Category: Environment

Introduction

As long as the human race has existed, there has always been solid waste that man has produced and subsequently had to discard. However, the amount of solid waste produced by human beings has significantly risen in the course of the years.

This might be attributed to the fact that over the course of the last century, most nations in the world experienced industrial growth at a previously unprecedented scale. This expansion in industries invariable led to rapid economic growth of many nations and considerable rising in the standards of livings of many people and thus the increase amount of waste.

Dealing with solid waste is fundamental to the existence of any civilization and how solid waste is managed determines the kind of effect that it has on the environment. This paper will discuss solid waste with particular reference to plastics and how the waste affects the environment. Solutions that have been suggested and can be used to reduce the negative effects will also be analyzed.

Solid Waste Management

The New York Department of Environmental Conservation (2010) describes solid waste as any garbage, refuse, sludge and other discarded materials. This wastes is made up of matter such as scrap metal, domestic refuse, vehicle discards, used car oil and construction debris to name but a few.

It has been suggested that globalization, a process characterized by major integration of economies and cultures, has been chief in the exponential growth in solid wastes experienced in the past few decades. If unmanaged, solid waste can have an adverse effect on people since it may lead to the spread of diseases therefore decreasing the quality of life. As such, waste management policies have been proposed and implemented by various authorities.

The objective of solid waste management is to reduce the amount of solid waste disposed on land and lead to the recovery of material from solid waste through various recycling efforts. Effective solid management system is the key to ensuring human health and safety and as such, it is a prerequisite for the safeguarding of public health and the prevention of spread of diseases. In addition to this, effective solid management leads to the sustainability of natural resources as well as mitigates harm on the environment.

Plastic Waste

While there are multiple other forms of solid waste, plastic waste are an especially formidable class of solid wastes. One of the reasons for this is the frequency with which plastic is used in modern day society leading to great waste.

The Central Pollution control Board (2007) assert that an estimated 10 thousand tones of plastic waste is generated per day making plastic waste a significant portion of the total municipal solid waste. The prevalence in the use of plastic is mostly as a result of the change in life style and socio-economic conditions leading to increased usage of plastic by the population.

One of the factors that set plastics apart from many other solid waste substances is the fact that plastics contain various toxic constituents (Kreith & Tchobanoglous, 2002).

The presence of toxins results in most waste management efforts having to isolate plastics from the rest of the waste, a practice that requires significantly more capital to be invested in the waste management process than would be required with other household waste material. However, as a result of the presence of toxins and the great amount of plastic waste produced in the world each day much effort has over the years been expended to come up with programs for recycling plastics.

Environmental Impact of Solid Waste

The most obvious negative impact of solid waste on the environment is that it leads to the degradation of the natural beauty. This is especially true concerning plastic litter in parks and beaches. Improper disposal of plastic also leads to negative effects on the environment.

To illustrate the effects of plastic waste to marine life, Green Peace reports that plastic debris are the most common types of marine debris and cause the most problems for marine animals and birds (Allsopp et al., 2006). Considering the fact that over 267 marine species have been reported to have suffered entanglement or even death from this waste, plastic presents a real risk to the environment.

During the earlier years of the industrial revolution, mass incineration of solid waste was the preferred means of dealing with the waste. In those years, there were limited efforts at controlling the amount of emissions that the waste incinerators produced mostly as a result of ignorance by people on the environmental impact that uncontrolled waste incineration led to (Voelker, 1997).

As a result of the great technological advancements and intensive research into the factors affecting the environment, it has been discovered that solid waste and some solid waste management systems are detrimental to the environment.

For example, getting rid of plastic waste by incineration possess as a challenge as the combustion of the chlorinated polymers leads to the formation of dioxins in incinerators (Kreith & Tchobanoglous, 2002). Plastics also contain toxin additives which end up being released into the atmosphere leading to environmental degradation. These waste management efforts therefore negatively impacted the environment.

One of the most traditional solid waste disposal methods is the use of open land dumps. While this method is fairly cost effective and therefore appealing especially for developing nations which cannot afford to devote a lot of money for solid waste disposal efforts, this method has some adverse impacts on the environment.

Arguably the most adverse effect to the environment from open dumps comes about when solid waste is disposed off in low lying areas. This leads to ground water contamination by the leachate generated by the waste dump (Niir Board of Consultants & Engineers, 2007). In addition to this, surface water may be contaminated by the run-off from the waste dump especially in the rainy seasons. Disposal on land also leads to pollution of air by the bad odor that emanates from the decaying waste.

Solutions to Waste Problems

To deal with the negative effects that the increasing solid waste problem creates to the environment, there has been a need to come up with environmentally sound solid waste management practices. Modern day waste management involves the use of high technology burners that have been well analyzed for environmental impact. These facilities are equipped with pollution control technologies to ensure that emissions and toxins are kept at a significantly low level thus mitigating negative environmental effects.

One of the more ambitious efforts at recycling plastic is the conversion of plastics waste into liquid fuel. Markchek (2001) describes recycling as the best risk management tool that allows reducing and even eliminating any risk that may be eventually generated by the disposal of products. Recycling is particularly significant with the ensuring of renewability of resources and when dealing with material that does not degrade when disposed into our natural environment.

Plastic recycling makes use of a highly sophisticated process that is undertaken in closed reactor environment therefore ensuring that no harmful emissions are released into the environment (Central Pollution control Board, 2007). The waste plastics are super heated to convert them into liquid-vapor state and this product is them used to run electricity generators.

Furthermore, owing to the recognition of the damage that plastic waste poses, many regulations have been proposed by governments all over the world. Some of these regulations include the restrictions on the grade of plastic bags that can be manufactured as well as vendor restrictions on the usage of plastic bags.

While recycling efforts have been encouraged, when dealing with plastic, the recycled plastics use has been restricted and cannot be used in food containers due to uncertainties about contaminants gotten from the recycling process. (Kreith, & Tchobanoglous, 2002).

Conclusion

This paper set out to review the problem of solid waste with particular emphasis on the plastic problem. From the facts illustrated in this paper, it is evident that a failure to engage in environmental friendly means of dealing with plastic waste may be detrimental to our health and the environment.

While solid waste management is evidently more sophisticated and efficient today that it was some few decades ago, there is still a lot that can be done to ensure that solid waste is managed in the most effective and environmental friendly manner so as to secure a sustainable and safer future for humanity.

References

Allsopp, M. et al. Plastic Debris in the Worlds Oceans. Greenpeace International, 2006.

Central Pollution control Board. (2007). Plastic Waste Management. Web.

Kreith, F. & Tchobanoglous, G. (2002). Handbook of Solid Waste Management. NY: McGraw-Hill Professional.

Niir Board of Consultants & Engineers (2007). Medical, Municipal and Plastic Waste Management Handbook. National Institute Of Industrial Re.

Markchek, J. K. (2000). The Importance of Recycling to the Environmental Profile of Metal Products. The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society. Web.

Voelker, B. M. (1997). Waste-to-Energy: Solutions for Solid Waste Problems for the 21st Century. Web.

Over the past few decades, the idea of sustainable architecture seems to have become a common trend in the development of the worlds major cities. Allowing for more reasonable use of the natural resources and a way for people to coexist with nature without destroying it with the final products of the existing industries, sustainable architecture seems to be the only way out of the existing environmental problems. The emergence of green cities, which a sustainable environment has spawned, is a major breakthrough; however, despite the fact that the creation of green cities seems to be the solution to the current environmental issues, there are still certain issues to be solved.

The development of green cities has sufficient grounds to base on and is quite reasonable in the light of the current emphasis on technological development and the boost of industries all over the world, while the environmental issues remain unresolved. According to the results of the green city policy which has been conducted in several worlds major megalopolises, the local authorities have managed to stress the necessity in the arrangement of the green spaces rather successfully; moreover, the so-called environmental harmony has been discovered. According to the UNO Habitat 2008, there are three basic types of harmony that the residents of big cities must strive for, i.e., spatial harmony, social harmony, and environmental harmony. UNO Habitat emphasized that A city cannot be harmonious if some groups concentrate resources and opportunities while others remain impoverished and marginalized (UNO Habitat, 2008, p. x), which means that, to achieve full growth and impeccable development, the city authorities have to focus on the environmental harmony as much as they do on the social aspects of peoples lives. However, the given statement raises a number of essential questions. There is no reason to deny that most cities are already pushed to the breaking point with developing their industries in order to take the top position, sweeping the competitors away and retaining its high position; hence, certain cities might not be able to find enough resources to sustain the environment and at the same time remain on top of the economic ladder, which means that the idea of harmony between the four constituents which have been listed above can possibly become a failure. To their credit, though, the members of the UNO Habitat have taken into account the above-mentioned limitation of their solution, adjusting their theory to the countries which have low economical standards. According to the UNO Habitat, each of the existing dominant cities has the above-mentioned elements in a misbalance:

In many cities, wealth and poverty coexist in close proximity: rich, well-serviced neighborhoods and gated residential communities are often situated near dense inner-city or peri-urban slum communities that lack even the most basic of services. (UNO Habitat, 2008, p. xii)

Therefore, according to UNO Habitat, before turning a certain major city into the so-called green city, there is a reason to check if the basic services which the local authorities must offer to the population are provided and whether the aforementioned facilities follow the existing standards. Hence, the UNO Habitat placed the harmony between the results of the environmental policies, the social issues in a certain city and the spatial concerns, i.e., the spatial or territorial disparities and inequalities in the access to housing and basic services (UNO Habitat, 2008, p. xv). On the one hand, the given approach seems rather reasonable, since, throwing the existing funds solely on the environmental issues is most likely to cost certain cities decay in other spheres, such as economics or social development. In addition, it seems that the UNO Habitat did not focus much on the urban trends and the tendencies which could be observed in larger cities, paying attention rather to the means of reaching harmony between the economical, political and environmental elements in big cities. In an attempt to right the wrongs which the previous report had, the UNO Habitat issued its next paper on the trends which megalopolises seemed to have at the time, which were a major breakthrough and the herald of a completely new era for the worlds largest green cities. It is important that the 2010 report specifies the exact problems and changes within the world cities, such as the urban divide, the tendency for the big cities to have their population scattered all over their vast territories, etc.

Speaking of the UNO Habitats attempt, to sum up the major achievements and the greatest concerns of the green cities policy in 2010, one must give the UNO Habitat credit for devoting its issue entirely to the worlds largest megalopolises. In addition, in contrast to the previous issue, which was rather general, the 2010 paper points at exact problems which stand in the way of making green cities green and at the same time retaining some scraps of economical dominance. When reading the review of the existing state of the worlds green cities in 2010, one can feel that the UNO Habitat has finally realized what its basic goal is, and has finally focused on the issues which are really crucial to the problem of making cities greener and more environmentally friendly. It is not that the previous paper which UNO Habitat offered was something to sniff on  on the contrary, it did provide a detailed account of the existing elements of big cities harmony; however, it did feel a bit all over the place. Starting with the worlds megacities in 2007 and what they are going to look like presumably in 2025, the paper then skipped to the pessimistic observations of the 1990ies and 2000ies, which made the report a tad confused. Quite on the contrary, the analysis of 2010 offers figures and data which are fully related to the state of big cities. All in all, the developers of the green cities project have progressed considerably. While in 2008 the researchers have only decided on what makes city harmonious and proved that the idea of green cities is worth existing, in the 2010 report, the results of the green city policy are already evident. In addition, the reports addressed such issues as the versatility of the megalopolis society: A society cannot claim to be harmonious if large sections of its population are deprived of basic needs while other sections live in opulence (UNO Habitat, 2008, p. x) and the urban divide between haves and have nots opens up a gap [&] which can produce social instability or at least generate high social and economic costs not only for the urban poor, but for society at large (UNO Habitat, 2010, p. viii). When speaking about unifying the multi-layer urban society, however, one has to admit that the green city project developers have made a huge step backwards in implementing their ideas. Indeed, it is obvious that a society cannot be homogenous  on the contrary, its multiple layers serve their specific purposes, making the society a clockwork mechanism. Without its different substrata, society is most likely to stop functioning. Therefore, the UNO idea of making the society of green cities more homogenous can possibly fall flat in the future or lead to some drastic changes. Analyzing the given change in the UNO attitudes towards the green city policy, one can assume that this change must have been triggered by a lack of understanding of the way in which a megalopolis society is built and the delicate balance in which its elements are arranged.

After all the attempts which have been made by the UNO to implement the idea of green cities and stumbling upon a number of obstacles, such as the misbalanced economic state that did not allow for giving the environmental issues much focus, the 2012 UNO account of the current situation and plans for the future seem much more realistic since it is evident now that the organization knows the key problems which it will meet on its way and will have to overcome. Since the previous record showed that large cities need to get their priorities in line and that the environmental issues can be solved only once the economical and political concerns are out of the way, the idea of green cities prosperity came to the forth. It is rather reasonable that from the concept of merely making cities cleaner and less polluted, the UNO Habitat came to the complex idea of having the many elements of a citys prosperity in balance. Moreover, it is important to stress that the UNO did not deny any of the original premises of their concept, but, on the contrary, stretched these premises to the point when they embraced every single element that adds to the well-being of the citizens. Starting with the necessity to spread environmental awareness and stating the results of the existing issues within the worlds largest cities as well as smaller towns: In many cities, national economic policies and investments are mostly the results of government decisions and budget allocations (UNO Habitat, 2008, p. xi) and the attempts to define the very concept of green cities as resilient and inclusive towns and cities (UNO Habitat 2010, p. v), the UNO finally came to developing the strategy for the further course of actions. Therefore, it can be considered that the idea of green cities has evolved greatly over the past few years. The UNO has also addressed one of the most controversial aspects of the whole environmental awareness idea, which is mainly what should be the focus of the government in the case of a crisis, the environment or the economics. In addition, it was very successful that the UNO finally managed to tie in the necessity for cities to develop their environmental strategies and the effect which the latter can have on the citys economics: However, responses to global crises must also allow for a vigorous role for cities (UNO Habitat, 2012, p. 11). Therefore, it can be concluded that at present, the course for improving the existing situation with the green cities has been set. However, if diving deeper into the issue of turning the worlds megalopolises into green cities, one will see that there are much more problems to it than proving its necessity.

Despite the fact that there are a number of obstacles in the way of the implementation of the green cities program, the UNO seems to have managed to come up with a decent and very detailed strategy concerning every point of greening the worlds major cities. For instance, it is quite surprising to see that the aspect of the environment and the public space has been taken to a completely new level. According to the report offered in the research by Simpson and Zimmermann, the idea of making public spaces greener and at the same time keeping the citys infrastructure intact has been recently updated: Urban development planning increasingly focuses upon the spatial environment in terms of the revitalization of districts and city centers, urban public spaces and the interconnection of fragmented urban landscapes, and to develop a conscious and welcoming image of humane livability within the urban experience (Simpson & Zimmermann, 2012, p. 40). It is truly remarkable that in such a short amount of time, the UNO came from simple concepts ranking ecology in regards to the rest of the concerns that large cities have to complex ideas of how to rearrange cities with minimum changes and the maximum positive impact on the environment. Compared to the previously described endeavors to introduce the concept of green cities to the public, the idea offered by Simpson and Zimmermann already is a legitimate problem solution that has been successfully introduced into a number of cities and will be to even more of them in the future. Therefore, one can observe grandeur changes in the green city project. Of course, it must be admitted that the practical solutions that Simpson and Zimmermanns offer are very flawed, which is quite understandable, for the idea of green cities is relatively young, and there was not much that could have been done in the timeslot from 2000 to 2012. In addition, it is quite impressive that the authors deal with the transportation issue as well, since the latter poses quite a number of threats to the environment with all the pollution and the CO₂ emissions that it causes: Sustainable urban transport research and practice have focused on specific problems such as pollution, road safety and on various measures and their effects (Simpson & Zimmermann, 2012, p. 39). Even though Simpson and Zimmermann stress that a more integrated approach is required to figure out to what extent the transportation issues impact the environment, it is still quite impressive that the transport issue has finally been mentioned in regard to its impact on nature.

However, despite all the positive aspects of the research offered by Simpson and Zimmermann, it is still clear that some of the concerns for the environment remain unresolved, such as the aforementioned transport pollution issue. One has to give credit to the existing research, though, for highlighting not only the negative aspects of using oil-powered transport but also the fact that there is no alternative to the petrol cars at present and the fact that, once banning the latter from using, one will inevitably observe the citys decay (Simpson & Zimmermann, 2012, p. 40); this is a very legitimate point. However, the solutions that Simpson and Zimmermann offer still have problems. For example, the idea of creating affordable, attractive, comfortable and sustainable buildings (Simpson & Zimmermann, 2012, p. 39) seems a perfect solution, yet, sadly enough, the change of attitudes towards the environment, which the given approach requires, is quite hard to make, as the researchers claim (Simpson & Zimmermann, 2012, p. 40). Hence, the aspect of sustainable architecture, which will be further on developed into a new concept (Sassi, 2012) is introduced.

Stretching the idea of green cities to the concept of green urbanism, Timothy Beatley offered a renewed approach to the problems that urbanism has posed to humankind in terms of environmental sustainability. In addition, one of the many merits of the given research is that it does not threaten the readers with false alarms about the rapid decrease of the existing mineral resources, but states clear-cut problems which need to be solved in the nearest future: How cities sustain themselves as access to resources beyond their boundaries diminishes is one of the greatest challenges for the future (Beatley, 2012, p.185). Therefore, it can be considered that the concept of green cities has made humankind aware of the existing problems and that at present, the reasonability of green cities approach has become fully reasonable; moreover, it seems that the green cities strategy is currently the only way to sustain the environment and at the same time retain the same economical and social status for the worlds largest cities (Beatley, 2012, p.185). Finally, the fact that Beatley finally brings the issue of an ecological footprint up and tries to define the reasonable boundaries of the latter is worth mentioning. The moment at which the boundaries for peoples habitat are defined can be considered the pivoting moment in the development of the green cities concept, because Beatley eventually brings the audience to think not about how to make peoples impact on nature milder, but how to keep it to the minimum, without spreading cities further until there is not a single untouched spot left on the planet.

Another important issue concerning the green city concept that Beatley mentions is the fact that each of the worlds largest cities requires a unique approach in the implementation of the above-mentioned idea. According to Beatley, the major resources of each city, as well as its infrastructure, the main weaknesses and the key assets, are to be analyzed before getting down to making the city green. As a matter of fact, Beatley reconsiders the entire idea of the green city; while the UNO Habitat considered a green city the one which is safer, greener and better serviced (UNO Habitat, 2008, p. 35), Beatley broadens the concept, pointing out that in a green city, green areas are diverse and functional, from an ecological as well as experiential point of view (Beatley, 2012, p. 115). Therefore, in 2012, the idea of a green city is not making the entire city be buried in verdure, but turning the megalopolis more environmentally friendly (Cohen, 2010). It is clear that the current point of green city development is not yet the point of destination and there is much more to discover; however, the provided solutions as they seem rather adequate responses to the current environmental concerns.

Reference List

Beatley, T, 2012, Green cities of Europe: global lessons on green urbanism, Island Press, Washington, DC.

Cohen, N, 2010, Green cities: an A to Z guide, SAGE, Thousand Oaks, CA.

Sassi, P, 2012, Strategies for sustainable architecture, Taylor & Francis, New York City, NY.

Simpson, R & Zimmermann, M., 2012, The economy of green cities: world compendium on the green urban economy, Springer, Bonn.

UNO Habitat 2008, State of the worlds cities 2008/2009, UNO, Geneva, SZ.

UNO Habitat 2010, State of the worlds cities 2010/2011, UNO, Geneva, SZ.

UNO Habitat 2012, State of the worlds cities 2012/2013, UNO, Geneva, SZ.

Introduction

Ground water is increasingly becoming critical in the emirate of Abu Dhabi because of its extensive use in agriculture, landscaping, and afforestation. The rulers emirate of Abu Dhabi, and private entities have invested a lot in agriculture to help ensure that the country is food secure. The success witnessed in agriculture and afforestation has come at a great cost in terms of the use of precious ground water.

According to Shahid et al., ground water is largely a non-renewable resource, and if it is overused, it can easily be depleted within a very short time (84). Overuse also leads toa reduction in quality,y and the salinity of the water increases, making it undesirable both for domestic and agricultural use. A number of experts and environmental conservationists have already issued a warning about the possibility of the wells running dry in the near future and it is now time to act.

The stakeholders must ensure that there is sustainability in the use of ground water. This paper focuses on the strategy that can be used to ensure that ground water in the emirate of Abu Dhabi is used sustainably.

Importance of Ground Water Locally

According to a report by World Bank, Abu Dhabi, and the United Arab Emirates, at large, has negligible clean water reserves (76). For a long time, the country relied on imported agricultural products to meet the needs of the local population. However, this changed when the stakeholders in the agricultural sector realized that ground water could be harvested and used to support agriculture. Ground water plays a critical role in supporting agriculture in the emirate of Abu Dhabi. The local agricultural production does not rely on rain fall anymore. The locals rely on ground water to irrigate their crops, enhancing reliability in their production.

This emirate is becoming a major source of agricultural products needed in the country. Environmental conservationists are also relying heavily on ground water in their afforestation efforts. Currently, the emirate has more trees than it has ever had in its recent history. Ground water is also used actively in landscaping. As Cahan notes, ground water has become very important in providing food security and making the emirate greener than it has ever been (44).

Environmental Strategies through DPSIR Framework

It is important to analyze the environmental strategies with the help of DPSIR framework. The following issues should be taken into consideration.

Drive

The driving force that makes ground water conservation so important is the fact that clean water sources are increasingly becoming scarce in Abu Dhabi. The country needs clean water both for domestic and industrial use. However, the available sources are becoming scarce, raising the issue of sustainability.

Pressure

The limited ground water reserves are put under great pressure by various stakeholders. Amery estimates that the current harvesting levels of ground water in Abu Dhabi are 25 times higher than the natural recharge (54). It means that if the current trends continue, the ground water reserves will soon run dry.

State

The current state of affairs is worrying. Although ground water is available for domestic and industrial use, the emerging trends where some people engage in illegal drilling of water is worrying. It makes it difficult to have exact measurement of ground water use.

Impact

The impact of the current trends will be depletion of ground water reserves in the country. If nothing is done, then the important ground water reserves that support agriculture, afforestation, and landscaping will be dry. These sectors will be affected and food security threatened.

Response

The government of Abu Dhabi and all other stakeholders in the private sector must work together to ensure that water security is given priority. They must come up with a way of ensuring that current water needs are met in a way that will also enable the future generation to meet their own needs. Sustainability should be the guiding principle.

Benchmarking and Trend Analysis

The response team should use benchmarking and trends analysis to find the best response strategy. The response should be benchmarked with best practices around the world. Israel is capable of meeting its water needs despite being a desert country. Their water use practices should be the benchmark for this emirate. The trends in water conservations in other parts of the world should also influence the local practices in Abu Dhabi.

Response

Use of SWOT Model

It is important to assess the response that is needed to ensure that ground water in the emirate of Abu Dhabi is used sustainably to serve the current and future generations. Using the SWOT model, one can assess factors which are favorable and those that are unfavorable to the conservation efforts. The strength that the government and stakeholders have is the financial capacity and environmental experts to help in water recycling in the country as a way of reducing burden on the use of ground water.

However, the stakeholders have to contend with the weakness that this emirate has very few clean water reserves, forcing them to continue relying on ground water for agricultural and other needs. In their effort to conserve ground water, the stakeholders should take advantage of the opportunities presented in the current environment. Technology is one of the most important opportunities that will help the stakeholders be capable of recycling water at lower costs and very efficiently, hence reducing the pressure put on ground water (Shahid and Ahmed 32). The international experts will also help in the response, especially those from other countries that face the same problems as that of the emirate.

However, in the response process the stakeholders must be keen on identifying and dealing with threats that may affect it negatively. The biggest threat that the stakeholders have to deal with is illegal drilling and use of ground water.

Use of PESTEL Model

The use of PESTLE model will help in defining the appropriate response. The political environment in the country is very favorable for the response process. The rulers of this emirate are very supportive towards environmental conservation efforts. The economic environment of the emirate has also remained very supportive. As the economy grows, the stakeholders get financial power to invest in projects that will help in promoting sustainable use of ground water. The social environment, especially the growing level of education and an understanding of the need to conserve the environment will help in promoting positive response. The more people get to understand the need for sustainable use of water, the more they will support the efforts to conserve ground water (Gibson et al. 67).

The technological environment will be one of the pillars in the response to the issue at hand. Emerging technologies will help the stakeholders to recycle water more efficiently and to have alternative water sources other than ground water. The government needs to come up with a strict legal environment that will deter illegal drilling of ground water. The need to conserve environment is another important drive towards the sustainable use of ground water.

Address Policy Nexus Issues

The past and present trends analysis of water use makes it possible to map the future. It is clear that the current rate at which ground water is used in the emirate is not sustainable. As such, policy nexus issues should focus on how to limit the rate of harvesting ground water. Ground water should be harvested, but in a way that do not pose threat to the water reserves (Gibson et al. 27). Policies should be enacted to ensure that only a given percentage of water is extracted per given period.

That will require policies that define how water should be recycled both in the domestic and industrial sectors. Everyone should feel the responsibility to conserve ground water reserves by being responsible when it comes to water use. Tough laws should be enacted for those who exceed the set limits for ground water harvesting and those who drill wells illegally.

Conclusion

The emirate of Abu Dhabi is heavily relying on ground water reserves for agriculture, afforestation, and landscaping. However, ground water harvesting in Abu Dhabi is 25 times higher than the natural recharge, which means that the current use of ground water is not sustainable. The stakeholders must come together and find ways through which ground water can be used sustainably to meet the current needs without affecting the ability of the future generations to meet their needs.

Works Cited

Amery, Hussein. Arab Water Security: Threats and Opportunities in the Gulf States. Cambridge University, 2015.

Cahan, Jean. Water Security in the Middle East: Essays in Scientific and Social Cooperation. Anthem Press, 2017.

Gibson, MacDonald, et al. Environmental Burden of Disease Assessment: A Case Study in the United Arab Emirates. Springer, 2013.

Shahid, Shabbir, and Muhammad Ahmed. Environmental Cost and Face of Agriculture in the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries: Fostering Agriculture in the Context of Climate Change. Cengage, 2014.

Shahid, Shabbir, et al. Developments in Soil Classification, Land Use Planning and Policy Implications: Innovative Thinking of Soil Inventory for Land Use Planning and Management of Land Resources. Springer, 2013.

World Bank. Renewable Energy Desalination: An Emerging Solution to Close the Water Gap in the Middle East and North Africas. World Bank, 2012.

Ultraviolet radiation is a kind of electromagnetic radiation that is emitted from the sun and is harmful to human health due to certain chemical reactions mainly, the eyes and skin; but it does have higher and more harmful effects. In the past years, with increasing global warming and changing environmental and atmospheric conditions, exposure to UV radiation has increased. The reason for this is mainly the depleting ozone layer. Earlier, the ozone layer would filter out the UV rays from the sunlight reaching the earth (the United States Environmental Protection Agency; 2008).

UV Radiation results in a provision of vitamin D which is a good thing. It is also used for the treatment of a few diseases that include eczema, jaundice, and even rickets. However, the benefits do not remain if the exposure is long-term; in fact, it can result in chronic diseases. The harmful effects are many; it not only damages your immune system but also causes indirect DNA damage. Generally, your eyes and skin are unsafe; it is not about getting very deep sunburn, but about the cells of your skin damaging permanently. The radiation causes the skin molecules to degenerate and causes fibrous tissues and  the effect is so permeating that it affects the blood vessels as well. This results in the skin not only being rough and dark, but it ages way before time (United State Environmental Protection Agency; 2008). If this continues, it can result in skin cancer. In the case of eyes, cataract has become a very common side effect. 20% of all the 12-15 million people who go blind because of cataract is due to UV Radiation (World Health Organization; 1999).

One of the most basic and abundant supplies of UV radiation is the sun. The sun emits radiation which has harmful rays included. The ozone layer is the shield that protects the earth from these radiations. But because of using Chlorofluorocarbons in aerosol sprays, refrigerators, and also the release of greenhouse gases that increases the general temperature and increase global warming, is causing the ozone layer to deplete. The ozone is estimated to be depleted at a rate of 4% per decade; which is very high. Also, this percentage is increasing and in New Zealand, the percentage has risen to 10% after the rupture in the Atlantic hole (World Health Organization; 1999).

Everybody realizes the need to take action now because this condition is becoming grave. World Health Organization has taken quite a lot of steps to prevent the ozone from depleting. Theyve run campaigns to inform and educate people of the harmful effects of using CFCs and aerosols (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 1978).

In countries like Australia, proper organizations have been formed to deal with this situation. Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency (ARPANSA) is an organization working to monitor the level of radiation and make sure that the level is under control. They have proper radioanalytical, radiopharmaceutical and even personal radiation monitoring services that help in determining the future steps. They conduct proper research on which the steps are then based. On a personal level, people can make sure they apply sunblock, wear sunglasses, and not travel out a lot during day time if their bodies are generally being affected. Also, wear protective clothing (United States Environmental Protection Agency; 2008).

If appropriate steps are taken and both a personal plus local/global effort is made, this problem can be tackled successfully for a better environment.

Works Cited

1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Industrial Noise Control manual (1978).
2. United State Environmental Protection Agency; Health and Environmental Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion (2008).
3. United State Environmental Protection Agency; Ozone Layer Depletion: Basic Information (2008).
4. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Radon.
5. World Health Organization; Community Noise, Edited by Berglund, Birgitta & Lindvall, Thomas, Stockholm, Sweden (1999).

Introduction

Electric vehicles have been recognized as a critical technology in reducing future emissions and energy consumption in the mobility sector. This article reviews and evaluates the energy efficiency and environmental impact of electric vehicles with rechargeable batteries. They are the only technical alternative on the market available today for cars with an internal combustion engine. To meet future mobility needs, reduce climate and health-related emissions, and gradually eliminate dependence on oil, todays propulsion technologies must be replaced by more efficient and environmentally friendly alternatives. Electric cars meet these requirements and provide opportunities for people to create transport that is safe for the environment.

Benefits

It is worth noting that electric cars help save the climate and human lives. Transportation is currently the largest source of environmental pollution in the United States and many parts of the world. To solve this problem, vehicles must be safe for the environment. Similarly, vehicle emissions are harmful not only to the planet but also to human health (Choksey, 2022). The air pollutants contained in gasoline can cause health problems such as asthma, cancer, and respiratory diseases. On the other hand, electric vehicles do not have exhaust gases, and respectively, they have significantly less impact on nature (Kazimi, 1997). Electric vehicles produce fewer emissions over the life cycle than traditional cars (Benefits, n.d.). The owners can further reduce their emissions by generating electricity from renewable sources that do not pollute the air, such as wind and solar (Requia et al., 2018). Electric cars contain fewer moving components or parts than gasoline and diesel cars. Without expensive exhaust systems, little maintenance is required. All this significantly reduces the environmental impact since much fewer production processes are involved.

Conclusion

Summing up, it should be noted that the development of technologies for the production of electric vehicles allows people to reduce the impact of vehicles on the environment significantly. Even though there are certain problems associated with high emissions during their production, electric cars have a more favorable impact during their period of use. People need to focus their attention on expanding the infrastructure that will help develop the widespread use of this type of transport.

References

Benefits of electric cars on the environment. (n.d.). EDF.

Choksey, J. S. (2022). 5 ways electric cars are better for the environment. J.D. Power. Web.

Kazimi, C. (1997). Evaluating the environmental impact of alternative-fuel vehicles.Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 33(2), 163185.

Requia, W. J., Mohamed, M., Higgins, C. D., Arain, A., & Ferguson, M. (2018). How clean are electric vehicles? Evidence-based review of the effects of electric mobility on air pollutants, greenhouse gas emissions and human health.Atmospheric Environment, 185, 6477.

Introduction

There are so many really beautiful cities on our planet: some of them attract people due to their sizes and population; some cities present rather captivating history and cultural heritage and some cities amaze people with their places of interest and tourists are eager and eager to visit this place once again. This time, I want to talk about the city that is famous due to its annual Summer Shakespeare Festival and is considered to be one of the cities, which have more than two nicknames, known to lots of people from different countries. River City, The Big Tomato, City of Trees, and Sac  all these nicknames are about Sacramento, the capital of California. Lots of words may be said about the City of Sacramento, its historical development and growth, its culture and population, its heritage and remarkable features.

Historical Development, Population, Demographics, and Growth of the City of Sacramento

Sacramento takes seventh place among the Californian cities, which turn out to be the most populous: the population of Sacramento is over 407018; about 49% are men, and more than 51% are women. (AreaConnect, n.d.) Native people of Sacramento have so many reasons to be proud: its rich history, its culture, and even location have so many privileges.

In 1879, Sacramento was called one of the most permanent capital states. Such status of the city, its rapid growth, and advantageous location  all this explains the fact that Sac starts taking leading positions in many spheres and becomes one of the most attractive places for tourists. It is necessary to admit that Sacramento is the only place, where two great rivers, the Sacramento and the American, meet. Such kind of meeting gives birth to the first nickname of Sacramento  the River City. Lots of kayakers and rafters are eager to visit this city in order to feel all those unbelievable emotions and excitement. (A Brief History of Sacramento, n.d.)

The growth of the City of Sacramento is caused due to its huge number of tourists attractions. The Sacramento Zoo is one of the oldest places of interest here: more than 300 animals may be found there. California Military Museum and California State Archives provide the visitor with one more opportunity to learn the history of the state and comprehend what caused so rapid and considerable development of the region. (PlanetWare, n.d.)

Map and Photographs of the City of Sacramento

Main Environmental Setting/Features of the City

The idea of the environmental features of the City of Sacramento is one more point that has to be evaluated right now. In fact, environmental features are those significant resources and settings, which may serve as perfect means to restrain or even to prevent certain transportation improvements. In other words, these settings are all those natural resources of a certain area. As for the environmental features of Sacramento, there are several such resources, which have to be mentioned.

Of course, one of the most remarkable examples of environmental settings may serve the Sacramento Valley and the corridor of the two rivers, the Sacramento and the American. In fact, there are several rather bright perspectives, which are connected to the state of water management within the whole Sacramento Basin. Such scientists like Annette Huber-Lee, Winston Yu, and some others admit that balance between water for food and water for the environment has been destructively tipped in favor of irrigated agriculture and that the only possible future is one based on constant efforts to roll back the irrigated area in the basin. (Huber-Lee, n.d.)

Environmental Plan

Review of the First Sustainability Master Plan of the City of Sacramento

In December 2007, the first Sustainability Master Plan was conducted. It turned out to be a kind of map that should help to create a sustainable City. The Mayor and the City Council were those people, who adopted the plan and introduced it to the citizens. The major point of this plan is to encourage every citizen of the City to green own homes and even neighborhoods. If this purpose is achieved, the major outcome, changes in the environment, will certainly happen. Such greenhousing may happen by means of technological interference, water treatment, garbage recycling, attention to transportation means, etc.

Water

First of all, it is necessary to control water and to converse the use and protect the sources of drinking water and work to provide exceptional flood protection. (Sustainability Implementation Plan 2008) Certain measures have been already taken in this sphere: erosion control work, efforts on rice pesticides, and numerous inspection programs. In the future, numerous protection efforts concerning the two rivers ongoing source will be continued. With the help of educational programs, people get to know more about how to conserve water. Numerous water inspections help to take under control water consumption. And, finally, encouragement for leadership within water utilities and frequent participation in river tools are considered to be one of the major issues of the Master Plan.

Waste

Our society is developing quickly. This development causes numerous changes within each sphere of life, this is why it is better to take care of everything around in order to live in good conditions. The amount of waste (it does not matter whether it is garbage or some solid waste) is growing as well. This is why in order to green the houses, as it is mentioned in the Master Plan of Sacramento, it is better to think about waste recycling or reuse. In the Plan under consideration, there is no separate point for waste problems and their outcomes, this is why it is crucially important to take into account the problems, the citizens may face because of waste and start thinking of how to predict these difficulties.

Transport

Of course, to achieve positive results while greening homes, it is also necessary to remember about the problems, caused by transportation. It is better to reduce dependence on the private automobile by working with community partners to provide efficient and accessible transit and transit-supportive land uses, and reduce long commutes by providing a wide array of transportation and housing choices. (Sustainability Implementation Plan 2008) The development of pedestrian improvement programs is considered one of the major points in the transportation issue. Bike parking and green bikeways should be also taken into consideration in order to demonstrate to people that trees and other greenery around turn out to be rather attractive and useful.

Natural Environment

Well, a lot may be said about the natural heritage of the City of Sacramento. Its Mediterranean climate and really winning location help to take leading positions in many industries and attract many tourists. Of course, the major advantage of the city is its location on the Sacramento River and the American River. Due to such water access, the food industry provides the representatives of Sacramento to maintain good relations with other states. Sacramento should not lose this heritage and take all possible steps in order to develop and increase its richness.

Environmental Challenges

Without any doubt, Sacramento may face numerous challenges connected with the environment. People should know that there are lots of reasons, which may lead to environmental problems, and some of them are: the rise of population and desire to have own cars  are the reasons caused by humans; global warming lead to more hot days, which also have the negative impact on the environment. If people do not stop to follow the garbage and do not start planting, the environment may be under a serious threat, so, people should think about it.

Review and Expected Improvement

The desire to create a green city is not a dream, it is a reality that the City of Sacramento wants to achieve. With the help of the Master Plan, developed in 2007, the citizens of Sacramento get proper instructions to green their houses and make their places more beautiful. This environmental plan should certainly improve the future of Sacramento due to several reasons:

1. educative programs help to comprehend everything on the theoretical level, at first, and then use the knowledge in practice;
2. communication with people in order to improve their own lives usually have positive results as everyone wants to live better if it is possible;
3. environmental threats are one of the less noticeable ones, but still, they make a considerable impact on humans lives, and we should be ready for any challenge.

Sacramento is really wonderful place with its sights and culture.

Reference List

AreaConnect. (n.d.). Sacramento California Population and Demographics Resources. Web.

The city of Sacramento. (n.d.) A Brief History of Sacramento. Web.

Creating a Sustainable City: 2008 Implementation Plan (2007). Web.

Huber-Lee, A., Yates, D., Purkey, D., Yu, W., & Runkle, B. (n.d). Water, Climate, Food, and Environment in the Sacramento Basin. Web.

PlanetWare. (n.d.). Tourist Attractions in Sacramento. Web.

Maps and Photos: Mapepry: Real Life Maps. (n.d.) Sacramento, California City Map. Web.

Background

Also known as forest day mosquito, the Asia tiger mosquito (Aedes albopictus) is a kind of mosquito species, which has led to various detrimental effects on human beings, particularly in the United States of America, since its introduction in 1985. The mosquito is considered a bothersome pest in human communities, as it associates closely with human beings. Its physical characteristics are white and black striped body and legs, with relatively a small body (a quarter-inch long) compared with other mosquito species. This mosquito species is native to the tropical areas of Asia, particularly in the southeastern parts.

According to Toliver (2003), the mosquitoes in their natural niche the food chains were naturally controlled, which in turn held their population growth in control, as opposed to their new environment where there are no predators, leading to uncontrolled population growth. Secondly, this massive population has led to limitations in terms of habitats (limited shelter). This is opposed to their natural environment whereby population growth is controlled. Thirdly the new environment specifically in the USA varies to freezing winter in the north which poses a danger to the survival of the species, as opposed to their natural tropical and subtropical niche.

However, the species has significantly invaded several countries worldwide, a couple of decades ago. Its invasion has been through human activities such as international travels and transportation of goods. According to Hilton (2000), the Asian tiger mosquito was among the two invasive insects recently introduced in the USA, mainly through commercial shipments. The mosquito was first found in Houston, Texas in the USA in 1985, and was thought to have entered the region through cargos of imported used tires.

Since then the mosquito had significantly spread to various parts of the country, and by the year 1992, the species had invaded as far as Minnesota and Delaware in the north. The 1999 national survey on the spread of the invasive species indicated that the insect had established itself in more than 25 states in the country (Moore, 1999, 224). The Global Invasive Species Database ranked the Asian tiger mosquito among the top 100 worst invasive species in the world (Global Invasive Species Database, n.d).

The new American niche for the mosquito species has allowed the species to be a problem in the environment due to the following reasons. First is the overgrowth in population as there are no predators to control their population growth. Secondly is the increased competition for food and habitats as a consequential result of overpopulation. Thirdly the excessive cool climate especially during winters has led to the mosquitoes seeking refuge in human habitats, hence becoming a menace in the transmission of diseases.

Problems

The species is considered to have an alarming potential since it out-competes and eradicates other native mosquito species inbreeding, and can breed in very small puddles of stagnant water (Blatchford, 2007). Particularly in the USA, the Asian tiger mosquito population has grown tremendously, out-competing other breeds of mosquitoes such as the cortex, which are not as harmful as the Asian tigers regarding human health. The species has also out-competed the other breeds dwelling in the vicinity of human beings, to solely command the new habitats (Lounibos, 2007).

The Asian tiger mosquito is associated with spreading the Dengue virus which leads to Dengue hemorrhagic fever as well as dengue shock syndrome, through its bites on human beings (Gleeson, McBride & Norton, 1999). Laboratory studies have also shown that the mosquito is a vector of the eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEE). The economic productivity of individuals affected by such illnesses is usually slowed. The economic effect comes through reduced economic production and government as well as individual expenditures on illnesses of a country, due to illnesses associated with the pest.

During the Chikungunya epidemic of 2005/2006 in La Reunion, a French island, the mosquito species was responsible for the transmission of a virus that claimed the lives of 248, infecting more than 266,000 people by September 2006 (ProMED-mail, 2006). The table below shows the economic impacts of the chikungunya epidemic from 2005 to 2007, in France.

Control Mechanisms

In the USA, several mechanisms and projects have been initiated to control the spread of mosquito species in the country. The first mechanism is getting rid of mosquito breeding sites. The department of public health of the USA outlined the following steps in implementing the mechanism. These were the removal of old containers from yards, which are likely to accumulate water, emptying pools weekly, keeping roof gutters clean from falling leaves, reporting discarded containers to local health officials and neighbors working together to eliminate breeding sites in their vicinity (Howard, 2007). The project was started in Illinois, recording high chances of success in the state.

The second mechanism was to reduce the risk of mosquito bites through the following steps. Using mosquito nets in sleeping rooms, avoiding spending a lot of time outdoors especially between dusk and dawn, and if necessary to use mosquito anti-repellant. This mechanism has kicked off countrywide, but results are yet to be quantified (Howard, 2007).

The third mechanism is the mosquito suppression project by the Center for Vector Biology in conjunction with the USDA fly and mosquito research unit. The process will involve sensitizing community involvement through education and mosquito surveillance, to systematically destroy all the development stages of the pest. The implementation of the project is yet to kick start (Rutgers Project to Suppress the Asian tiger mosquito, 2007).

Summary and Conclusion

The first control mechanism of the Asian tiger mosquitoes is deemed to bring forth benefits since not many inputs are needed. The costs involved will be quite minimal. The destruction of their breeding sites will mean that the mosquito population will reduce significantly.

The second mechanism is deemed to be the most effective mechanism, as its implementation will be at the individual level and inside households. The costs will be extremely low, with the benefits likely to be high. However, the mechanism alone might fail to control the pests effectively since the population might escalate. Its more of protection than controlling the pests.

The third mechanism seems to be the best to undertake. Though the costs are estimated to be quite high, the benefits of the project are extremely high. The surveillance and destruction of the development stages of the pest will be the best in terms of destroying their new niche completely.

The future of the Asian tiger mosquito in the USA, and in other parts of the world where it has invaded, seems to be extinction, since many control projects are showing signs of success, particularly in the USA. What needs to be done is unity between the project driver and the society, to avert the socio-economic threat and damage presented by the pest to humans.

Works Cited

Blatchford, J. Tiger Mosquito: an invasive mosquito species with frightening potential. 2007. Web.

Gleeson, F; McBride, J; Norton, R. Culture-amplified detection of dengue virus from Serum in an outbreak of dengue fever. Journal of Medical Virology. 57(2): 1999 212-215.

Howard, S. Prevention and control: Asian tiger mosquito. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association. 14(1): 2007 83-94.

Lounibos, L. P. Competitive displacement and reduction.AMCA Bulletin 23: 2007. 276-282.

Moore, G. Aedes albopictus in the United States: Current status and prospects for Further spread. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association. 15(2): 1999. 221-227.

ProMED-mail. Chikungunya  Indian Ocean update. 2006. Web.

Rutgers Project to Suppress the Asian tiger mosquito Nationwide. 2007. Web.

The Global Invasive Species Database, n.d. Web.

2020 has been quite an important year in the performance and development of the Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (OSMRE). Focusing on the promotion of reasonable and sustainable use of mining lands and the related areas, OSMRE has prioritized collaboration, yet the recent changes in relationships within businesses and organizations due to health-related issues have redefined the environment in which OSMRE has been working. Namely, due to the development of the pandemic, the organization has faced the necessity to transfer its activities to the digital setting, thus altering the patterns of its performance and communication between its members.

In addition, the outreach efforts that OSMRE has made recently are indicative of the global trend toward sustainability and collaboration, which is going to represent quite a challenge in the nearest future. According to the recent accounts made by OSMRE, the regulatory issues, specifically, the creation of the Abandoned Mine Reclamation Program, have allowed reinforced the importance of complying with the set standards for resource management and the prevention of pollution according to the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (OSMRE, 2020). The described regulatory efforts are expected to lead to improvements in the management of environmental concerns, the enhancement of agricultural productivity, and the sustenance of the state energy production efforts.

The outlined changes are believed to help to minimize the negative effects of mining and related activities in the future. Presently, noticeable improvements can be observed, including the off-site impacts. Specifically, the report issued by OSMRE mentions that no off-site impact has been observed at 93% of the state construction sites, which demonstrates an impressive improvement compared to the previous records. Furthermore, opportunities for isolating the instances of operator negligence and correcting them accordingly to prevent side effects of mining from affecting the environment deserve a mention among the key milestones in accomplishing the goals set previously by the OSMRE.

In addition, oversight inspections have indicated that there were issues with the slurry impoundments and refuse compaction. As a result, OSMRE isolated the existing problems within the framework for managing the tasks associated with mining and the management of waste. The described outcome has allowed meeting the established standards for mining, safety, and environmental concerns to a greater degree. Furthermore, opportunities for handling the current c concerns such as acid mine drainage have been outlined, which has provided the premise for the improvement of the existing strategy for mining.

Overall, the recent developments in the mining protocol and the management of workplace issues, particularly, the concerns related to safety and environmental sustainability, have been explored sufficiently. The lack of oversight, which led to failure the last year, has been identified, with appropriate solutions being offered to manage the specified concern. Therefore, the general coverage of the safety issues and the concerns regarding the management of mining. Moreover, the focus has been shifted toward the prevention of misconduct ad failure to comply with the introduced standards for effective and sustainable mining.

Furthermore, the Regulatory Program Problems have shown staffing problems in the regulatory department, which suggests that further actions to be taken should prioritize meeting employees needs and enforcing the significance of a people-oriented approach when promoting critical ethical standards and quality principles.

Finally, the increase in the range of grants and the state funding options should be noted as major changes. Coupled with the increase in permit fees, the specified change is expected to produce a greater range of financial resources for the organization. Thus, better implementation of the current quality- and management-related tasks can be expected.

Reference

OSMRE. (2020). Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA). Web.

Introduction

There are significant numbers of adverse effects caused by the depletion of the ozone layer, as supported by several publications. The negative health impacts that are brought about by

the depletion of the ozone layer and climate change and are categorised as either acute or chronic (Rass, 2006). The acute effects include minor skin injuries, such as skin dryness and photokeratitis, also known as the snow blindness (Neale, 2007).

The chronic impacts of ozone depletion on human include effects, such as skin cancer, photoaging, and the long term damages that the ultraviolet (UV) radiation causes the human eye (Parker & Morrissey, 2003).

The depletion of the ozone has not only affected the health of humans across the globe, but it has also contributed to the way the natural ecosystem is organized.

The climate has changed all over the world, with weather patterns changing every year (Water Program, 2011). This has become challenging even to the weathermen, who sometimes give contradicting weather expectations from what occurs.

The changing climate has impacted the ecosystem, where the migration of particular animals has been hampered and, in other cases, reversed (Mathole, Ndarana, Beraki, & Landman, 2014).

Various catastrophic climate-related events, such as hurricanes, have occurred in several locations, causing deleterious effects on human activity. The amount of water in the seas is said to be increasing day by day, which is a major threat to the habitat (Climate Action, 2012).

This paper seeks to discuss the impacts of ozone depletion on the health of human beings. It also examines the effects that climate change has brought to the ecosystem, the water systems in particular. Finally, the paper gives the economic impact of climate change.

Harm to Human Health

The effects of solar radiation on the skin

According to Parker and Morrissey (2003), the negative effects of solar radiation on human skin could be categorized as either acute or chronic. The acute refers to the short-term effects, while chronic effects refer to the long-term effects.

Among the short-term effects of solar radiation on the human skin include sunburn, thickening of the epidermis, and the dryness of the skin (Guhl et al., 2005). The chronic effects of solar radiation on the human skin include skin cancer and photoaging.

Thomas and Callen (2001) explain how sunburn occurs in a person. Inflammation of the skin, otherwise known as the sunburn or erythema, occurs the moment the skin is exposed to UV radiation of between 295-400nm.

However, the sunburn caused does not last more than 24 hours (Thomas & Callen, 2001). Melanogenesis, otherwise known as tanning, occurs when the skin is exposed to the solar radiation of above 295nm for more than one day (Parker & Morrissey, 2003).

According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2011), an increase in the exposure of human skin to the solar radiation can lead to various skin diseases. Such conditions include pemphigus, lupus erythematous, and skin photosensitivity.

Green (1999) adds that extensive exposure of the human skin to the solar radiation contributes to the suppression of the immune system.

The most widely studied chronic effect of solar radiation on the skin of humans is the skin cancer. The World Health Organization (2015) writes that exposure to solar radiation catalyses basal cell carcinoma (BCC) and squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). BCC and SCC are the primary causes of skin cancer.

It is interesting to note that the skin type is a contributing factor in the probability of whether one will be diagnosed with skin cancer or not. Young (2009) argues that humans with skin types 1 and 2 are more prone to skin cancer, while those with skin types 3 and 4 being less prone to skin cancer.

On the other hand, melanoma, a much less cause of skin cancer is the leading contributing factor to the deaths that are associated with skin cancer.

The main factors contributing to melanoma are the skin colour and the level of skin exposure to the solar radiation. In areas with low latitudes, such as Australia, pale skinned individuals are more prone to melanoma and skin cancer, compared to dark skinned people in the same region (European Commission, 2006).

To this effect, the European Commission generalizes that advice regarding protection from the sun should be focused on the white skinned people, rather than dark-skinned individuals because it is pale/white coloured individuals that are more prone to cases of melanoma and skin cancer.

According to the World Health Organization (2015), patients who have high numbers of melanocytic naevi are also at an increased risk of contracting melanoma.

Photoaging is a skin condition that occurs when skin ages as a result of prolonged exposure to the ultraviolet radiation (Gass, 2005).

The notable signs of photoaging include laxity, wrinkles, and uneven alignment of the skin pigments, as stated by the British Columbia (2013). When matrix metalloproteins (MMPs) are induced, the collagen in the human skin gets degraded, and this is believed to be the cause of photoaging.

According to the Social Learning Group (2001), there are specific ways through which mankind can protect himself from the damages caused by solar radiations on the skin.

Such measures include minimizing sun exposure, especially at noon time, drinking water in abundance to avoid dehydration and skin dryness, use of a sunscreen that has a sun protection factor of more than 15, and self-checking the skin on a regular basis to identify skin changes as they happen.

One can also take breaks in the shade when the sun is very strong, use proper protective clothing and sunglasses during high sunshine, and taking part in various seminars and events that are organized to train the general public on the potential damages of solar UV radiation on humans, as well as the best methods to protect oneself from the harmful effects of solar radiation.

The effects of solar UV radiation on the eye

Thomas and Callen (2012) give a good explanation of the human eye. The human eye can reflect visible radiation on its retina. The eye has several layers that shield it from sunlight by toning down the radiation. As a result, the eye is protected from the UV-induced photo damage.

One of the effects of UV radiation on the human eye is what is referred to as photokeratitis. According to Thomas and Callen (2012), photokeratitis is a painful condition that is inflammatory in nature. They signal that photokeratitis is, sometimes, referred to as snow blindness, whereas other people refer to it as welders flash.

However, Green (1999) reveals that photokeratitis will appear just 2 -12 hours of exposure and then disappear in just 48 hours.

Several studies have revealed that UV radiations from the sun cause ocular melanoma (Gass, 2005).

Other studies have shown that people, who take more time out, especially in the weekdays, are more prone to ocular melanoma than individuals who do participate in outdoor activities on specific days (Rass, 2006).

Ocular melanoma is determined by how much UV light comes into contact with the skin, but not the latitude of exposure.

UV-induced Vitamin D and its impact on health

UV radiations from the sun have various effects on the life of human beings. One such effect is the ability to catalyse the synthesis of vitamin D. According to the World Health Organization (2015), Vitamin D is crucial for the stability of the musculoskeletal system.

However, there is a worrying fact that is recorded by the WHO in the sense that quite a good number of the earths population has a deficit of vitamin D.

As a result, there have been increased cases of children developing rickets at an early stage of their development, especially in the third world countries like a majority of the African countries.

Several studies have demonstrated how UV radiations can transfer to the human body though vitamin D. Vitamin D deficiency has been proven to be an easy way through which UV radiations are able to penetrate though the human skin (Abdel-Naser, Krasagakis, Garbe, & Eberle, 2003).

When one is vitamin D deficient, then his skeletal composition becomes so worn out that the skin can no longer protect the body from harmful adverse UV radiations. As a result, there are high chances of contracting skin cancer and any other skin-related ailment brought about by UV radiations (Rass, 2015).

Weakening of the human immune system

According to Young (2009), there are a number of cases where excessive exposure to UV radiation has been associated with the weakening of the human immune system.

Suppression of the white blood cells, which are credited for the fighting mechanism of the human body, occurs with prolonged exposure to the suns UV radiation. When this occurs, the human body fails to produce the required antigens to fight diseases.

Young (2009) states that the weakening of the immune system due to the increased periods of exposure to the sun affects people with varying skin colours, irrespective of their location on the globe.

Green (1999) indicates that the weakened immune system due to over-exposure to UV radiation could be one of the leading causes of infections and diseases like malaria, leprosy, measles, tuberculosis, and various fungal infections.

According to the World Health Organization (2015), the efficacy of vaccinations is reduced once the white blood cells beneath the skin are weakened by intense UV radiations. The inability of the skin to fight infections is greatly contributed by the reduced ability of the skin to allergic reactions.

Impacts on Natural Ecosystems

Effects of climate change on water resources

The effects of climate change on water resources have been devastating. Climate change has come with increased temperatures that have increased the level of evaporation of the rivers and other water bodies (Water Program, 2011).

The result of this is that many rivers are now drying up or becoming temporary. Some deserts have also been created as a result of increased evaporation induced by increased temperatures. Some regions depend on glacier ice for the replenishment of their fresh water (Newman et al., 2014; Ganguly & Iyer, 2006).

However, climate change has brought with it very high temperatures that are posing a threat to these glaciers. Climate change has led to the reduction of the seasonally frozen ground water (The Department of Environmental Protection, 2010).

Consequently, lakes are disappearing as a result of permafrost draining and the coastal erosion at the Arctic has increased as well. The quality of our waters has been interfered with by the vast changing climatic conditions brought about by the depletion of the ozone layer.

The number of organisms in fresh waters has reduced significantly, and the composition of species in the same waters has changed a lot (Water Facts, 2010). There have been increased flooding as a result of climatic change, which have affected many livelihoods, including loss of property and lives in the worst scenarios.

The Economic Impact of Ozone Depletion

The economic consequences that are associated with the ozone depletion stem from the above discussions on climate change. The various skin-related ailments caused by prolonged exposure to UV radiation call for increased investment in the health sector to cure the diseases (European Commission, 2006).

Many countries are feeling the pinch of the climatic change, as they are injecting billions of money into the health sector to curb the health conditions.The change in climate has reduced agricultural productivity drastically.

Several countries are not able to produce enough food, as it used to be in the past years (European Commission, 2006). As a result, there have been increased hunger and droughts, which affect government expenditure, as it has to shift focus on how to feed its people.

Conclusion

The depletion of the ozone has contributed to various effects, both on the health of human beings, as well as to the natural ecosystems.

The various effects of ozone depletion on humans include skin ailments, such as skin drying and skin cancer, destruction of the human eye, and suppression of the immune system.

A good example of the adverse effect of climate change is the interference of the worlds waters. All these effects become economic burdens for the various countries.

References

Abdel-Naser, M., Krasagakis, K., Garbe, C., & Eberle, J. (2003). Direct effects on proliferation, antigen expression and melanin synthesis of cultured normal human melanocytes in response to UVB and UVA light. Photodermatology, Photoimmunology & Photomedicine, 19(3), 122-127. Web.

Climate Action. (2012). Protection of the ozone layer: Questions and Answers. Web.

European Commission. (2006). Biological effects of ultraviolet radiation relevant to health with particular reference to sunbeds for cosmetic purposes. Web.

Ganguly, N. D., & Iyer, K. N. (2006). Long-term trend in ozone and erythemal UV at Indian latitudes. Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry, 55(3), 227-239. Web.

Gass, R. (2005). Mortality from malignant melanoma: epidemiological trends in Switzerland. Schweiz Rundsch Med Prax, 94(34), 1295- 1300.

Green, A. (1999). Incidence and determinants of skin cancer in a high-risk Australian population. Int J Cancer, 46, 356-361.

Guhl, S., Stefaniak, R., Strathmann, M., Babina, M., Piazena, H., Henz, B. M., & Zuberbier, T. (2005). Bivalent effect of UV light on human skin mast cellslow-level mediator release at baseline but potent suppression upon mast cell triggering. Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 124(2), 453-456. Web.

Mathole, K., Ndarana, T., Beraki, A., & Landman, W. A. (2014). Impact of lower stratospheric ozone on seasonal prediction systems. South African Journal of Science, 110(3/4), 1-8. Web.

Neale, R. E. (2007). Basal cell carcinoma on the trunk is associated with excessive sun exposure. J Am Acad Dermatol, 56(3), 380-386.

Newman, P. A., Kramarova, N., Nash, E. R., Long, C. S., Pitts, M. C., Johnson, B., && Braathen, G. O. (2014). g. Ozone depletion. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, S152-S156.

Parker, L., & Morrissey, A. W. (2003). Stratospheric ozone depletion. Hauppauge, NY: Nova Publishers.

Rass, K. (2006). UV-damage and DNA-repair in basal and squamous cell carsinomas: Molecular mechanisms of basal cell and squamous cell carsinomas. Bioscience Medical Intelligence Unit: Springer.

Social Learning Group. (2001). Learning to manage global environmental risks: A functional Analysis of social responses to climate change, ozone depletion and acid rain. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

The British Columbia. (2013). The Impacts of ozone depletion. Web.

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In recent decades, the general emergency management plan (EMP) has been the preferred framework for disaster planners. The main reasoning behind the popularity of this approach is different hazard scenarios share similarities and, thus, should be managed with a common plan. The general EMP approach has arguable benefits but it does not often achieve optimum public preparedness. The framework fails to artificially consolidate dramatically different disaster scenarios. Although disasters share certain commonalities, there is a great depth of variance across hazard types. The Hazard and Vulnerability Report found that the area could be affected by at least four diverse types of catastrophes. It is, therefore, advisable for the community to adopt a disaster-specific plan rather than a general emergency management plan.

Disaster-Specific Plan

Benefits

• It is flexible
• It is the most appropriate for predictable disasters, such as hurricanes
• General EMP gives a false sense of security
• Disaster preparedness is specific and, therefore, superior

Since the local Hazard and Vulnerability Analysis report identified only four potential types of disasters that could occur in this area, it is advisable to prepare a disaster-specific plan centered on the potential areas of risk. It is imperative to make the response around the identified threat capacities as flexible as possible. Managing these emergencies can be a highly technical affair requiring specialized techniques and expertise (Nojavan et al., 2018). Zeroing in specific disasters will be highly beneficial when dealing with a streamlined management plan rather than a consolidated one.

Some types of natural disasters, such as hurricanes and cyclones, are fairly predictable. It is only logical to transform an existent general emergency management plan into a disaster-specific plan in this case to deal with a predicted phenomenon. For example, the National Incident Management System (NIMS) was very efficient from the original forewarnings of Hurricane Sandys imminent landing in facilitating effective and clear communication (Gregory, 2015). Prior disaster-specific planning and preparation for the hurricanes saved many lives. Preparing for a specific disaster helps the organizations involved speed the response and recovery processes.

The general emergency approach imperfections stem from a false sense of security that general can sometimes provide. For instance, such plans have been proven inefficient in dealing with terrorism even if they provide effective ways of aid and communication. Inefficient administration also renders the general system ineffective as was experienced during Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans (Gregory, 2015). A general EMP is only effective if those using it have the required experience.

Emergency preparedness in disaster-specific plans is superior compared to a general EMP. The community can act more promptly to protect property and save lives when threatened by a disaster they were briefed and trained about. There are four potential hazards identified in the community, therefore, authorities should embark on resource mobilization, training, and practice drills for these specific emergencies. This will create optimal disaster preparedness for the community in case any of these four hazards strike. This level of attention and specificity cannot be obtained if a general emergency management plan was employed because it covers a myriad of hazards.

Top-hazards approach or disaster-specific plans have been gaining acceptance in recent times especially after the mishandling and mismanagement of Hurricane Katrina and after the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Its planning is more effective, and there is a high likelihood of maintaining and achieving good organization. The general EMP approach also attempts to mitigate natural and manmade disasters, such as terrorism, using the same methods while the two belong to very distinct categories. In a terrorist situation, attackers can adjust their strategies to respond to defense mounted by the government. This is one of the reasons why some types of disasters, such as terrorism, call for specific plans to deal with them.

General EMP

Benefits

• It is cost-effective
• There are managerial and logistical advantages
• A general EMP saves resources and time

The most cited argument for the general emergency management plan is that it saves time and money. This is attributable to the fact that coordination is done by all organizations involved in mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery (Nojavan et al., 2018). Such coordination prevents confusion and consequential resource wastage that takes place when different departments act independently to achieve a common purpose. Various organizations consolidate their resources to create a single, common plan. The cost of training is shared among the different organizations, further reducing cost.

A general emergency management plan yields managerial and logistical benefits, particularly during the response. Disaster-specific plans can be limiting because when organizations are left to develop their emergency plans, they generate responses specific to them and within their resources. This may create conflict with other organizations plans and communication challenges between that organization and other responders. A general emergency management approach is comprehensive as it has been developed over time and includes previously mentioned logistical and economic advantages. It promotes an underlying framework of management that can in theory be used to respond to any disaster. It is a consolidation of many single entity plans to respond to different emergencies.

The general EMP allows governments to save resources and time by using consolidated action plans. This all-hazards approach plan provides an infrastructure in which all emergency management activities can be situated. Using consolidated plans increases efficacy and allows resources to be used better in managing a disaster. The all-hazards approach is preferred because it has been fairly reliable. It is considered to be cost-effective, is hands-on, encourages collaboration among a wide variety of stakeholders, and provides a comprehensive framework for responding to emergencies.

NIMS (ICS)

The National Incident Management System (NIMS) has had its share of success and failure. While it has evolved into an all-hazards response body, it can also be effective in tackling specific hazards in disaster-specific plans. The success in how Hurricane Sandy was managed is a good example of NIMS effectively handling emergencies in both a disaster-specific plan and a general emergency management plan scenario. NIMS track record suggests that the kind of plan does not really matter as long as the laid plan is amply prepared and implemented before and after the emergency event occurs (Gregory, 2015).

Having emergency workforces will not help if they are not adequately trained to respond to disaster conditions. A prepared plan will not help if the preparations needed are not done and emergency personnel are not knowledgeable. NIMS is an important organization to local arrangements whether a general EMP or a disaster-specific plan is adopted. The community must incorporate NIMS (ICS) in its strategy whatever plan it adopts. NIMS has long-term experience, trained personnel, and vast resources in dealing with emergencies.

References

Gregory, P. (2015). Reassessing the effectiveness of all-hazards planning in emergency management. Inquiries Journal/Student Pulse. pp. 1-2. Web.

Nojavan, M., Salehi, E. & Omidvar, B. (2018). Conceptual change of disaster management models: A thematic analysis. Journal of Disaster Risk Studies, pp. 2-11. Web.