Category: Environment

Introduction

Environmental safety is a responsibility of all individuals and firms should promote the health of the environment. Living in a good and clean environment is not only healthy to human beings but also promotes the welfare of firms in the market. Governments, environmental lobby groups, civil society groups and other organizations have placed a major campaign against damage on the environment. It is evident that there are advantages and disadvantages accrued from conducting environmental safety and promotion of a clean environment by business entities. In this paper I will discuss whether firms have a moral responsibility to maintain a clean environment. All businesses have a responsibility to maintain a sustainable and clean environment.

Main Body

Companies which practice environmental conservation develop a good image in the public. The general public develops loyalty and trust upon organizations which are friendly to the environment. Today consumers are very sensitive about the moral responsibilities of the companies which manufacture consumer products. Companies conducting unhealthy business activities tend to be shunned away by consumers.

It has become a requirement for all companies to start initiatives of protecting the environment to attract more customers. The international community has been concerned about environmental pollution and companies promoting the activities of environmental safety are being rewarded. ISO 140001 certification is provided to firms which are friendly to the environment and this is used to encourage companies to conduct their business in a responsible manner (Johnson, p. 228).

The ISO 140001 provides a framework by which all business entities, individuals and governments should conduct their activities in a clean environment. Companies which become ISO 140001 certified have the advantage of global recognition. In addition, products manufactured by companies which are ISO 140001 certified are acceptable by customers in the global scene. It is important for firms to conduct their businesses in an environmental friendly manner to ensure they achieve ISO 140001 certificate.

Normative ethics require that all companies be morally friendly in their activities. All companies ought to conduct their business in a clean environment. Irrespective of the existence of laws to protect the environment, it is implied that firms should protect the environment by promoting ethical behavior. It is acceptable that firms should promote the health of the environment by encouraging good environmental practices (ODonohue and Ferguson, p. 426).

Firms have an ethical responsibility of reporting cases of irresponsible behaviors carried out by other firms. The law protects all individuals and organizations which attempt to report immoral behavior. Firms have a moral responsibility to blow the whistle for any attempts by other firms in the market to conduct unacceptable activities which may harm the environment. Whistle blowing is the process of reporting any illegal activities being conducted by other people (Lewis, p. 1). Whistle blowing involves overriding the interests of an organization or a group of organizations conducting irresponsible activities which may harm the environment for the welfare of the general public.

Changes in the global climate which have been brought by unethical business activities has reduced the performance of some industries. A lot of effort should be placed to curb bad environmental practices. There have been adverse effects on many businesses especially at the coast after the increased melting of the ice creating a great risk for the occurrence of tsunamis and other hazards brought about by the rise in sea level (Scholz, p.1).

Though small businesses are not directly affected by the changes in climate, the increase in prices for the materials, energy and products used by the businesses creates an indirect cost. This has caused the increase in prices of products sold to customers; hence the change in climate has direct and indirect impacts on small and large businesses. Many restrictions have been placed on businesses and companies and this has created more costs for many investors.

According to Hagen (2007, para 3) companies that have assets that can be adversely affected by climatic changes, including stronger storms, prolonged droughts in some areas and heavy precipitation and flooding in others, must plan now. Decline in value of assets located at the coasts have declined since there has been a great threat for them being affected by storms and tsunamis. It has become very costly and difficult to insure assets and businesses located bin the high risk areas. To insure businesses that can be affected by wind and floods requires construction of better structures and buildings which can withstand and resist the damage. This creates additional costs to businesses (A Cooler Climate, P. 2).

In a normal business environment acquiring abnormal profits requires overlooking some legal restrictions. Businesses which are ethical in their activities have a limited amount of profits. When a business promotes ethical activities by conserving the environment, a lot of funds are expensed and these could be invested in other areas of the business. Conserving the environment is the responsibility of the tax collecting agents which in most cases is the government. The funds collected as taxes should be used to protect the environment and firms should not be involved in environmental conservation. Firms pay corporate taxes and they should be relieved the burden of conserving the environment.

Climate change which has been caused by unethical business activities has promoted the sale of products in some industries. Pharmaceutical products have gained demand especially for diseases that were restricted to some regions (Hagen, p.1). The tropical zones had previously a distinct set of diseases that affected plants and animals. The change in climate has spread the tropical diseases to other zones and the demand for pharmaceuticals has been on the increase.

People affected by the tsunamis, floods and other calamities associated with climate change have sought medical attention in different healthcare centers in the world. This has created more opportunities to the healthcare industry. The demand for appliances that save energy has increased as the campaign for environmental-friendly sources of energy intensifies. Research for automobiles, machines and other equipments that use energy from other sources other than fossil fuels has been conducted (Kennard and Hauge, p. 1). Companies which have succeeded in the introduction of such products have gained from the increase in demand for their products (Scholz, p.1).

Conclusion

It is therefore conclusive that firms have a moral responsibility to maintain a clean environment. It is ethically and morally correct for firms to protect the environment to ensure sustainability in the conduct of business activities. There are several companies which have benefited from climate change which has resulted from poor environmental protection. However, the pros of protecting the environment have been observed to exceed the cons and this implies that firms should be ethical in their business activities.

Works Cited:

A Cooler Climate. A Positive Effect of Global Warming On Business: A Possibility? 2010. Web.

Hagen, Kevin. How Global Warming Affects Your Business Strategy. 2007. Web.

Kennard, Byron and Hauge, Scott. Global Warming on Main Street. 2006. Web.

Johnson, Perry Lawrence. ISO 14000: the business managers complete guide to environmental management. John Wiley and Sons, 1997.

Lewis, David. Whistleblowing at work. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2001.

Scholz, Matthias. The Top 5 Positive Effects of Global Warming. 2010. Web.

ODonohue, William T. and Ferguson, Kyle E. Handbook of professional ethics for psychologists: issues, questions, and controversies. SAGE, 2003.

Introduction

• Venice is a city in Italy;
• 55,000 people live in Venice, but the number does not include Comune di Venezia (Buckley, 2020);
• The surface area of the city is 5 km2 (Momigliano, 2020);
• Venice is a massively popular tourist destination (Toro et al., 2019).

Venice is among the most popular tourist destinations in the world. The historic city is relatively small, with a population of 55,000 (which keeps falling) in an area of five square kilometers, though the surrounding Comune di Venezia, which is the citys municipality, is substantially larger and has more population (Buckley, 2020; Momigliano, 2020). According to Momigliano (2020), this figure means that Venice should no longer be conventionally considered a city in Italy. There are several reasons for the citys declining population size, one of which is its popularity as a tourist destination. However, in this presentation, the authors will explore the environmental issues of Venice and the solutions that are being implemented.

Analysis: Social Issues

• Excessive tourist traffic strains systems (Fletcher et al., 2020);
• Population capacity limit exceeded, over 20 million visitors a year (Fletcher et al., 2020);
• Attempted solutions were ineffective and met with resistance from residents (Visentin & Bertocchi, 2019).

The massive tourist influx into the city generates revenues, but it also harms the local infrastructure. Over 20 million people visit the city annually, mostly focusing on the city and its historical buildings rather than the Comune (Fletcher et al., 2020). As a result, congestion issues are prevalent, real estate prices are rising, and crime rates are increasing. Venices government has tried to block large cruise ships, limit visitor numbers, and introduce tourism taxes, but these moves have been controversial and met with resistance (Visentin & Bertocchi, 2019).

Analysis: Environmental Issues

• Water levels in Venice are rising;
• The floods are damaging buildings and submerging areas (Hollingsworth, 2019);
• A $14 billion project named MOSE is aimed at protecting Venice (Johansen, 2017);
• However, it exacerbates pollution concerns (Tinger & Titlow, 2016).

Due to a combination of the citys sinking and climate change increasing water levels, Venice is becoming increasingly prone to damaging floods (Crume, 2016). To address it, the city introduced a $1 billion project known as MOSE (Modulo Sperimentale Elettromeccanico, or Experimental Electromechanical Module) in 2003, but the costs eventually escalated to $14 billion (Johansen, 2017, p. 292). It was nearing completion in 2016, with the barriers that are integral to the project being nearly constructed entirely (Johansen, 2017). However, water near Venice is already somewhat polluted, and the impediment to currents that MOSE presents can contribute to an escalation of the issue (Johansen, 2017).

The Flooding of Venice

• Venice has been sinking for the last millennium (Gaskin-Reyes, 2016);
• The city is not over any single landmass (Tinger & Titlow, 2016);
• Global warming is increasing sea levels (Crume, 2019);
• Venices art and architecture are eroding (Crume, 2019).

Venice was built without modern knowledge, which would have prevented its construction over an archipelago and gave it the distinction of being a water city (Tinger & Titlow, 2016). As a result, it has been sinking nearly since the time of its original founding (Gaskin-Reyes, 2016). The problem is particularly prevalent nowadays because of the rising sea levels, which also contribute to the flooding (Crume, 2019). In addition to the disruptions that the flooding of public and private spaces creates, the water also damages Venices art and architecture, which are essential to its rich historical heritage.

The MOSE System

• Named after Moses and the parting of the Red Sea (Wolf, 2019);
• Aimed at controlling the influx of water into the Lagoon of Venice (Wolf, 2019);
• Cost initially estimated at $1 billion (Johansen, 2017);
• Eventually increased to $14 billion (Johansen, 2017).

The MOSE system, which is a reference to Biblical Moses and means Experimental Electromechanical Module, was proposed in 2003 (Crume, 2019). Its purpose is to prevent the influx of water to the Lagoon of Venice in case of flooding via the blockage of water inlets (Tinger & Titlow, 2016). While it was initially estimated at the cost of $1 billion, in 2013, the expenses amounted to $14 billion (Johansen, 2017). There has been a substantial amount of corruption associated with the project, and arrests on charges of bribery and bid-rigging include the former mayor of Venice (Crume, 2019).

The Structure of the MOSE System

• Positioned at each of the three inlets;
• A total of 78 independent gates (Gaskin-Reyes, 2016);
• Raised when flooding exceeds 3.6 feet (Tinger & Titlow, 2016).

There are three inlets from the Adriatic Sea to the Lagoon of Venice: Lido, Malamocco, and Chioggia (Wolf, 2017). Per Gaskin-Reyes (2016), there will be a total of 78 gates installed in these three inlets to prevent the inflow of water once flooding reaches 3.6 feet. In Fig. 3, which depicts an individual gate in a disabled configuration, 1 is the gate, 2 is the hinge that controls it, 3 is the interior of the construction, 4 is the empty region, and 5 is the ballast that keeps the gate in place. In the event of flooding, water is pumped from region 1 to region 4, and the now-hollow gate is raised, separating the mare (sea) from the laguna (lagoon) (Wolf, 2017).

The Issues of MOSE

• Limited term of use;
• Traps pollution within the lagoon;
• Does not address the citys sinking.

There are several practical issues in addition to the cost and the numerous delays that lower MOSEs attractiveness. The first is its eventual obsolescence due to rising sea levels, which may render it useless within 30 years rather than the projected 50 (Crume, 2019). Another frequently voiced concern is the stoppage of currents, which would trap Venices sewage, which is not treated, within the lagoon (Tinger & Titlow, 2016). Lastly, while MOSE can help slow down the effects of the increasing sea levels, it does not affect Venices continued sinking.

Pollution in Venice

• No sewage treatment system;
• Industry, motor traffic, and human waste in the area;
• The port emits pollution (Wood, 2017);
• Inadequate canal cleaning (Gaskin-Reyes, 2016).

Venice currently has a noteworthy pollution problem, which may be exacerbated to a dangerous degree by the creation of the MOSE. The city does not have the capacity to treat waste using modern methods and relies on it dissipating into the Adriatic Sea via the inlets (Tinger & Titlow, 2016). Meanwhile, there are several substantial sources of pollution in the region, including the human waste from the population and tourists, industry and motor traffic created by the tourism (Johansen, 2017), and the presence of a port that admits increasingly large ships with the associated harms (Wood, 2017). Some critics also highlight the inadequate canal cleaning, which enables waste to accumulate in them and may be partially responsible for the flooding in the city (Gaskin-Reyes, 2016).

Answers to Pollution

• Treatment plant construction;
• Portside electrical power system (Wood, 2017);
• Dredging and disposal of sediment.

At the moment, Venices efforts to address pollution are mostly focused on the port and the ecosystem damage that it is causing. It has invested 15 million Euros into a plant that prevents polluted waste from entering the waterways, and banks have been made watertight to avoid contamination (Wood, 2017). In an effort to enable ships to shut off their engines while in port and avoid the resulting discharges, the port has introduced an effort to develop a power system that can supplement their needs instead (Wood, 2017). Lastly, the city has invested in the removal and disposal of over 80,000 cubic meters of sediment, which required an investment of 700 million Euros. As a result, the port has been made accessible to larger ships, and the polluted substances at the bottom of the lagoon have been removed.

Conclusion

• Venices existence is threatened by flooding;
• The usefulness of the current solution is debatable;
• Pollution is an emerging issue;
• Efforts to address it may be misplaced.

Due to the continued sinking of Venice and the rise in sea levels, the city may eventually flood permanently. Such an event would destroy priceless cultural heritage for humanity and has to be addressed. With that said, the current solution, MOSE, is associated with a variety of issues, including cost, delays, and limited effectiveness. Moreover, it can exacerbate the problem of pollution, which is currently emerging in Venice. The city is trying to address one of the sources, namely the port, but the city has been the subject of less focus. As a result, it is possible that the issues associated with water flow stagnation develop unchecked until they become severe, at which point it will be too late to react.

References

Buckley, J. (2020). Is Venice at war with itself? CNN Travel. Web.

Crume, R. V. (2019). Urban health issues: Exploring the impacts of big-city living. ABC-CLIO.

Hollingsworth, J. (2019). Worst floods for 50 years bring Venice to its knees. CNN. Web.

Gaskin-Reyes, C. (Ed.). (2016). Water planet: The culture, politics, economics, and sustainability of water on Earth. ABC-CLIO.

Johansen, B. E. (2017). Climate change: An encyclopedia of science, society, and solutions. ABC-CLIO.

Momigliano, A. (2020, July 2). Venice tourism may never be the same. It could be better. The New York Times. Web.

Tinger, M., & Titlow, B. (2016). Protecting the planet: Environmental champions from conservation to climate change. Prometheus Books.

Toro, P. D., Forte, B., & Cerreta, M. (2019). The human sustainable city: Challenges and perspectives from the habitat agenda. Taylor & Francis.

Visentin, F., & Bertocchi, D. (2019). Venice: An analysis of tourism excesses in an overtourism icon. In C. Milano, J. M. Cheer, & M. Novelli, (Eds.), Overtourism: Excesses, discontents and measures in travel and tourism (pp. 18-38). CABI.

Wanhill, S., Gilbert, D., Fletcher, J., & Fyall, A. (2017). Tourism: Principles and practice. Pearson Education Limited.

Wolf, E. (2019). Can physics save Miami (and Shanghai and Venice, by lowering the sea)? Morgan & Claypool Publishers.

Wood, M. E. (2017). Sustainable tourism on a finite planet: Environmental, business and policy solutions. Taylor & Francis.

Off the coast of Denmark exists a rather curious site, hundreds of turbines are apparently sticking up from the sea with their blades moving in conjunction with the blowing wind. This is not some type of mass modern art; rather, it is an experiment towards the creation of new sustainable energy sources in the form of turbines that harvest wind energy. It is quite interesting to note that humanity has harvested wind energy for thousands of years. Various architectural iterations of this can be seen in the case of the various windmills in Holland and Germany; the wind powered cooling mechanisms within homes in the Middle East as well as the rich history of ocean travel enjoyed by various sea based societies. As such, humanity is no stranger to the concept of wind power and, as such, its potential usage as an alternative form of energy from traditional fossil fuel resources has been growing in popularity (Musyafa, Negara & Robandi 2011, pp. 352-357).

An average wind turbine is a marvel of architectural ingenuity since a a properly placed turbine can transform kinetic energy (in the form of its spinning blades) into mechanical energy via the turbine attached to its blades which in effect creates electrical energy through its attached electrical generator. The advantage of this particular type of method of power generation is that so long as it is properly placed within an area which is particularly windy, a wind turbine can in effect generate limitless free energy so long as its turbine and blades continue to operate unobstructed. Not only that. wind turbines are non-polluting which means that their usage is actually good for the environment and helps to limit the amount of carbon dioxide gas that is released into the atmosphere as a direct result of normal methods of power generation (i.e. through fossil fuel power plants) (Musyafa, Negara & Robandi 2011, pp. 352-357).

Reference

Musyafa, A, Negara, I, & Robandi, I 2011, A wind turbine for low rated wind speed region in East Java, International Journal Of Academic Research, vol. 3, no.5, pp. 352-357, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost. Web.

Introduction

The depletion of the ozone layer is of great concern to many scientists and policy-makers who have to find ways of stopping or at least reducing this process. Researchers have detected a great number of ozone holes and they can pose a significant threat to the health of many people and animals (Becket and Gallagher 197). They can also damage various plants that are important for ecological sustainability (Becket and Gallagher 197). Furthermore, this issue is relevant to a great number of countries. This paper is aimed at discussing the causes of ozone depletion, its impacts on environment, and strategies that can be used to address this problem. Overall, it is possible to say that to a large extent, the origins of this problem can be traced to human activities, especially the use of chemical substances. Moreover, it requires close international cooperation of environmental agencies as well as political leaders because the depletion of the ozone layer can have significant implications for nations.

Ozone depletion and its causes

First, it should be noted that the ozone layer is a very important component of atmosphere because it absorbs the ultraviolet light emitted by the Sun and protects livings beings from this dangerous radiation (Tobin 595). One can say that it acts as a shield that protects the Earth. Furthermore, ozone can interact with various chemical substances that can reach the stratosphere (Tobin 595). Scientists believe that that the existence of ozone holes can be attributed to a variety of factors. One of them is the presence of chlorofluorocarbons in the upper layers of atmosphere (Tobin 595). The problem is that the gases containing chlorine dissociate when they are exposed to ultraviolet light; as a result, the atoms of chlorine enter into a reaction with ozone and its layer eventually becomes depleted (Tobin 595). Additionally, one should take into consideration that ozone oxidizes other chemicals, for example, bromine or halocarbons that are widely used by manufacturers and farmers (Pohl 112). To a large extent, this process can be explained by human activities, especially their use of technologies. Certainly, there are some natural causes of ozone depletion such as the eruption of volcanoes or ocean spray (Pohl 112). However, the role is less significant in comparison with human activities. This is the main argument that should be put forward. So, this issue can be addressed by raising the standards for environmental performance and making sure that every country complies with these standards.

Ozone holes and their effect on environment

Overall, researchers have identified several harmful effects of ozone holes. In particular, this phenomenon increases the exposure of environment to ultraviolet radiation. First of all, this exposure is associated with higher rates of cataracts and skin cancer among many people (Becket and Gallagher 197). One should take into account that researchers cannot fully demonstrate the link between UV exposure and skin cancer, but they believe that this is one of the factors that contributes to the higher incidence of this disease (Becket and Gallagher 197). This is why the depletion of the ozone layer is of great concern to many medical workers. Additionally, the increased ultraviolet radiation damages algae and destroys marine food chains (Becket and Gallagher 197). Therefore, this phenomenon can produce adverse effects on many species. Apart from that, it can affect many plants and deprive many animals of food (Becket and Gallagher 197). Furthermore, the productivity of farming can significantly decrease in the long term. These examples indicate that the destruction of the ozone layer can eventually impact the economy of many countries. So, these are the consequences of ozone depletion and they are harmful for both humans and non-humans. Provided that, the number of ozone holes will increase, these effects can be much greater.

Ways of minimizing ozone depletion

Currently, scientists offer different ways for decreasing ozone holes. To a great extent, the solutions that they propose require the changes in existing legislation. One of the strategies is to change the standards for the use of chemicals in the process of production. For instance, according to the Montreal Protocol, countries are obliged to remove substances that lead to the destruction of ozone (Pohl 112). In particular, one can speak about chlorofluorocarbons and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (Pohl 112). For instance, these new requirements have led to changes in the production of aerosol sprays, refrigerators, or fire extinguishers (Hyman 134). Researchers also believe that it is necessary to reduce the production of bromine which is often used for agricultural purposes (Hyman 134). Apart from that, international organizations focus on the pollution caused by ships because marine industry can also contribute to the existence of ozone holes (Hyman 134). For instance, ships should have a list of technologies that are based on the ozone-depleting substances and minimize their use (Hyman 134).

These are the strategies that can be adopted in order to decrease ozone holes. These policies have already proved to be successful since after the adoption of the Montreal Protocol, ozone holes began to decrease (Hyman 134). Overall, it is possible to argue that this problem can be effectively addressed only if the scientists and political leaders of different countries join their efforts. The task of these professionals is to develop laws that can reduce the emission of ozone-depleting substances without harming the economy of many countries. For instance, they should bear in mind that these new requirements must not have a devastating effect on businesses that will have to change production processes. These are the needs that they should reconcile. Secondly, policy-makers should bear in mind that by adopting different chemical substances for production process, they can also pose a threat to the environment. For example, the extensive use of hydrofluorocarbons, which is advocated by policy-makers, intensifies the green-house effect (Hyman 134). So, the task of these professionals is very complex because they should consider different environmental, technological and economic factors.

Conclusion

On the whole, this existence of ozone holes can be largely explained by human activities, especially the extensive use of different substances that are emitted into the atmosphere. One can also argue that this process can have destructive effects on human health and environment. Provided that no action is taken, the depletion of ozone may have significant impacts on many plants and species. This is why this issue should not be overlooked. Finally, this problem cannot be properly resolved without international cooperation of different environmental agencies as well as governments. Their task is to develop laws regarding the use of chemical substances and enforce them properly. Only in this way, this problem can be effectively resolved.

Works Cited

Becket, Benjamin, and R. Gallagher. Biology: For Higher Tier, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. Print.

Hyman, David. Public Finance: A Contemporary Application of Theory to Policy, New-York: Cengage Learning, 2007. Print.

Pohl, Raimund. Excel Senior High School Earth and Environmental Science, London: Pascal Press, 2004. Print.

Tobin, Allan. Asking About Life With Infotrac: Exploring the Earth, New York: Cengage Learning, 2005. Print.

Introduction

Wetlands habitats provide the world ecosystems with one of the richest biodiversity potentials, making them focal points of concerted conservation efforts the world over. The transitional role played by wetlands between aquatic and land habitats presents them as unchallenged options for wildlife and fish species (NOAA, 2013). Evidenced by the impeccable species abundance, diversity, and quality in health and fitness, wetlands remain a vital conservation highlight. This study focuses on the Great Lakes coastal wetlands habitat conservation status, against a backdrop of myriad challenges affecting conservation efforts of delicate habitats. Using biological indicators that point at the level of challenges at the Great Lakes coastal wetlands habitat, the conservation status characterization takes the form of a discussion backed by academic authority. Indicators relied upon in this conservation characterization include plants, microinvertebrates, fish, birds, amphibians, and covariates (Danz, Kelly, and Niemi, 2007).

The Great Lakes Coastal Wetlands Habitat

One of the most significant freshwater natural resources in America and indeed in the entire world, the Great Lakes spanning over 750 miles provide a home to thousands of species. Studying the Great Lakes ecosystems requires a clear delineation to define the scope of the study, which implies that the wetlands, in this case, will require a clear identification (Brown, Ciborowski, Hollenhorst, Host and Johnson, 2007, p13). Some of the threats include the invasion of aquatic life forms by destructive species as well as habitat loss. Such threats affect the fish species that the Great Lakes habitats have hosted for centuries.

Avian botulism poses a considerable threat to bird species around the Great Lakes and patterns of the threat in the habitat indicate that conservation efforts must step up to the challenge. The water levels of the Great Lakes over the years, coupled with other related challenges such as climate change, imply that the life of the habitat depends on the delicate water volume factors. Other related water factors of the conservation status of the Great Lakes around water diversions, which hinge on the shoreline management efforts also contribute to the status of habitats (NOAA, 2013). In addition, non-point source pollution and sewer overflows from the human activities around the habitats pose the challenge of nutrients and minerals inflow into the waters. An illustration of chemical interaction with the Great Lakes and how it affects conservation perhaps comes from a consideration of the impact that pharmaceuticals have in lake waters.

Plants

Plantlife as an indicator of habitat integrity around the Great Lakes coastal habitat illustrates a pattern of diminishing potential of the wetlands to accommodate thousands of different species. Plant varieties supporting various fishes and other herbivorous and omnivorous species appear to face survival challenges, thereby exposing the dependent species to risk. The approach adopted by prominent studies on the level of degradation of the Great Lakes concerning plants adopts a mechanism that accommodates missing information (Albert and Minc, 2004). The missing information on the plant life aspect of the habitats relates to the fact that the Index of Biotic Integrity (IBI). IBI refers to the classification and characterization of water pollution concerning life indicators, in this case, represented by plants. Attempts to construct reliable vegetation-based IBI for the whole habitat faced challenges including the vast area to cover and water level fluxes against a myriad of disturbances in the habitats.

In terms of the Great Lakes plant indicators, invasive plants observed in the wetlands illustrate the high magnitude of disturbance posed. This implies that risks posed to the species dependent on the traditional plant life equally rise. The presence of invasive plant species as an indication of disturbance highlights the level of integrity compromise for the habitat, exposing the ability of the wetlands to accommodate species richness expected from undisturbed wetlands to inadequacies (Brown et al, 2007). The presence of marsh zones emerging from such invasions degrades the quality of the vegetation to accommodate its traditional beneficiaries. Among the commonest disturbance factors, nutrients commonly relayed to the wetlands as animal waste sedimentation, as well as fertilizers, degrade plant life. Alternatively, sedimentation as a way of disturbance entry leads to drier and bare wetlands zones, which dramatically reduce plant cover (Albert, Wilcox, Ingram, and Thompson, 2006). Invasive plants, many of which reduce habitats ability to support other life forms, compete with the native varieties and expose the habitat to conservation dangers mentioned above.

Assessing the distribution of the emergent vegetation arising from invasive varieties in the Great Lakes illustrates a worrying challenge in need of urgent conservation effort. Equally, submerged vegetation assessments illustrate the presence of floating plants, which pose a risk to water quality and other life forms around the lakes. Equally, recent aerial images of the Great Lakes coastal wetlands in comparison with old similar images illustrate massive habitat loss, with receded plant cover observed in the analyses (Albert and Minc, 2001). Computation of the plant communities in the Great Lakes using the Floristic Quality Assessment (FQA) that determine the suitability of the habitat to different varieties of plants in the habitat also give useful information on the degradation status of the wetlands. Computer applications for FQA procedures facilitate easier characterization of conservation in different projects as presented by Brodowicz et al. (2011). The development of the conservatism indices of the plants in the wetlands habitats in the Great Lakes indicates invasive plants degrading the ability of the habitat to remain intact.

Fish

Over 80 species of fish find a home in the Great Lakes coastal wetlands, with over a half of them having a permanent home in the wetlands. The rest of the species find the wetlands as vital transitionary habitat at least once in their life cycles (Brazner, Burton, Ciborowski, and Uzarski, 2008). Fish-based indicators in the Great Lakes coastal wetlands perhaps provide the best assessment of the quality of aquatic life supported by the challenging habitat. Various studies conducted on the Great Lakes provide fish indices over time and the outcomes about fish communities against the backdrop of water quality. Given the changes, different zones have different challenges exposed to the fish communities and the pressure studied illustrates the diminishing capability of the Great Lakes coastal wetlands habitats to support fish species richness and diversity reduce with increased stress to the habitats (Seilheimer, 2006).

The loss of coastal wetlands as documented around the Great Lakes ranges between 50 percent and over 90 percent in the last century at different locations. For instance, documented loss at the west side of Lake Erie points at a possibility of over 95 percent loss. This implies that the loss makes the fish communities exposed to uninhabitable conditions as the ecological integrity of the lost wetlands ranks below the biotic expectations for the species (Brazner et al., 2008). Fish-based IBI considering biotic metrics illustrate that the Great Lakes exotic fishes continue to experience pressure from the challenges around the habitat. Water quality in the Great Lakes coastal wetlands facilitated the development of fish-based IBI, where records taken over the years illustrated certain trends explaining dwindling fish habitats.

Capturing fish from different sample habitat zones coupled with the water quality assessment provides explanations to anomalies of samples over the years (Corkum, LaPointe, and Mandrak, 2006). Abnormalities in the fish captured in the various wetlands habitat under threat indicate the magnitude of degradation pressure, usually in terms of the water quality. Samples over the years indicate that the fish captured had black spots, anchor worm, eroded fins, lesions, fungi infestation, blinded, tumors, emaciated, swirled scales, leeches infestation among other parasites infestations (Brazner et al., 2008).

Alternatively, the abundance of different fish species from several habitat locations over the years indicates the level of the threat posed to the Great Lakes and the characterization continues over several years. The authors observed that kind of fish capturing technique used also determines the success of the profiling. Fyke nets produced the best results in characterization procedures in the Great Lakes, as opposed to electrofishing or other techniques (Bhagat, 2005). Fish indicators from surveys conducted in recent years highlight the need for improved wetland management and conservation efforts to reduce habitat disturbance. Using techniques such as wetland Water Quality Index (WQI), fish-based indices provide useful explanations to the dwindling fish communities in the Great Lakes coastal wetlands habitats (Chow-Fraser, 2006).

Amphibians

The role of amphibians in a biotic indication of habitat integrity comes into perspective since their standard life relies on aquatic and intermediary conditions as perfectly provided in wetlands environments. Most amphibian species spend their entire history in wetland-like conditions, particularly anurans. The sensitive nature of amphibians to aquatic and other environmental conditions, for instance about interactions with pollutants, makes them uniquely valuable and reliable degradation yardsticks. The Great Lakes have recorded numerous anuran species due to the extensive wetland conditions over the years, but the degradation element experienced over the years compromises these habitats (Hanowski et al., 2007).

Among the most reliable reasons for the dwindling populations and diversity of anuran species in the Great Lakes coastal wetlands, habitat loss and entry of pollutants perhaps contribute the largest value (Corkum et al, 2006, p504). Comparing the population declines in the Great Lakes with the trends observed in the global scenes illustrates the extent of the dangers of climate change. In other parts of the world, the decline in amphibian populations and diversity projected from the biotic sensitivity showed massive threats exposed by several factors.

Climate change factors exposing amphibians to life-threatening challenges include emerging invasive species, skin conditions from solar radiation, and diminishing food sources among other factors. Sensitive skin enables amphibians to play a perfect role in an indication of dangerous toxic chemicals in the wetlands, as well as accumulation of minerals and sediments likely to affect reproduction and survival of the species (EPA, 2005). Perhaps habitat loss ranks top among these factors, against a host of human activity-intensive disturbances that expose the amphibians to sensitive stressors. Stressors effectively reduce the fitness of the anurans in a slight change as experienced with the shifting of temperatures over the centuries. With climate change dangers still looming in the current habitat factors, Great Lakes coastal wetlands still experience threatening times ahead unless conservation efforts mitigate the pressure.

Reduced water levels and related frequent fluctuations imply that the Great Lakes potential to provide a breeding ground for the species reduces accordingly. The presence of stable water levels in the wetlands provides amphibians with breeding habitats, which when compromised lead to the associated disturbances degrading the necessary conditions (Corkum et al, 2006). Among the applied metrics in the amphibian-based index includes species richness in the wetlands and the possibility of detecting woodland amphibians in the surveyed regions during the characterization. The different disturbance tolerance abilities of the various species facilitate the characterization of the species. In the data presented for different wetlands, reduced amphibian richness corresponded with the observation that habitat loss and disturbance increase in the Great Lakes coastal Wetlands directly contribute to population declines (Crewe, Grabas and Timmermans, 2008). Among the documented frogs and toads by the Marsh Monitoring Program (MMP) and Great Lakes National Program Office conservation management efforts, American toad, leopard frog, pickerel frog, copes grey tree frog, and spring peeper recorded the greatest declines. Significant declines also documented touched on chorus frogs previously distributed in vast regions, as well as the green frogs, wood frog, Blanchards cricket frog that showed massive population dip. Even though the period between 1995 and 2002 represented by the MMP would present scanty information under normal habitat conditions, the disparities witnessed in populations before and after the study indicate the nature of the threat posed to the habitat (EPA, 2005). Long-term trends might give different trends in terms of species adaptation to environmental stressors, but climate change poses the strongest danger to doubt the data.

Birds

A majority of threatened and endangered avian species in America inhabit the Great Lakes coastal wetlands, particularly in Ontario. The life cycle of the marsh-dependent birds deep into the wetlands has presented researchers with difficulties in profiling their entire life traits in terms of conservation demands. Highly secretive life deep in the marshes makes it difficult for studies to proceed with accurate projections (Estey, Higgins, Johnson, and Naugle, 2001). However, observable patterns of decline in populations attributable to obvious habitat degradation have emerged over the years. Possible causes of habitat degradation and loss include industrial activity around the Great Lakes as well as agricultural development. Disturbance of traditional breeding grounds for the birds could result in migration and reduced fitness affecting reproduction and survival (Danz, Hanowski, Howe, Niemi and Regal, 2007).

Marsh quality under stresses such as reduced water quality and receding water levels also imply that the populations lose standard conditions for their life processes to proceed. Marsh purposes in the various bird varieties life processes include nesting as well as foraging, which depend on various aerial and water qualities. Several stressors affecting aerial and water quality as mentioned above imply that the avian species find obstacles in their foraging and nesting needs, thereby affecting their fitness. Sampling the location for study over a specified period enables researchers to observe bird species in the profiling which enables learning of the population stresses (Danz et al., 2007, p245).

Macroinvertebrates and Covariates

Benthic macroinvertebrates attribute the level of organic nutrient recycling and the quality of lake water in terms of organic life depend on the use of these organisms as a fair indicator. The ability of macroinvertebrates to recycle nutrients and energy enables them to play a vital role in food webs at the decomposers level. Changes in populations of benthic macroinvertebrates in the Great Lakes with massive nutrient and contaminants inflows illustrate the high activity of these recyclers (Albert and Minc, 2001, p3414). An illustration of the amphipod Diporeia whose density in water samples collected at different offshore and nearshore waters could lead to the determination of benthic energy recycling activity.

As expected from a highly diversified ecosystem, several taxa of macroinvertebrates exist from samples picked at different sites in the Great Lakes including Oligochaeta, Hirudinea, Chironomidae, Sphaeriidae, among many more (Nalepa, 2013). The higher the mineral and energy recycling demands of the Great Lakes, the higher the population of macroinvertebrates, which also depend on the conditions of vegetation, supported. Different covariate stressors recorded in different sites range from dieldrin, phosphocarbonates to mercury as reported in Lake Superior (EPA, 2010). In Lake Ontario and the others, contaminants such as furans, phosphocarbonates, DDT, dieldrin, as well as mirex and mercury also exist, with conservation measures reducing some of the contaminants over the years (EPA, 2006).

As indicated by each of these indicators, the integrity of the Great Lakes experiences challenges from different stressors, which must meet efforts to sustain biodiversity in the Great Lakes coastal wetlands ecosystems. With increasing threats from climate change and emerging dangers in the contemporary environment, studies must provide information to bridge the gap in conservation techniques. Whereas natural processes must continue with little mitigating efforts, human activities must fall within bearable climatic deviations. Conservation of wetlands habitats remains one of the most critical efforts to protect remaining rich natural resources. The Great Lakes ecosystems must form part of the entire global attention in the protection of the greatest remaining ecological treasures.

References

Albert, D. A., & Minc, L. D. (2001). Abiotic and floristic characterization of Laurentian Great Lakes coastal wetlands. Very International Verein Limnology, 27, 3413-3419.

Albert, D. A., & Minc, L. D. (2004). Plants as regional indicators of Great Lakes coastal wetland health. Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management, 7(2), 233-247.

Albert, D. A., Wilcox, D. A., Ingram, J. W., & Thompson, T. A. (2006). Hydrogeomorphic classification for Great Lakes coastal wetlands. J. Great Lakes Res 31(1):129-146.

Bhagat, Y. (2005). Fish indicators of anthropogenic stress at Great Lakes coastal margins: Multimetric and multivariate approaches. Web.

Brazner, J., Burton, T., Ciborowski, J. & Uzarski, D. (2008). Fish community indicators. Web.

Brodowicz, W. W., Herman, K. D., Masters, L. A., Penskar, M. R., Reznicek, A. A., & Wilhelm, G. S. (2011). Floristic quality assessment with wetland categories and computer application programs for the State of Michigan. Web.

Brown, T., Ciborowski, J., Hollenhorst, T., Host, G., & Johnson, L. (2007). Methods of generating multi-scale watershed delineations for indicator development in Great Lake coastal ecosystems. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 33(3), 13-26.

Chow-Fraser, P., (2006). Development of the wetland Water Quality Index (WQI) to assess effects of basin-wide land-use alteration on coastal marshes of the Laurentian Great Lakes. Bloomington: AuthorHouse.

Corkum, D., LaPointe, N. R. & Mandrak. N. E. (2006). A comparison of methods for sampling fish diversity in shallow offshore waters of large rivers. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26, 503513.

Crewe, Grabas and Timmermans, (2008). Amphibian community indicators. Web.

Danz, N., Hanowski, J., Howe, R., Niemi, G. & Regal, R. (2007). Considerations for monitoring breeding birds in Great Lakes coastal wetlands. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 33(3), 245-252.

Danz, N., Kelly, J. & Niemy, G. (2007). Environmental indicators of the coastal region of the North American Great Lakes: Introduction and prospectus. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 33(3), 1-12.

EPA, (2005). What is the state of Great Lakes Amphibians? Web.

EPA, (2006). What are the current pressures impacting Lake Ontario? Web.

EPA, (2010). What are the major stressors impacting Lake Superior? Web.

Estey, M. E., Higgins, K. F., Johnson, R. R. & Naugle, D. E., (2001). A landscape approach to conserving wetland bird habitat in the prairie pothole region of eastern South Dakota. Wetlands, 21, 1-17.

Hanowski, J., Howe, R., Niemi, G., Regal, R., Price, S. & Smith, C. (2007). Are anurans of Great Lakes coastal wetlands reliable indicators of ecological condition? Journal of Great Lakes Research, 33(3), 211-223.

Nalepa, T. (2013). Assessment of benthic macroinvertebrate communities in the Great Lakes. Web.

NOAA, (2013). Great Lakes region. Web.

Seilheimer, T. (2006). Development and use of fish-based indicators of wetland quality for Great Lakes coastal wetlands. Web.

Water is the basis and source of all living being on the Earth, and there is hardly a place on our planet where water is not present. Without exclusion, all the four great constituents of the Earth system contain water: in biosphere water is the component of the living beings; in lithosphere it constitutes a part of various minerals; atmosphere contains water vapors; not to mention the hydrosphere, the sole essence of which is water.

Travelling between those reservoirs in the great hydrologic cycle, water assists in moving materials among all of them, and this movement bears both constructive and destructive consequences for the geological processes of the planet.

The hydrologic cycle refers to the movement of water from one system into another and can be summed up in the following way. The water contained in the ocean evaporates as a result of exposure to solar energy, and the steam moves into the atmosphere where it condenses into clouds due to lower temperatures.

In various forms of precipitation (rain, hail or snow) water falls back to the ocean or land. Some water may then return to the atmosphere by means of transpiration and evaporation. Otherwise it may be infiltrated into the ground through small openings in the soil where it flows into underwater reservoirs and possibly becomes parts of minerals remaining in the lithosphere.

A small amount of water is detained in the biosphere, while the precipitation that does not infiltrate gets back to the ocean as surface runoff. Thus the processes of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, transpiration, evaporation, and infiltration play a key role in the hydrologic cycle. (Murck, Skinner, & Mackenzie, 2007)

Travelling about the planet in the endless turnover, water forms a closed cycle, with its constant total amount distributed among various salty, frozen, underground or fresh reservoirs. However stable the total water amount is, movements between the reservoirs may be rapid and unbalanced, leading to catastrophic consequences (for example, floods).

But even in normal course of interaction between water and land, water leaves its indelible print on the planets image. Streams and rivers cut through the landscape in their channels created by constant movement of water, and may cause erosion or deposition depending on the character of the movement. The movement of water in the ocean bears a decisive impact on the coastal line.

For example, waves moving onto the shore thrust the most of their energy upon the most protruding parts of the coastal line, frequently creating the rough landscape of coastal cliffs; the reduced energy of the waves that get to the deeper bays brings along sand and forms vast fragments of beaches (Wave refraction, n.d.).

The combination of erosive and depositional processes forms a variety of coastal forms depending on the wave angle and direction, and the amount of the sediment available for transporting along the coastline (Coastal landforms, n.d.).

One of the decisive factors defining the present and future of the planet surface is the sea level. According to the prognoses, the recent global warming will have caused the sea levels to rise up to 3 feet by the end of the century in Southern UK (Sinking England, n.d.). That perspective necessitates cooperation between man and nature: for instance, the salt marshes of Essex could be an efficient natural barrier against the sea, since they absorb the energy of the waves (Sinking England, n.d.).

The ever-existing hydrologic cycle is an instance of the natural balance on the planet. Human activities trigger dramatic shifts in the distribution and movement of water around the Earth, which may lead to tragic consequences for the planet. Therefore, a deep understanding of natural processes is vital in order to efficiently cooperate with the nature and prevent the planet from being thoughtlessly wasted.

References

Coastal landforms. (n.d.). Web.

Murck, B. W., Skinner, B. J., & Mackenzie, D. (2007). Visualizing geology. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Sinking England. (n.d.). Web.

Wave refraction. (n.d.). Web.

Abstract

Deep-water horizon oil spillage that took place in the Gulf of Mexico had a massive impact on the environment. The spillage caused a massive pollution on the high seas, on air and on land. Statistics from various relevant authorities shows that this spillage massively affected aquatic lives, besides other destroying the ecosystem at the sea and along the beaches. Health experts have also confirmed that workers at this plant were exposed to benzene among other toxins. Benzene is a very dangerous chemical and those who are exposed to it may suffer serious medical consequences. The research looks at the statistics of those who were affected by this spillage, and how it was finally resolved.

Introduction

The Deepwater Horizon oil spillage, also known as BP oil spillage is the worst oil spillage to have ever occurred in the history of this industry. According to the reports by Steffy (2011), the oil spillage started in April 2010 in the Gulf of Mexico and would last for 87 days as it was finally sealed on July 15 the same year. The report says that the problem started when the Deepwater Horizon- a floating mobile drilling ring- exploded due to excessive pressure. This drilling ring was located in Mississippi Canyon in the Gulf of Mexico. British Petroleum was the principal operator of Deepwater Horizon. It is reported that on the fateful day of April 20, 2010, at about 9.45 at night, methane gas emanating from the well, rose to the drilling ring causing a lot of pressure on the ring. At this point, the gas was ignited which caused a massive explosion, engulfing the entire platform. When this took place, it is reported that about 126 members of the crew were onboard the Deepwater Horizon doing various operational tasks. Most of the members on board were employees of Transocean Company, which was contracted to operate the driller and a few employees of the British Petroleum Company. All those who were on board were thrown into the water when the explosion occurred. Eleven of the crew members were never found even after a search team was commissioned for almost a week. Others were rescued and treated for various injuries.

Following this explosion, a massive oil spillage began, and it is estimated that the flow rate was about 62,000 barrels in a day. This was a massive amount of oil being released into the water. When the spillage was finally controlled, reports indicate that about 5 million barrels, an equivalent of 780,000 miters cube of oil had been released in the deep waters of this region. This makes it the worst oil spillage in history. The graph below shows the rate of flow for the first nine days.

The impact of this oil spillage was massively destructive. The instant impact of this accident was the death of the eleven people who were on board this ill-fated drilling machine, and injuries of several others. The impact on the waters in this region, the coastal line in Mississippi, and other coastal states in the United States, the marine life, among other economic activities done on this water and other places affected directly by this is yet to be given inaccurate terms because more discoveries are still coming out. This research will be based on this Deepwater Horizon oil spillage and its impact on the environment.

Discussion

The environment is very delicate and needs proper protection for it to be sustainable for the current and future generations. It is true that the main enemy of the environment in the industrial sector. Various industrial activities have had a massive negative impact on the environment in various ways. From the smokes in the industrial sector to the effluents, logging, e-wastes, plastic wastes, radioactive substances among other environmental pollutants, the industrial sector has been considered as posing serious threats to the environment. Efforts to moderate the impact of this sector on the environment have yielded little fruits. The Kyoto Protocol and many other conventions before and after this have failed to limit operations of this sector in favor of the environment.

Environmental hygiene has become an important factor to be considered by any company. It is the responsibility of every company to ensure that during its operations, the environment should always remain their number one priority. They have every responsibility to ensure that the environment is protected from damage. Industrial hygiene involves managing the industrial carbon release among other pollutants. The events that took place on this particular accident involving the Deepwater Horizon oil spill is a clear demonstration of how destructive industrial activities can be to the environment. This is a clear message that any small negligence or technical hitch in managing industrial operations can lead to serious negative effects to the environment and to people. The graph below shows how this oil was cleaned up.

ResultsThis data is discussed further in this report. In order to bring more understanding to some of the impact this accident had on the environment, the analysis below would be important.

The impacts of the deepwater horizon oil spill vary with the amount of oil that spills and the point at which the oil is generated. This is to say that at the point of oil leakage, the concentration of oil in water will be very high and the impacts at the point will be significantly higher as compared to other parts of the sea. As the water flows, the concentration reduces and although still the impacts will be felt, they will be of a lesser degree. Although the leakage is in the deep regions, the impact will be felt at all the levels of the sea from deep within the sea to the top. This is so because oil is generally lighter than water, hence as it moves from deep the sea to the top and therefore its impacts in the water environment are felt. The impacts of the deepwater horizon oil spill can either be direct or indirect. These impacts can be classified into the following categories.

Impact of Deepwater Horizon Oil Spillage on Water

The impacts of the oil spill on water may not necessarily be seen or felt. However, the fact is that the seawater will be affected. The effect will not only be on the water in the sea but it will also be felt in the other surrounding water bodies which the seawater may likely flow into and especially the groundwater sources. The spill contains various components including chemicals. Its spillage will be of great impact to constituents of the seawater. This means that the normal components of the seawater will be altered, and this will obviously interfere with the chemical and the physical components of the seawater. The temperature of the spillage and that of the seawater varies. This means when the spillage takes place in the sea the normal temperature conditions of the seawater will change and this will, in turn, alter the usual operations that take place in the sea at the normal seawater temperatures.

According to Farrell (2011), the presence of oil below the sea surface leads to an increase of the microbes. This again alters the components and the normal microbial activities in the sea. Water is denser than oil. Therefore, oil floats and covers the entire water surface of the sea. The spillage forms a layer that does not allow aeration to take place within the sea environment. This changes the normal working environment in the seawater, a situation that has been proven to pose serious negative impacts in the seawater environment due to the depletion of oxygen gas in the water. In addition, oil is believed to contain a substantial amount of methane that adds up to the constituents of the seawater altering its normal and conducive environment for various activities. In addition, the presence of oil in the seawater will change the normal taste and even color of the water that may make it unfavorable for many sea plants and organisms.

Impact of Deepwater Horizon Oil Spillage on Marine Life

The major part of the seawater that is affected is the microorganisms and plantations in the sea. Presence of methane in oil and the formation of the thick layer in form of a blanket that does not allow both air and oxygen to pass through, suffocates and denies the organisms in the seawater oxygen and light. For any living organism, oxygen is vital for metabolism purposes failure to which an organism ceases to live. This scholar points out that for the good growth of any plant, light is crucial. This means that when the sea environment is deprived of oxygen and light, there is the death of both the microorganisms and plantations respectively in the sea. Fish species within the sea are lost and any plantation within is also lost. Some of the tea plantations that were affected are the mangrove trees, the marsh grass, and the sea urchins among others. An example of the fish species that has been reported to have been adversely affected and died out of the oil spillage includes whale and sharks. In total, the deep-water horizon oil spill has threatened over 30 fish species in the sea. Apart from the fish species, several mammals are reported to have died out of the spillage in the sea. Among the dead bodies of the mammals were over 30 dolphins.

The death of these dolphins is indirectly linked with the presence of oil within the sea ecosystems. This is because when the cause of the death of these dolphins was carried out, the animals were found to be anemic, underweight and with liver diseases with a considerably low levels of metabolism and immune responsible hormones. Many dolphin carcasses were discovered at the point where the oil spillage took place in the sea. According to Unita (2011), this effect occurred through the dolphins food chain. This shows that something had gone amiss within their ecosystem and this was mainly the oil spillage issue. This scholar explains that since the problem is through the food chain, the problem may take a longer time to curb. It may take several years to rectify the problem and to get the exact level of the damage caused by the accident. This is due to the fact that some of the affected organisms may not be discovered and their exact number that was alive before the incidence is not known. The death of this organism cost a lot to a countrys economy. For example, the death of fish has a great impact to the fishery sector. It also affects the tourism industry in one way or the other through the death of mammals that forms part of the point of tourists attraction within the country.

Impact of Deepwater Horizon Oil Spillage on People

It is a fact that that human being would later feel all the negative impact of this oil spillage in various ways in what is always referred to as the ripple effect. However, this accident had some direct negative impact on people. As was mentioned in the introductory part of this paper, this accident took place when there were about 126 crew members that were onboard the vessel. This explosion threw all of them in water, and eleven people have never been traced to this day. It is believed that they perished during this accident. A number of crewmembers also sustained varying degrees of injuries during this explosion but fortunately, they were rescued and given appropriate medical attention. The serious impact that this accident would have on people involved the affected economic income. The following are some of the instant negative effect that was felt by people due to this oil spillage.

Effect on other sectors of the economy

The effect of this spillage had a massive effect on various other sectors of the economy. The oil spill reduced the amount of petroleum energy available in the countries that British Petroleum practice. It is estimated that about 5 million barrels of oil were spilled during this accident. This energy went into wastage. The energy would have been used to drive the industry for a very long period. According to Birkin (2011), the workforce that was sent to fight this menace took almost three complete months. This workforce would have been used to deliver service in other sectors of the economy. This in effect reduced the living standards of the affected families.

This oil spillage had a negative impact on agriculture. According to King (2010), most of the reports that detailed the impact of this oil spillage did not consider how agriculture was affected. However, this scholar says that this oil spillage had negative impacts on agriculture, especially along the coastlines. It took time for the oily substance to reach the shore, but it finally did, and it was in large volumes. At the shore, the oily substances were easily swept to the farm by air current. This was a consistent occurrence, and it took time to realize that the effect could affect farm products. However, it is a fact that the oil finally found its way on the farms in large quantities.

This was made worse by the fact that the farmers never realized that their farms had been affected by this catastrophic event. This resulted in a situation where farmers never made any measures to protect their farms from the effect of this spillage. Attention was on the effect of this spillage on water, and it took long before farmers came to realize that this incident would affect them directly. The oily dust was swept to the farms in large quantities, and when it rained, the oil found its way into the soil. This killed various microbes that are very important in the soil. This oil also reduced the aeration of the soil. This reduced the productivity of these farms. When oil finds its way into the soil, it may take a while before it can be eliminated. This means that it will take some time before these farms can gain their productivity once again. It may also cost the farmers a lot if they decide to use other means to ensure that oil is eliminated from their farms.

According to the reports by CDC (2013), dangerous chemicals such as benzene affected workers who were within the plant when the explosion took place. This had negative consequences on their health, especially given the long time it took before they were given proper medication. Another group that was also affected by benzene was the individuals who were responsible for the clean-up process. It took several days to handle this situation. Those who took part were exposed to contaminated air, and the inhaled benzene among other poisonous chemicals such as ethylbenzene, toluene, naphthalene, and xylene.

Effect on the Quality of Air

According to Ramseur (2011), air is the most important gift of nature. Air is important as it supports life, and should always be protected. However, most of the activities that human beings undertake in the environment always have a serious negative impact on the quality of air. The Deepwater Horizon oil spillage had a massive negative impact on air. It started during the explosion of the driller. When this drilling machine exploded, the air around this place was polluted with particles of oil. The continuous flow of oil made a thick layer of oil to float on a large area of the sea. This layer of oil had direct contact with air and particles of oil especially petrol easily dissolve into the air. This scholar says that when petrol is exposed to air for some time, it easily is dissolved into the air because of its light particles. Other petroleum substances like methane dissolve in air even at a faster rate. As was stated previously, it took 87 days to bring this massive oil spillage to a stop. This means that for the first 87 days of this accident, more layer of oil was being created on the sea. This meant that more air was getting in contact with this soluble poisonous substance. After the first 87 days, it came a time for cleaning the sea. This took several months to complete.

This means that during the time when British Petroleum Company and other responsible stakeholders were making efforts to clean the sea, the layer of oil that was still on the sea was still contaminating air. Given the fact that the layer of oil finally reached the shore of Mississippi, Alabama, Texas and other coastal states of the United States, this contaminated air moved freely to the mainland. The particles of oil carried in the air would find their way to the leaves of trees, grass and other vegetation. This affected the vegetation in two ways. First, when these oily particles settled on the leaves, they blocked the stomata, the only channel through which a plant can get nutrients (carbon dioxide) and eliminate waste products. This is a direct way of saving these plants, making them die a natural death. The second effect of this oil when it settles on leaves is that it changes the color of the leaf to black. It covers the green pigment that is responsible for the synthesis of food using sunlight. The following table shows data on the contamination of water and finally on air due to the spillage.

Location Analysis

Source: (EPA 2013)

Another serious effect of this oil spillage on air was the way it was controlled. The process of cleaning the sea never considered the impact it would have on the environment. According to Freudenburg (2011), the British Petroleum decided to use controlled fire method to eliminate oil on the surface of the water. Burning of this surface oil took some time and it took place over a large area in the deep sea. The process of burning this oil would release carbon directly into the air. Putting about 3 million barrels of oil on fire would release a massive amount of carbon into the air. This contaminated air would move into the atmosphere, and this would damage the ozone layer. This is besides another negative effect that carbon has on plants, animals, structures and on human beings. This clearly demonstrates a chain of damage this spillage had on the environment.

Offshore effects

According to Hagerty (2010), the oil spillage completely changed the environment along the coastal strip in the regions that were affected. It was a negative image seeing birds of water covered with oil all over. They lost their beauty as they were given a monotonous black color of oil. It took the effort of wildlife officers to clean these birds so that they could regain their color. The beautiful grass that was along the lake started drying up, leaving the shore with a completely new environment. It was difficult to go into the water with a normal board because the viscosity of this water was changed completely. The beautiful breeze that would come from the lake in the hot afternoon was no longer experienced as things changed. The air that was coming from the lake was contaminated as it contained oil. The life along the coast was completely changed for the worse.

Conclusion

The Deepwater Horizon Oil Spillage has been considered as the worst oil spillage in history. An estimated 5 million barrels of oil were spilled into the deep waters for about 87 days. When the concerned authorities finally stopped the spillage, the damage done on water, air and on land was massive. Living organisms were also affected by this spillage. As shown in this discussion, there was a huge ripple effect following this spillage, including the damage of the ozone layer. The approach taken to control the spillage was also poor. Not only did the process take too long but also resulted in massive emission of carbon into the air.

References

Birkin, D. (2011). Deepwater Horizon oil spill and related issues. New York: Nova Science Publishers.

CDC. (2013). Gulf Oil Spill 2010: Deep Water Horizon Oil Spill Human Health Interim Clinical Guidance. Web.

EPA. (2013). EPA Response to BP Spill in the Gulf of Mexico. Web.

Farrell, C. (2011). The Gulf of Mexico oil spill. Edina: ABDO Publishers.

Freudenburg, W. (2011). Blowout in the Gulf: The BP oil spill disaster and the future of energy in America. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Hagerty, C. (2010). Deepwater Horizon oil spill: Selected issues for Congress. Washington: Congressional Research Service.

King, O. (2010). Deepwater Horizon oil spill disaster: Risk, recovery, and insurance implications. Darby: Diane Publishing.

Ramseur, J. (2011). Deepwater Horizon oil spill: The fate of the oil. Washington: Congressional Research Service.

Steffy, L. (2011). Drowning in oil: BP and the reckless pursuit of profit. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Unita, S. (2011). Deep water: The Gulf oil disaster and the future of offshore drilling: report to the President. Washington: National Commission on the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill.

The Report as Environmental Epidemiology

The report by the department of health gives a detailed report on the impact of coal seam gas industry. The report is not only important to policy makers, but also to learners. It helps a learner acquire knowledge on various environmental exposures. Some of these environmental exposures are risky and one should know how to respond to them. These environmental exposures may include illnesses, disabilities, and fatal injuries and many other. Environmental epidemiology helps one to understand the conditions that result to the prevalence of these health related exposures and the relevant ways to respond to each. Environmental epidemiology classifies these exposures into various categories that are important for the knowledge of the learner. Some are classified as chemicals or other pathogenic related activities, social interaction conditions, geographical activity and other environmental related changes in the human life support system and other healthy ecosystems. The objective of environmental epidemiology to a learner is to help one understand the sensitive environmental exposures, develop mechanisms to respond to each of them, identify health measures and policies to address these risks and evaluate the cost benefit analysis and effectiveness of the identified policies and measures.

Coal seam gas mining in Tara, Queensland, and the health of residents living nearby

This report gives a detailed effect of this industry on Tara and Queensland. The emissions in Coal seam gas mining in Tara and Queensland are so much and unbearable to the surrounding communities. The coal seam gas mining wells near Tara is reported to emit three time the normal accepted levels of emission. Licenses on mining of coal seam gas are issued with illegally and with disregard in the health conditions of the people near the mining areas, livestock and other food production and processing avenues like the plains of Liverpool. This scholar argues that the mining activities in this region have posed serious impacts on the health of people, water catchment areas and many other sensitive environmental areas. The people living near these coal seam mining areas are exposed to dangerous gases like toluene, benzene, xylene, ethyl benzene, which are naturally found in crude oil. According to this scholar although the public has complained and raised concern on the risky environmental exposures that result from these coal seam gas mining areas, none of the issues has so far been addressed.

The report shows that Australian government has received several complains from doctors and residents near coal seam gas mining areas on severe symptoms of exposure to the gas. Many families near coal seam gas mining industries, have been reported to suffer from health problems like headaches, develop rashes, nausea and frequent nose bleeding, issues that are related to the environmental conditions to which these people are exposed. This environmental epidemiology paper clearly informs the learner on the various environmental exposures in coal seam gas mining operations areas. This information is very important, as it will help one to identify the health risks posed by exposure to these gas-mining areas and understand their short-term and long impacts to the human body and other environmental aspects. This information will help the learner to develop relevant mechanisms to address this issue. One can help the affected community air their voices to the government on the health conditions posed by the coal gas mining activities. It can help one in pressurising the government formulate cost effective policies to address the coal gas mining activities in Tara and in Queensland.

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Report Coal seam gas mining in Tara Region

This report makes an important piece of academic document. Although this industry is very beneficial to this region based on the economic benefits, it has some negative impacts on the environment. This report has strengths and weaknesses in its analysis of this industry. This report gives a detailed effect of this industry. This way one is able to relate the cause, effect and develop mechanisms to respond to various environmental exposure conditions. In a polluted environment for example, this study helps one to identify health risks and the most susceptible species to the impacts of the pollution and come up with cost effective measures to respond to this issue.

This report on coal seam gas mining in Tara however has some weaknesses that have greatly affected its applicability. The weakness of this report originates from the observational science perspective. This is because it is hard to find two populations of people that differ much although one may be exposed to environmental pollution. Application of the report on environmental epidemiology cannot provide study groups for diagnosis, regulated exposure cannot be administered hence no health records for individual monitoring on the health effects of these mining industries can be provided. All these weaknesses need to be worked upon in the report to make it more applicable in the study of environmental epidemiology.

References

Friis, R. (2012). Essentials of environmental health. Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Moeller, D. W. (2005). Environmental health. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.

Morgan, M. (2003). Environmental health. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth.

Introduction

The recent past has seen a significant increase in both public and private transportation activities which have had a negative impact on the environment. Gasses released as a result of burning fossil fuels in vehicles play a significant role in air pollution. The higher the number of vehicles and demand for transportation in a particular country the lower the quality of air. Transportation activities also contribute to landscape damage since land is needed for the development of new roads. One of the approaches that have been applied to eliminate the problem is switching to transport means that encourage low emissions. The Environmental Protection Agency has played a significant role in trying to limit the environmental impact of transportation activities by seeking to reduce carbon emissions. This can be achieved by shifting to the use of renewable sources of fuel that minimize emissions to the atmosphere. The burning of fossil fuels in the transportation sector contributes to the release of greenhouse gases which lead to air pollution.

Environmental Problems

The transportation sector relies greatly on the burning of fossil fuels which leads to the emission of greenhouse gases. The buildup of the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere leads to air pollution meaning that air available for human breathing is of low quality (Dinh, 2021). An increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is also associated with climate changes that have negative impacts. Carbon monoxide is one of the gases released as a result of transportation activities and often comes from incomplete combustion. Petrol evaporation and emission of partially burnt hydrocarbons lead to the release of unburnt hydrocarbons.

Huge amounts of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere are said to bring about a greenhouse effect which in turn causes higher temperatures which can be harmful to human beings. Increased temperatures expose the world to global warming which in turn brings about negative impacts on human beings. According to estimates provided by the World Health Organization, road transport is behind 30% of particulate emissions witnessed in European cities (Li et al., 2020). According to Li et al. (2020), transportation in the United States contributes to 10% of particulate matter, 55% of nitrogen oxide, and 10% of all volatile organic compounds emitted in the country.

Environmental problems experienced as a result of transportation have also been on the rise due to an increase in the number of two and three-wheelers, especially in developing nations. Even though two and three-wheelers emit fewer greenhouse gases they emit smog-forming hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and carbon monoxide to a great extent. These gases in turn contribute to transport-induced air pollution. Increased urbanization has acted as a significant barrier to people walking or cycling hence increasing reliance on motorized transport.

Landscape damage is another environmental problem that rises as a result of increased transportation activities. Land-based transport contributes to land use which can easily lead to the elimination of forestry, farming, housing, and nature reserves. This in turn renders the nearby land unsuitable for activities that human beings engage in. Transportation can also contribute to landscape damage since many of the raw materials used in road construction are extracted from the ground.

Increased transportation activities also contribute to noise pollution, especially in urban areas. Individuals residing in areas that have a wide range of transportation activities experience noise levels that exceed about sixty-five decibels. Road vehicles produce noise through break squeals, slamming of doors, horns, and loud music systems. Noise pollution is also common in regions that have an airport due to a buzz of activities. Various modes of transport have varying noise levels impacting the environment negatively. This indicates a great need to identify strategies that will help to minimize noise levels produced as a result of transportation activities.

Another environmental problem that results from various transportation activities is reduced water quality. Emissions from marine transport have had a significant negative impact on water quality. Waste that is generated from various forms of water transport contributes to environmental problems since they have bacteria that are harmful to marine ecosystems. Spills from oil cargo vessels remain to be one of the greatest contributors to reduced water quality (Clean Water Action Council, 2022). Oil spills limit the growth of marine plants and animals by causing death. Transport facilities located on the coastline also contribute greatly to soil erosion. Soil contamination can also happen as a result of the continued use of toxic substances in the transport industry. Soil contamination also takes place as a result of the chemicals used to preserve wooden ties in railroad when they enter the soil. Establishing limits on transportation activities will help to reduce the degradation of soil and water quality.

Changes in the Industry

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has been at the forefront in establishing strategies aimed at minimizing the environmental impact of transportation activities. One of the main strategies that have been laid out to address the environmental impact is promoting the use of renewable sources of fuel. The main aim of the strategy is to reduce reliance on non-renewable sources of fuel which also contribute significantly to an increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This indicates that shifting to the use of renewable sources of fuel will minimize the greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere hence reducing air pollution. Renewable fuels will help to reduce emissions since they are produced from plants, crops, and biomass. Recent years have seen the development of electric vehicles which seek to eliminate greenhouse emissions that come from ordinary vehicles (National Geographic Society, 2021). Reliance on electricity for transportation is eco-friendlier than the traditional sources of fuel.

EPA has also proposed the use of SmartWay in freight transportation to minimize the emission of greenhouse gases while also reducing fuel costs. SmartWay is aimed at enhancing efficiency in the transportation of goods while also protecting air quality (EPA, 2021). The strategy will also go a long way in reducing the contribution of freight transportation to climatic changes. EPA has also had a focus on ensuring that members of the public purchase vehicles that are more environmentally friendly in terms of fuel economy and emissions to the atmosphere. Minimal emissions to the environment will limit the degradation of air quality.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the burning of fossil fuels in the transportation sector contributes to the release of greenhouse gases which lead to air pollution. Many transportation activities rely on non-renewable sources of energy which contribute to the emission of greenhouse gases. A buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere contributes to increased temperatures as a result of a global warming effect. Increased transportation activities especially in urban areas contribute to noise pollution. Various transportation activities also contribute to the degradation of soil and water quality resulting from spills and incorrect waste disposal. The various environmental problems can be eliminated by shifting to the use of renewable sources of fuel since they will help to minimize emissions.

References

Clean Water Action Council. (2022). Environmental impacts of transportation. Cleanwateractioncouncil.org.

Dinh, D. L. (2021). The impacts of transportation vehicles on environment: The case of Ho Chi Minh City. In E3S Web of Conferences, vol. (234), p-p. 72.

EPA. (2021). Carbon pollution from transportation. US EPA.

Li, S., Xing, J., Yang, L., & Zhang, F. (2020). Transportation and the environment: A review of empirical literature. World Bank Group.

National Geographic Society. (2021). Transportation and climate change. National Geographic Society. Web.

The article attempts to look at the reasons that have individually or collectively reduced the rise in the surface temperature of the earth in the last 15 years even though greenhouse emissions continue to be accumulated in the atmosphere at a record pace. To date, no conclusive explanation to this phenomenon has been given by climate scientists, leading the author of this article to make a submission that there are important gaps in our knowledge and understanding of the climate system due to lack of superior measurements (Gillis para. 1-4).

Although the author is clear on the fact that scientists cannot expect global warming to be a smooth and continuous process due to natural variability in the number of human emissions released into the atmosphere over the years, the notion of reaching a plateau as marked by the minimal rise in the surface temperature of the earth in the last 15 years still begs a valid response. Individuals opposed to the global warming paradigm have already taken advantage of this situation to disprove the concept that greenhouse emissions serve as the triggering agent for global warming; however, they fail to explain why most of the warmest years in the historical record have been experienced recently, hence their argument lacks in scientific rigor (Gillis para. 6-8).

Scientists using objective instruments to measure the long-term temperature trends for the earth have concluded that the planet continues to warm through time despite the recent lull in the surface temperature relative to the high carbon emissions and other greenhouse gases being released into the environment through human activities. In this light, the author brings into the fore two theories to explain where the heat coming from the greenhouse gases might be going as it is not contributing to any substantial rise in the surface temperature. One of the theories, known as the deep-ocean theory, posits that the deep ocean might be involved in drawing down the extra heat generated by the greenhouse emissions due to possible changes in winds and currents, hence the lack of significant rise in the surface temperature of the earth. The second theory is predicated upon the fact that sunlight-blocking pollution from dirty facilities in China and other places may in fact be reducing global warming by blocking some sunlight (Gillis para. 12-15).

Opinion

Although the article is informative and insightful in explaining the relationship between greenhouse emissions into the atmosphere and global warming, the author fails to provide conclusive findings on why the earth is experiencing a sudden lull or insignificant rise in surface temperature of the earth despite the fact that greenhouse gases continue to be produced and released into the atmosphere at an alarming rate. Climate scientists need to develop tools and measurements that could be used to explain the global warming plateau scenario as the theories already mentioned are yet to be validated. In my view, sealing this gap in knowledge may be critical in developing approaches and strategies that could be used to reduce global warming and the adverse effects associated with this phenomenon. Overall, it is clear that scientists need to do more tests and develop complex methods of collecting and analyzing data that could then be used to provide valid and reliable explanations of the global warming plateau.

Reference

Gillis, Justin. What to Make of a Warming Plateau. New York Times 2013. Web.