-speed winds of the tundra that blow with speeds ranging from 50 to 100 km/h. The biodiversity of the region is very low due to the low temperatures; however, it supports approximately 45 species of animals like the reindeer, musk ox, arctic fox, polar bears, snow owls and lemmings, the harlequin duck.

Alpine tundra

The alpine tundra has a high altitude and is also treeless. The major difference between the alpine and the arctic tundra is that the alpine grounds are not covered by the permafrost. The alpine tundra also has a better drainage system occasioned by its high altitude.

As it is cold in the tundra biome, most of the animals found here have thick fur or feathers to protect them from the cold. They have also adapted mechanisms to enable survival in these regions. Most of these animals hibernate or migrate during the cold seasons and show up when the conditions are more favorable.

Energy flow and food chain

Sunlight is powering energy in this biome, but since the arctic tundra experiences, longer periods of nights and winter for most of the year; the suns energy is only beneficial during the short summer season. The plants use the sunlight to grow within a short period. The plains are mainly covered with red-leafed vegetation at this time of the year. As the plants grow, they provide food for the herbivorous species of animals like the arctic hares, musk ox, and reindeer. These herbivorous animals in turn provide a source of food for carnivorous animals like the polar bears, the arctic fox, and the snowy owls. When winter comes, the plants die off and act as nutrients for the soil. This process is cyclical year after year (Latham 154).

Environmental impacts on organisms

The harsh conditions in the tundra contribute to the low and sparse population in the region; however, the region has rich resources of minerals, gas, and oil. The presence of these resources has promoted ventures into this region, creating a population increase. The extraction of oil and gas has caused drastic changes to the environment, due to the construction of roads, pipelines, and factories. The greenhouse gases produced, have changed the composition of the air and are also eating away the ozone layer; promoting global warming (Forman 23. This is the major threat to the tundra, as global warming will cause the tundra to melt and erode away. The net effect of this phenomenon will cause the permafrost to disappear and the organic material in the soil will start to decompose and release carbon dioxide which will contaminate some plants like lichens. Oil spills contaminate the soil, killing plant life and essentially destroying food for the animals that depend on the plants. This ultimately destabilizes the ecosystems within the tundra.

Conclusion

The ecosystems of the tundra need to be maintained in order sustain limited biodiversity in the region. That can be achieved by reducing human activities that are exploitative to the environment.

Works Cited

Forman, Michael. Arctic Tundra (Habitats). New York: Groller Publishing Company Ltd., 1997. Print.

Johnson, Rebecca. A walk in the Tundra (Biomes of North America). Minneapolis: Lerner Publishing Company, 2001. Print.

Latham, Dona. Tundra (Endangered Biomes). Chicago: Nomad Press, 2010. Print.

Environmental degradation impacts of concrete use in construction

Environmental degradation is not specific to certain borders. Dealing with it is efficient for environmental protection to solve the many environmental issues faced by modern societies such as water and air pollution, industrial accidents, and hazardous waste among others (Croitoru, Sarraf & Arif, 2010). Environmental policies at the European, national, and international policies are put in place to ensure equal and fair competition among the construction industry. In the absence of these common standards and policies, there is a risk of eco- protection where the national regulations become barriers to trade (Stubbs & Dering, 2002).

Environmental policies have been adopted by various governments and organizations to ensure that the world is engaged in sustainable activities. In this case, there are legal and constitutional implications. The European Union Environmental policy is central to the European project and has produced tangible evidence of benefits to its citizens. The European Union has been responsible for the great improvement in the quality of air and water. It has also played a critical role in the eradication of hazardous pollutants such as lead in petrol. This high-level protection of the environment promotes eco-innovation, which leads to the improvement of the efficiency of the industry and employment opportunities. Energy conservation, use of natural resources and raw materials, and increasing productivity are key to any economy that is sustainable, resource-efficient, and competitive. This strategy will help the world to develop in a low carbon environment, one that is resource-constrained. This strategy will prevent degradation of the environment loss of biodiversity and resource un-sustainability. Implementation of such policies ensures maintenance of environmental progress and that benefits of health and environment from the policy materialize as intended at the time of its implementation (Department of Environment and conservation, 2004).

Implications of environmental management for a proposed project

Fresh motors of concrete are toxic to life in the marine. Runoff from equipments washing, leaking, or disposal of concrete eventually drains into waterways. This can cause serious degradation to the environment. In addition, it is also forbidden by law and mostly results in a penalty from the appropriate management system followed by a notice to clean up (Moncmanova
, 2007). Understanding and following the regulations by the environmental management system is meant to reduce the likelihood of environmental pollution to a great extent in concrete activities. The practices include the following:

Wash-down of equipment on a building site

There should be an establishment of a wash-down area on the site. This allows the subcontractors to wash down the equipment properly without polluting the system of the local stormwater. The administrators at the site had to observe the wash-down. They also had to observe the way excess concrete and areas of recycling are handled. Failure to do this results in the deterioration of site conditions. Incidentally, this can lead to prosecution and penalties (Winch, 2010).

Management of handstand construction

The purpose of proper management of handstand construction areas is to reduce the risk of environmental pollution and maximize the recycling opportunities of concrete. This can be applied during storage of equipment used in paving, cleaning of concrete including rinsing, sweeping, and exposing aggregate, and during concrete application and/or coat sealing during footpath, driveway, paving, guttering, and curb surfacing and resurfacing (Sakai and Noguchi, 2012).

Making concrete objects

In this case, concrete objects include bricks and tile among others. The aim of proper administration when dealing with concrete objects is to minimize the risk of environmental degradation. In case the cutting of concrete is likely to result in runoff entering the system of the stormwater, action should be taken to prevent pollution by either using diversion channels or bunds. This will be critical to divert the runoff from street gutters to areas of containment. At the same time, absorbent materials can be used to soak up the runoff (Holder, Lee & Elworthy, 2007).

Cleaning the unprotected aggregate concrete

The aim of this management system is to reduce the possibility of polluted runoff mixing with the stormwater system. This can be applied during washing down the exposed concrete aggregate and cleaning of concrete (Braganc’a, 2007).

Delivering the concrete

In this regard, the aim of effective management is to prevent the threat of polluting the surrounding environment. This is applied during the ordering of concrete deliveries by site managers. It can also be used during the transportation of concrete to the places where it is needed.

Pumping of concrete

The main aim of an effective administration during this stage is to prevent any risk of environmental degradation. This can be applied to contractors of concrete pumping working at the sites of construction and for site managers in charge of pumping of concrete (UNEP. Industry and Environment Office 1997).

Recommendations for action

The appropriate administration strategies in establishing a wash-down area on a site should include ensuring that it is situated in the right place. This should be constantly inspected and replaced when necessary. The excess concrete from equipment should be scraped off. In addition, a water spray nozzle can be used. The spray nozzle should have great pressure to avoid wastage of water during the exercise. This also ensured the conservation of water. It also minimizes the maintenance of sediment controls (Thorpe & Sumner, 2005).

Wash down water should never be allowed into a sewer system. In this case, there should be an arrangement with the local authorities before this is done. In addition, the water should be prevented from flowing into the stormwater system. For handstand construction management, the best management practice will be to ensure that the concrete or sealing coats are applied during dry weather. This will prevent runoff from entering into the stormwater drains or street gutters. It is also important to avoid on-site mixing of excess fresh concrete. This will also divert runoff from street gutters and contain the runoff in pooled areas such as sandbags. It is also important to consider using all possible disposal options and alternatives. Furthermore, one should treat the water and later dispose of it in the sewer or a waste treatment facility that is approved (Griffith, 2011).

The various objects that contain concrete should be covered. This will help in minimizing erosion and dust issues. Furthermore, an enclosure should be established to allow filtration of the solid particles in the concrete. The best management practices for washing down exposed aggregate concrete is by diverting the water into a level area, recycling all excess concrete, or treating the water by filtration then disposing of it. Sweepings that are collected from the exposed aggregate concrete should be returned to a recycling bin or a stockpile (Dhir, Dyer & Halliday 2002).

Reference List

Braganc’a, L 2007, Portugal SB07: Sustainable construction, materials and practices : challenge of the industry for the new millenium, Delft University Press, Amsterdam, Netherlands.

Croitoru, L, Sarraf, M, & Arif, S 2010, The cost of environmental degradation: case studies from the Middle East and North Africa, World Bank, Washington, D.C.

Department of Environment and conservation 2004, environmental best management practice guideline for concreting contractors, Web.

Dhir, RK, Dyer, TD, & Halliday, JE 2002, Sustainable concrete construction: proceedings of the international conference held at the University of Dundee, Scotland, UK on 9  11 September, 2002, [during the 2002 International Congress Challenges of Concrete Construction, 5  11 September 2002], Thomas Telford, London.

Griffith, A 2011, Integrated management systems for construction: quality, environment and safety, Pearson Prentice Hall, Harlow, England.

Holder, J, Lee, M, & Elworthy, S 2007, Environmental protection, law, and policy: text and materials, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Moncmanova
, A 2007, Environmental deterioration of materials [u.a.], WIT Press, Southampton.

Sakai, K and Noguchi, T 2012, The Sustainable Use of Concrete, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

Stubbs, A & Dering, CJ 2002, Environmental law for the construction industry, Thomas Telford, London.

Thorpe, B & Sumner, P 2005, Quality management in construction, Gower Pub., Aldershot.

UNEP. Industry and Environment Office 1997, The environmental management of industrial estates, UNEP, Industry and Environment, Paris.

Winch, G 2010, Managing construction projects: an information processing approach, Blackwell Pub, Chichester.

Introduction

Humanity is a part of a global ecosystem. However, in recent times, people started to change the environment for their needs with no regard for the consequences of these changes. Nowadays, people require more natural sources. The global economic growth has a significant impact on the environment in such issues as energy and goods production development, chemical and nuclear pollution, and natural tropical ecosystems destroying for agricultural needs.

Economic Growth and the Environment

Economic growth is connected with the amount of production increase, the quality of life improvement, and population growth. More people require more food, energy, and goods as well as new jobs. Economic growth provides new jobs for people, which is beneficial for society. However, the negative impact of economic development on the environment outweighs this benefit. Economic growth inevitably leads to environmental pressure increasing due to a high level of chemical pollution and greenhouse gas emission. China could be regarded as an example of the country, where the development of economics and production intensification caused enormous environmental damage (A_1c1, 2013).

It is claimed the production intensification might finally lead to the limitations of essential resources (Woo & Song, 2013). Evidently, the production growth should be limited with the purpose to save the environment. However, some ethical issues should be regarded. At first, it is important to estimate ethical borders that should not be crossed by the government. In particular, the government of China prohibited having more than one child in a family with the purpose to limit the population growth, which was a violation of humans rights (Woo & Song, 2013). Besides, the limitation of food and goods production might lead to higher prices. This problem could be postulated as another ethical social issue. It could be concluded that instead of limitations of economic development and population growth, the policy of the efficiency increase should be provided. The government should support ecologically friendly and efficient agricultural systems. As another possible solution to the problem, financial and juridical measures for environmental pollution prevention could be named.

Chemicals Safety

Chemicals are an essential part of all the areas of peoples lives. It is considered that all chemicals could damage the environment or humans health. Before approving a chemical substance usage, it is important to estimate its properties, such as the level of toxicity, carcinogenicity, ability to cause genetic mutations, accumulation in food and body cells, and persistence. In general, the impact of the substance on humans health and the environment should be established with the purpose to evaluate possible risks. Numerous tests should be provided.

For addressing the potential threat to humans health and the environment, it is essential to determine the safe concentration of the chemical substance, conditions of its storage, usage, transportation, processing, and disposal. After the estimation, special rules and regulations should be created. Therefore, the international procedure of chemical authorization has been developed. This procedure allows for controlling possible risks. However, potentially dangerous chemicals could be authorized for temporary usage due to their economic profits. In such cases, further investigations should be provided for the substitution of a hazardous agent or a new technology developing (Dikshith, 2013).

It is difficult to estimate the acceptable risk of a chemical substance. Risk evaluation should be conducted with consideration for the economic or social benefits of every substance. These benefits could not be estimated objectively because they depend on current economic and political conditions. A quantitative examination of the toxic effect of a substance might be difficult to perform. Therefore, risk evaluation remains blurred (Dikshith, 2013). In general, acceptable risks depend on the economic benefits of chemicals.

Nuclear Power and the Environment

It could be stated that the increase of global energy production significantly damages the environment, mostly by greenhouse gas emission (Karakosta, Pappas, Marinakis, & Psarras, 2013). It leads to climate change and global warming, which is considered to be one of the largest problems in the 21^st century. All major sources of energy produce greenhouse gas except nuclear power. Under such conditions, nuclear power could become the most promising source of power. However, accidents with nuclear power plants, in particular, the recent accident in Japan, lead people to distrust this energy source (Karakosta et al., 2013).

Although nuclear power typically causes a low level of ecological damage, in cases of accidents, the humans health and the environment are exposed to high risk. Besides, problems with radioactive waste transportation and disposal remain, and the amount of such waste continues to increase. However, it is important to underline that nuclear power allows reducing the greenhouse gas emission and indirectly prevents the increase in peoples mortality (Kharecha & Hansen, 2013).

As an alternative, several renewable energy sources could be used: biogas production, solar power, and wind energy. All these energy sources are ecologically safe. However, some of them are limited to commercial usage due to their low efficiency. The application of nuclear power and renewable energy sources could mitigate climate change because they do not lead to CO₂ emission. In conclusion, it could be stated that, despite the potential threat, nuclear energy is more beneficial due to its environmental safety, lower costs, and higher efficiency. However, the question of public acceptance remains essential (Karakosta et al., 2013).

The Amazon Basin Deforestation

Tropical ecosystems, in particular, the Amazon Basin, face significant pressure due to population growth and agriculture development. This pressure might only increase in the future. Local governments destroy natural ecosystems to obtain new agricultural lands. It was predicted that in several decades with such a rate of population growth, food requirements would increase approximately twofold in comparison to the current level. Ecosystem damage and climate change would increase correspondingly (Laurance, Sayer, & Cassman, 2014).

It is known that tropical ecosystems play an important role in the global ecology. The major part of biodiversity is concentrated in the Amazon Basin. Besides, this ecosystem is essential for global carbon and oxygen cycles. Amazon Basin destroying might increase greenhouse gas emissions and intensify the process of global warming. It is known that these processes cause significant damage to the environment. The process of tropical ecosystem deforestation might affect local communities. Tropical forests are a major provider of food, water, and materials for local people. Local governments should address the process of deforestation to keep this unique region safe.

To prevent these dramatic changes, some particular measures could be used. At first, it is important to apply more efficient and ecologically friendly agricultural systems. It is required to choose for the cultivation of high-yield crops, adapted to the local climate conditions. This simple measure might also decrease fertilizer usage. Finally, it is important to develop storage and transporting systems to prevent the waste of food. Reducing the level of food losses is one of the most significant stages of agriculture efficiency increase (Laurance et. al, 2014).

Conclusion

The growth of population and economics leads to enormous sources of usage and environmental damage. Natural lands suffer from the production intensification, chemical pollution increase, energy requirements growth, and agriculture development. As a result, the climate is changing, and natural ecosystems are being destroyed. It is essential to provide rules and regulations for situation improvement. The chemicals risks estimation system should be developed. Besides, more efficient production, agriculture, and power systems should be introduced.

References

A_1c1, A. A. (2013). Economic growth and its impact on environment: A panel data analysis. Ecological Indicators, 24, 324-333.

Dikshith, T. S. S. (2013). Hazardous chemicals: safety management and global regulations. New York, NY: CRC Press.

Karakosta, C., Pappas, C., Marinakis, V., & Psarras, J. (2013). Renewable energy and nuclear power towards sustainable development: Characteristics and prospects. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 22, 187-197.

Kharecha, P. A., & Hansen, J. E. (2013). Prevented mortality and greenhouse gas emissions from historical and projected nuclear power. Environmental science & technology, 47(9), 4889-4895.

Laurance, W. F., Sayer, J., & Cassman, K. G. (2014). Agricultural expansion and its impacts on tropical nature. Trends in ecology & evolution, 29(2), 107-116.

Woo, W. T., & Song, L. (Eds.). (2013). Chinas dilemma: economic growth, the environment and climate change. Canberra, Australia: ANU Press.

Abstract

In the globalized world, the supply chain of products and services calls for a range of management efforts targeted at transferring a product from its place of origin to the final destination of meeting the consumer. However, the concept of reverse logistics is often overlooked by many businesses because it takes additional costs. Reverse logistics is associated with the returns of products, their maintenance or repairs, dismantling or recycling. When it comes to plastic products, reverse logistics are crucial for maximizing efficiency because the material can be recycled and reused up to six times.

Reverse logistics in the supply chain of plastic materials is predominantly associated with the process of recycling and waste management that maximize the cost-efficiency of the manufactured plastic products. Because the environmental costs of waste management and plastic recycling are high, the global business community should come up with a range of innovative components of reverse logistics. Reverse logistics at a large address the problem of sustainable development of the global supply chain while sustainable development implies meeting the needs of consumers without putting the next generations developmental needs in danger. This research is targeted at presenting a full picture of the costs and values of plastics as sustainable material as well as the methods that can positively influence its supply chain. Furthermore, the research outlines effective methods of plastic recycling in a range of businesses ranging from plastic packaging production to remanufactured automotive parts. Future research is needed on reducing the gap between the quality of virgin and recycled plastic and the development of innovative solutions that will positively impact the process of sorting and recycling of plastic products.

Introduction

The issue of sustainability of plastic has been raised numerous times due to the spreading popularity of the material in manufacturing. Plastic products surround every aspect of peoples lives; however, it has a negative reputation because of its lack of sustainability. Therefore, it is importance to explore plastic as an organic product that has some attributes that will make it cost-effective and environmentally sustainable.

The production of plastic and plastic products has increased exponentially over the last fifty years  from 15 million tons in the 60s to 311 million tons in 2015 (Ellen Macarthur Foundation, 2016, p. 17). Furthermore, the volumes of plastic production are expected to increase twice in the next twenty years, because of the increase in the need for its application. For example, nowadays, plastic is largely used for packaging production as constitutes twenty-six percent of application for all of the produced plastic. Plastic is widely used not only for providing specific economic benefits of cost reduction but also because of the possibility to increase the productivity of other resources such as food. Plastic packaging is effectively used for food wastage reduction using extending the shelf life or reducing the costs of transportation through lowering the weight of products.

Despite the mentioned factors, the plastic industry has a range of drawbacks that create a negative impact on the industry that becomes more apparent with the state of the global environment. For example, ninety-five percent of the plastic packagings material value is lost after the first use of the package, making up from eighty to one hundred and twenty billion annual loss to the economy. Furthermore, only fourteen percent of the plastic packaging is being recycled since the launch of the recycling symbol forty years ago. It has also been reported that only five percent of the plastic packaging is retained to be used subsequently (Ellen Macarthur Foundation, 2016, p. 17). The plastic that is recycled is of much lower quality that cannot be recycled again. The recycling rate for plastic products other than packaging tends to be much lower; however, the rates for plastic recycling are much lower than the recycling rates of iron, steel, and paper. Additionally, plastic packaging is multi-use for the majority of the time, especially when it comes to the business-consumer affairs.

On the other hand, the alternative materials to plastic such as glass, aluminum, and tin are much higher in environmental costs as well as require much higher quantities for replacing plastic packaging or any other products. According to the research conducted by Lord (2016) for American Chemistry Council, the estimated costs for substituting plastic for alternative materials such as glass or tin is 533 billion dollars compared with the cost of plastic of 139 billion (p. 7). In the majority of cases, the environmental cost per one kilogram of any alternative material is much lower than the environmental cost of plastic. However, on average, up to five times of alternative materials are needed to serve the same function as plastic. For instance, an average bottle of a soda drink usually contains thirty to forty grams of plastic material. However, to replace plastic for a material such as glass, it would be necessary to use a minimum of one hundred and forty grams (Lord, 2016, p. 7).

Environmental Costs of Plastic

In 2015, the cost of plastic products and packaging consumption made up one hundred and thirty-nine billion dollars, which is equal to the twenty percent of the revenue of the entire manufacturing revenue. If the current rates continue to remain, it is expected that the consumption of plastic products and packaging will make up to two hundred and nine billion dollars within the next ten years (Lord, 2016, p. 7). The mentioned costs include the costs the society has to pay for reducing the impact of greenhouse emissions, environmental pollution, the depletion of land waters, as well as the negative impact on the oceans. Because the costs are very high, there is an increased risk posed to the profitability of the plastic industry that pressures the public that cares about the negative impact of plastic. Therefore, enhanced actions are needed on the part of the plastic industry manufacturers, governments, as well as consumers to raise awareness of the issue of high environmental costs of plastic.

According to the research conducted by Lord (2016) for American Chemistry Council, the plastic industry has a range of opportunities for reducing the environmental costs of plastic packaging and products using optimizing the overall operational performance and the supply chain (p. 8). For instance, Trustcost made an estimation that the industry could save more than thirty-three billion dollars in the environmental costs through implementing an intervention targeted at the plastic industry sector. One of such interventions relates to increases the range of electricity sources such as hydro power, the wind and solar power, or low-carbon electricity. It was estimated that the costs can be reduced by 7.6 billion dollars through using the wind, solar, or hydro-power or by 15.2 billion dollars through completely switching to low-carbon electricity (Lord, 2016, p. 9). Furthermore, the high environmental costs of plastic products can be reduced by improving the fuel efficiency of the vehicles used for product transportation. Technological innovations, as well as employment of lower emission transportation means, could become effective for reducing environmental costs of plastic. Furthermore, changes in the procurement policies that give preference to efficient transportation means can be effective, although they are not under the direct control of the plastic industry. The plastic industry has a great potential when it comes to the reduction of environmental costs; therefore, such a potential should be explored in great depth.

Plastic Waste Management

Recycling and reusing waste management programs are targeted at managing waste after it has already been created. However, waste management can be replaced by source reduction processes that focus on the prevention of waste buildup as well as its reduction when it comes to manufacturing processes. Source reduction is sometimes believed to be more efficient because its main goal is examining how a business operates regarding waste prevention before it builds up. Source reduction is usually achieved through the implementation of a number of measures, for example, the usage of reusable materials instead of disposable, elimination of the specific components that greatly contribute to waste buildup, effective maintenance of production equipment, and the usage of durable and sustainable products (Kumar & Kumar, 2013, p. 159).

It is important to mention the environmental protection strategy developed by Royston, which can be implemented with regards to the waste management of plastic products. The first step of the strategy is cutting down waste using improving the manufacturing efficiency. Second, waste of plastic materials can be sold to another facility that manufactures products from recycled plastics. Third, a business can create an innovative facility that will convert plastics waste into reusable materials that will add value to the company or that can be sold do someone else. Fourth, it is crucial for manufacturers that deal with plastic products cooperate with local communities and governmental authorities to agree on the specific conditions and methods for disposing of plastics waste. Fifth, a business may engage in negotiations about the standards of emissions with the local governments. Sixth, another option is establishing a waste management plant jointly with another business to reduce the costs of building the plant. Lastly, it is important for a business to engage its personnel and know-how into the process of plastics waste management (Kumar & Kumar, 2013, p. 159).

Current Reverse Logistics Trends

Reverse Logistics Association is an organization that currently monitors third party service providers that a range of aftermarket supply chain services. One of the primary missions of the Reverse Logistics Association is educating and providing information to all reverse logistics professionals worldwide. Furthermore, the Association provides education and help to all industries that employ reverse logistics services (Reverse Logistics Association, n.d., para. 3).

In Europe and the United States, the generation of plastic waste is increasing by three percent annually, which is directly proportionate to the long-term economic growth. However, to deal with the large volumes of generated waste, the rate of mechanical recycling is increasing by seven percent (Hopewell, Dvorak, & Kosior, 2009, p. 2118). Therefore, to understand the current situation of waste disposal and recycling of plastic, it is crucial to examine the major trends in reverse logistics. One of the most significant trends in the current processes of reverse logistics is associated with the recognition that the supply chain of any product or service is a process that goes both ways. The already existing networks can be significantly improved through the integration of forward and reverse flow of goods.

The second trend associated with reverse logistics relates to the businesses becoming much more aware of the high costs of energy. Therefore, there is an increased need for reducing the businesses environmental impact and building more sustainable businesses through paying more attention to reverse logistics.

Reverse Logistics Processes in Plastic Supply Chains

With the strive towards sustainable development, reverse logistics has increasingly gained attention. Businesses that never paid any attention to an understanding of the concept of reverse logistics are now starting to invest time, funds and efforts into it. Also, third-party businesses have experienced a tremendous increase in the demand for the reverse logistics services.

When it comes to the size of reverse logistics, it accounts for a large portion of the global costs of logistics. Although, it is complicated to account for the exact costs of reverse logistics because the majority of businesses do not have an idea of how large these costs are. According to the research conducted by Rogers and Tibben-Lembke (1998), only one of the firms included in their study was able to account for its logistics costs, and reported that the costs for their reverse logistics made up four percent of their total logistics costs (p. 5). However, this number has multiplied in the recent years, given that the research was conducted almost twenty years ago, and the pace of the global economy has changed dramatically.

When it comes to specific industries, activities associated with reverse logistics can become integral parts of the business. In the majority of cases, the larger the product value of a business or the larger the return rate, the more effort a business puts into improving the process of reverse logistics. An example of this can be associated with the automotive industry of parts manufacturing. According to Rogers and Tibben-Lembke (1998), it is estimated that the market for remanufactured automobile parts costs thirty-six billion dollars (p. 6). For instance, ninety percent of all replacement alternators or starters is sold remanufactured. In the United States alone, there are more than twelve thousand automobile remanufacturers.

According to Babcan, Vidova, and Babcanova (2010), logistics is defined as the product, services, or information flow from the point of its production to the point of the consumption or usage for meeting the needs and requirements of potential customers. Thus, quality is the most important aspect when it comes to the supply chain and every step of the logistics process (p. 56). Activities within the logistics systems imply appropriate levels of environmental efficiency for meeting the demands of the sustainable industry functioning and development. Because of the complexity and the increased attention to the logistics processes reverse logistics area has become a major focus for the rise of eco-efficiency. Therefore, it can be observed that to increase the eco-efficiency of reverse management the businesses in the industry begin implementing a range of new solutions. Reverse logistics is a new trend in the sphere of logistics that is associated with eco-logistics, waste logistics, and recycling logistics. Therefore, reverse logistics is targeted at reducing the negative impact of the supply chain due to the increased awareness of the issue of waste management.

Reverse logistics at large address the problem of sustainable development of the global supply chain. Sustainable development implies meeting the needs of consumers without putting the next generations developmental needs in danger. According to Graczyk and Witkowski (2011), sustainable development does not only relate to environmental sustainability but also encompasses a range of developmental dimensions such as economic and social sustainability (p. 44). Therefore, reverse logistics take into consideration three pillars of sustainable development: social, economic, and environmental. Social sustainability is defined as a framework of actions that do not interrupt the stable flow of the human and social resources. Economic sustainability implies economic growth without undermining the environmental integrity while environmental sustainability suggests the ability of the environment to continue its function. The goal of reverse logistics within any industry is targeted at minimizing the negative impact businesses have on the economy, social sphere, and the environment at the same time with maximizing the benefits offered by the industry.

Reverse logistics includes a variety of processes such as planning, performance, and control of the materials flow that is cost-efficient. Thus, reverse logistics combines a range of actions and processes that imply transporting or moving products from their original place to the final destination with the aim of achieving the most value and subsequent appropriate waste disposal. Also, reverse logistics can also include some remanufacturing and refurbishing activities that extend beyond recycling materials or reusing containers. For example, the remanufacturing or refurbishing activities may include the redesign of the packaging for using less material. It is important not to confuse it with green logistics. In reverse logistics, product or material should be sent backward because of damage, recalls, restock, and excess inventory (Graczyk & Witkowski, 2011, p. 45). Reverse logistics may also be associated with a range of recycling programs, disposition of obsolete materials and equipment, asset recovery, or programs for reducing the impact of hazardous materials.

Supply Chain of Plastic

A sustainable and efficient supply chain implies a strong business that employs a stable circulatory system. The supply chain of plastic products implies a similar scheme. Although all types of plastics can be recycled, economic and logistic factors predominantly dictate the level to which extent the products are recycled. Because plastic is a valuable resource the wastage of which causes the increase of costs, the optimum use of the post-recycling plastic is that it can be turned into a product that can be then recycled even further. Plastics products that have already gone through a full circle of recycling (up to six times) can be even further recycled in post-consumer settings. In additional, heavily contaminated and dangerous plastic calls for specialized washing and drying that ensure the safest possible disposal.

The most successful efficiency-oriented approach when it comes to plastic recycling and disposal is not generating any waste at all or generate as little as possible. Another option for plastic recycling is its reuse. In cases when it is not possible to reuse the product, it should be recycled, making sure that it would be a much more efficient way of recycling than recovery. If recycling is not eco-efficient, a plastic product should be disposed of, although the act of disposal should be taken down to a minimum. Nine countries (Switzerland, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Austria, Belgium, Netherlands, Norway, and Luxembourg) have the highest results of plastic products recovery because of the strict guidelines on how to dispose of plastic waste and how to implement an embargo on the disposal of plastic waste. Thus, a successful resource management on a governmental level implies a two-tier approach. The mentioned countries are now successful at recovering up to 90% of the used plastic products, which makes up twenty-four million tons of post-consumer plastic products and materials.

When it comes to the effective recycling methods implemented by countries that have high indicators of plastic weight reduction, mechanical and feedstock recycling methods are used in the majority of instances. Mechanical recycling is considered the least complex method and implies softening the plastic through applying heat on it, reforming it, and subsequently making a new product. Feedstock recycling is a process that is targeted at turning the recycled plastic products into chemicals or new compositions of plastic. This method of recycling has proven particularly effective when the recycled plastic has been contaminated or mixed with other types of plastic. Lastly, it is important to mention another alternative to plastic recycling  recovering the plastic thermal content with the aid of waste incineration to provide an alternative energy source.

Value and Costs of Plastic within the Supply Chain

Plastic materials greatly contribute to the global economy as is crucial for successful sustainability and development. Furthermore, the plastics industry is dedicated to the research in the sphere of innovation, development, and research for achieving sustainability. The value of the plastic products is associated with significant savings when it comes to the supply chain; for example, plastic materials reduce the consumption of fuel during transportation because of the light weight, they reduce the requirements for their maintenance, reduce the required energy for heating, as well as reduce the wastage of food for increase the shelf time (Graczyk & Witkowski, 2011, p. 54).

Reverse logistics is targeted at improving the process of waste management and reduction of the buildup of plastic waste. Countries that effectively implement strategies for reducing plastic waste implement a range of waste prevention programs for diminishing the connections between the countrys economic growth and the amount of the generated plastic waste.

Plastic wastage that arises from the transport vehicles, product packaging and industrial processes can be considered a valuable resource. For example, the plastic used for packaging manufacturing is much more environmentally efficient than the packaging produced from paper. According to the research conducted by Wong (2010), the production of one ton of paper bags consumes four times more energy resources than the production of plastic packaging (p. 21). Additionally, the recycling of paper products consumes eighty-five times more energy than the recycling of plastic packaging. Applying plastics for producing packaging has the longest history of this material application. Furthermore, plastic makes approximately ten percent of the waste produced by a household, and only half of this waste is collected at landfills.

Apart from packaging, wasted plastic is collected from end-of-life vehicles that are commonly sent to specialized recycling facilities. Furthermore, in the recent decade, automotive manufacturers underline the sustainability of their plastic parts that can be easily recycled. Despite this, the current rates of plastic automotive parts that are recycled are low in comparison with the rates of plastic packaging recycling. The sector of electronic products also faces challenges with plastic parts recycling similar to the issues that the automotive industry is trying to resolve. Electricals and Electronics develop and manufactures products that are complex in their design, so it is hard to sort between the materials that should be recycled in different ways. In such cases, mechanical recycling is inefficient, so the recycling facilities resort to feedstock recycling.

Plastic materials are also very valuable for the farming industry. However, the wastage of plastic packaging, film, parts from the farming equipment, and other types of materials presents a major challenge to farmers around the world, especially in the areas where farming is widely spread. It is expected that the number of farmers starting to recycle their plastic wastage will increase despite the major difficulties of its implementation. One of the major difficulties of recycling farmers plastic waste is associated with the fact that farms in the majority of areas are large and scattered across different areas within the country. Therefore, the logistics costs for collecting plastic waste are high. The second difficulty is the small amount of plastic waste that is collected from farms. Lastly, because of the large variety of the collected plastic materials, it would be very difficult for the recycling facilities to sort through the collected waste.

Current Advancements and Issues in Plastic Recycling and Waste Management

The current advancements in the sphere of plastic recycling and waste management are associated with the development of various waste detector technologies, recognition software, and decision-support systems that enhance the efficiency of the automatic waste sorting solutions (Hopewell et al., 2009, p. 2120).

A new area for innovations is associated with the development of higher value solutions for polymers recycling in the closed-loop processes that can become replacements for non-recycled polymers. Nowadays many European countries collect plastic products such as pots, tubs, trays, and post-consumer packaging. These types of non-bottle plastic packaging are nowadays possible to recycle because of the significant advancements in the technologies of waste washing and sorting, as well as the growing demand for the recyclers services. The potential opportunities when it comes to the sphere of mixed plastics recycling associated with the efficiency of the resources and diversion from the savings from emissions and landfill are expected to rise because of the increase in the production of non-bottle plastic packaging (Hopewell et al., 2009, p. 2121).

However, despite many opportunities and advancements in the sphere of plastics recycling, there is still a range of issues that should be eliminated for efficient plastics recycling and reverse logistics. Plastics waste management is greatly challenged by economic issues, such as the price of the recycled polymers compared with non-recycled (virgin) material or the costs of the recycling compared with alternative methods of plastics disposal. Additional issues are associated wth the quality and the quantity of the recycled plastic supply in comparison with the costs of virgin material. Recycled material can also receive less attention due to the lack of available information about the availability of recycled material.

Historically, landfill and incineration have been the most commonly spread methods of waste disposal. However, the costs of landfill can differ significantly between different areas depending on the land-use patterns and geological characteristics that can alter the viability of recycling as a method of waste disposal. For instance, in the study Hopewell et al. (2009) stated that in Japan, excavation procedures that are essential for landfill are very high in cost due to the hard characteristics of the volcanic bedrock while in the Netherlands similar excavation procedures are expensive because of the soil permeability caused by the sea (p. 2123). Therefore, the high costs for plastics disposal force businesses to make a decision of whether to choose recycling or energy recovery.

Another issue for plastics waste management is associated with the fact that the collection of post-consumer plastics from households is only efficient in areas with high population density. Effective schemes of households plastic collection vary dramatically on the basis of the local characteristics, the type of housing, as well as the types of the available sorting and recycling facilities. For example, it has been proven that in rural areas schemes where the public brings the plastic waste to be recycled are much more efficient in comparison with the curbside waste collection. For this reason, many local authorities establish bring banks that facilitate the high rates of post-consumer plastics collection.

The last issue associated with plastics waste management relates to the direct relationship between the price of oil and the price of non-recycled plastic. Because the quality of the recycled plastic is lower than the quality of virgin material, the price for recycled plastic cannot overcome the benchmark set by the non-recycled material. In the last decade, the price of oil has risen significantly; therefore, despite high oil costs increasing the costs of recycling to some degree, recycled plastic is nowadays more attractive when it comes to financing.

Conclusion

To conclude, the current technological advancements in the sphere of plastic waste management can significantly reduce the economic challenges. By improving the efficiency of the recycling process, technological advancements such as sorting solutions can significantly decrease the costs of recycling. Furthermore, the improvements in recycling technologies can decrease the quality gap between virgin and recycled plastic. This point can be achieved particularly with the use of the technologies that turn recovered plastic into the food grade polymer through eliminating contamination, and, therefore, sustaining the closed-loop recycling solutions. Thus, while over ten years ago the process of plastics recycling was only possible from the post-manufacturing waste or the costs of alternative waste management were significantly higher, nowadays the recycling of plastic is available on a larger scale.

The current increase in attention to reverse logistics is directly associated with the need to maximize efficiency at the same time with minimizing the waste that negatively affects the supply chain of a product or service. With the growth of the various recycling methods and techniques, the reverse logistics channels in the sphere of recycling still require further research. The future research is necessary because the capabilities of reverse channels can greatly influence the effectiveness of recyclable material processing to remanufacture them into recycled products. Furthermore, increased attention should be targeted at reducing the quality gap between processed and virgin plastic for reducing the costs associated with the increased prices of oil.

References

Babcan M., Vidova H., & Babcanova, D. (2010). Logistics and its impact on the environment. Prague, Czech Republic: Proceedings 12th Annual International Conference of Ph.D. Students, Young Scientists and Researchers.

Ellen Macarthur Foundation. (2016). The new plastics economy: Rethinking the future of plastics. Web.

Graczyk, M., & Witkowski, K. (2011). Reverse logistics processes in plastics supply chains. Web.

Hopewell, J., Dvorak, R., & Kosior, E. (2009). Plastics recycling: Challenges and opportunities. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, 364(1526), 2115-2126.

Kumar, N., & Kumar, R. (2013). Closed loop supply chain management and reverse logistics: A literature review. International Journal of Engineering Research and Technology, 6(4), 455-468.

Lord, R. (2016). Plastics and sustainability: A valuation of environmental benefits, costs, and opportunities for continuous improvement. Web.

Reverse Logistics Association. (n.d.). Company mission. Web.

Rogers, D., & Tibben-Lembke, R. (1999). Going backwards: Reverse logistics trends and practices. Reno, NV: Reverse Logistics Executive Council.

Wong, C. (2010). A study of plastic recycling supply chain. Web.

Treatment of wastewater refers to removing all harmful and wasteful substances through chemical processes to obtain water that can be reutilized. In this paper, I will compare the secondary treatment to the tertiary treatment of wastewater.

Secondary and Tertiary treatment of wastewater

After the wastewater has passed through the primary treatment, in which most of the suspended solid materials are removed, it then goes through a series of biological processes; this being the secondary treatment stage. In this stage, microorganisms such as bacteria are used to feed on and break down the organic substances in the wastewater. Those broken down substances along with the bacteria are collected as sludge. (CPPIC-Glossary-secondary treatment); (water water secondary treatment)

The third treatment stage is Tertiary of Advanced treatment of wastewater. Water coming from the second stage through the aerated tanks may not be completely suitable for reuse. It may still have suspended substances or other chemicals which further need to be removed. There may also be chemicals that need to be added to the effluent water. This is the job of the tertiary treatment processes. It will remove substances such as phosphorous or perhaps add chlorine. It may also involve ultraviolet radiation to make the water suitable for reuse purposes. (Water treatment and management)

Uses of reclaimed water

Reclaimed water can be of great advantage to our society, especially in areas where there is a shortage of freshwater supply. Some areas use reclaimed water for purposes where health risks are not involved such as nonpotable uses; these may include cleaning, irrigation, toilets, fire fighting, and cooling water in industries. (Reclaimed utilization)

The use of reclaimed water for purposes such as drinking, bathing, and cooking is questionable in certain areas. People feel that the treated water because it has gone through such severe stages of chemical and biological treatments, may have some health risks. However, in other areas, if the water has been through advanced treatment, people feel it is good to be used for drinking and cooking. (Household reclaimed water).

What treatment must be used if reclaimed water is for drinking purposes?

If after the treatment of wastewater, it is being recharged into the ground and then being used for drinking purposes, I would say that tertiary treatment methods should be used. The main reason is that primary and secondary treatment may not be successful in removing all the waste, and since the water is being used for drinking purposes, it needs to be completely harmless. For example, if the wastewater contains chemicals such as phosphorous, then secondary treatment will be unable to remove those, hence making it harmful for drinking.

Furthermore, in the tertiary treatment, if the disinfection process is included, this makes the water safer for drinking. It will remove the microorganisms which may be there in the water due to the previous treatments it went through. This stage will ensure that safe water is being recharged into the ground for various purposes. Hence, I feel that secondary treatment of wastewater is not enough to make the reclaimed water safe for drinking purposes, since health risks are involved, it is always best to ensure that wastewater passes through all three stages of treatment, along with disinfection, before it used again.

Works Cited

CPPIC-Glossary-secondary treatment. Web.

Household Reclaimed Water. 2009. Web.

Reclaimed Utilization. Web.

Water Treatment and Management. 2009. Web.

Waterwater Secondary Treatment. Web.