Category: Environment

Introduction

The use of coal to generate electricity is one of the most effective technologies in the US and other parts of the world. Through coal, the public can access low-priced, reliable and enough electricity, as compared to other sources such as oil and natural gas, which are affected by international demands. Apart from its economic advantage, coal is a source of power that is expected to last for several years, as opposed to natural gas and oil, whose deposits would diminish with time. The generation of electricity through coal is a simple process that would cost the government little in terms of resources. The process is simple since chunks of coal are simply compressed into a fine powder and fed into a burning unit where they are expected to burn. The high temperature from burning coal is utilized in producing steam, which is further used to spin one or more engines to produce energy. However, the main focus of this paper is to evaluate the effectiveness of the coal-fired plant. This would mean that the paper seeks to analyze the effects of coal technology on human health and the environment.

Operation of the Coal-fired Power Plant

Air Pollutants and their Effects on the Environment and Humans

Coal power plants are known to emit a number of toxicological products, popularly referred to as HAPS. The pollutants are released into the environment in various forms. For instance, they might be released in form of acid gases, which are known to interfere with the normal functioning of the body. When human bodies are exposed to pollutants, some body systems, such as the blood transmission system and the breathing system, are affected. Long exposure is also blamed for damaging body organs such as lungs, kidneys and the nervous system. Some of these pollutants are discussed below. Moreover, the effects of the pollutants on human health and the environment are also discussed.

Acid Gases

Some of the acid gases include hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride, which are corrosive acids. Coal-fired plants are believed to emit the above gases to the air in large quantities. Research shows that hydrogen fluoride particles can travel up to 500 kilometers in the air. People with asthma suffer from irritation when exposed to hydrogen fluoride, which is plenty in the air due to the presence of coal-fired plants. Moreover, the acids tend to temper with eye tissues, nasal tracts, and lungs. The acids affect the formation of clouds in the air because chloride substances combine with other substances to form acidic clouds, which are known to cause acidic deposits in certain areas.

Dioxins

Dioxin is a term used to refer to the chemical family of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins, which are the chemical substances released to air by the coal-fired power plants. The chemicals are by-products of burning fossil fuels. Dioxin has two major components, which are dangerous to the environment and human health. However, the number of atoms in each substance determines the toxicity of the pollutant. Dioxin is found in the air as a gas and as a particle. Lowly chlorinated dioxins are able to mix in air while highly chlorinated dioxins exist as particles meaning that they cannot mix. The gaseous form of the chemical could be eliminated from the atmosphere through the troposphere process while the particles can reside in air for over ten days. Since it has the ability to reside in the air for long, the particles might affect people in various ways. Dioxins are stored in water bodies and soil. The particles are known to penetrate through the soil ending up in water bodies. This would definitely affect aquatic life. Human beings would probably consume the harmful chemical by eating fish and consuming contaminated water. In a study conducted in 2003 by the US Department of Agriculture, dioxin was found in at least four classes of meat and poultry. Dioxins would have the ability to stay in the body for over ten years. Therefore, it would stay in human bodies for long, which would affect even the fetus. Children would be affected through mothers milk. In the study, those people known to have come into contact with dioxin suffered from liver diseases and a skin problem referred to as chloracne. Long-term effects to humans include deformed immune systems, warped naval systems and problems related to reproduction. Moreover, the chemicals can interfere with the DNA structure.

Radioisotopes

The term is used to refer to a class of radioactive substances. Radioactive materials have the capability to destroy body cells and cause diseases such as cancer. Coal-fired plants emit radioactive substances such as radium and uranium to the air, which are always in particle form. These chemicals cannot mix in the air meaning that they can harm people, as well as other living organisms.

Mercury

Mercury is one of the most dangerous substances emitted by coal-fired plants. The substance is very dangerous because it can affect the central nervous system. The pollutant affects the environment because it mixes with gases to form harmful rain and snow. In a study conducted in 2006, it was found that coal-fired plants accounted for over 70% of mercury emissions. Microorganisms can convert mercury in the soil into a harmful form substance referred to as methyl mercury.

Regulatory Recommendations

As earlier stated, coal is the cheapest source of power, which cannot be eliminated in the US. The only solution is to come up with regulatory measures that would help reduce the effects of harmful substances. A study conducted in New England proved that communities who lived near coal-fired plants felt the effects of harmful substances more as compared to those that lived far from the plants. Harmful substances have the capacity to circulate to the environment before being transported to the dumping sites. Therefore, one of the regulatory suggestions would be to erect coal-fired plants at a reasonable distance, far away from the locals.

The pollutants circulate faster when coal-fired plants are constructed in mountainous places as compared to when constructed in sloppy areas. The lower stacks have the ability to affect only the surrounding populations while high stacks could perhaps affect both the immediate surroundings and other places. It is recommended that coal power plants be erected in sloppy areas. It would be simple to control the effects of chemicals because the surrounding population would simply be evacuated. Tall stacks have the capacity to affect the quality of air. However, tall stacks are preferred because pollutants are transported to other regions meaning the effects are evenly distributed. A study conducted in Wisconsin in 2003 found out that over 80% of the population is affected by coal-fired plants since the emitted substances affect their health. The situation is worse when high stacks are erected because the effects could be felt even in the neighboring states.

Technologies could also be used to minimize the effects of pollutants. The technologies are already in use to control emissions in some parts of the country meaning the new power plant can as well utilize the technology to conserve the environment. Specific technologies have been devised to contain the effects of acidic gases, chloride particles and mercury. Wet Flue Gas Desulfurization is one of the technologies that could be used effectively to reduce the effects of pollutants on human health and the environment. Research shows that Wet Flue Gas Desulfurization could reduce the effects of acidic gases by 32%. In particular, the technology reduces the effects of hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen cyanide and mercury. FGD is one of the easiest technologies to use because it entails a simple process of mixing it with limestone. The liquid is then sprayed into the boiler to minimize the emission of harmful gases mentioned above.

Operation of the Smelter

Contaminants and Risks

Smelting activities are known to emit harmful substances to water bodies such as arsenic deposits, copper deposits and lead particles. These substances are harmful to human health, as well as the environment. In one of the studies conducted in the US, it was found out that residential soil had high quantities of lead, copper and arsenic substances. Arsenic deposits were found to be in low concentrations of bout 12.5mg to 540mg/kg per sample. However, copper was in high concentration of about 1270mg/kg to 39,700mg/kg per sample. Furthermore, smelter operation is associated with water discharges such as selenium and molybdenum. Measurements obtained from air samples within the smelter region had impurities of cadmium, chromium and arsenic materials. Regions surrounding the smelter had high levels of arsenic acids, which were over 0.239ug/m3 while regions without a smelter had very little levels of arsenic acids of about 0.0004ug/m3. The smelter affects the composition of air to greater extents.

Health and Environmental Effects

The pollutants emitted during the process of smelting metals affect the environment and human beings in a number of ways. The pollutants affect the environment because the substances mix with air and other substances to form acidic rain. For instance, the smelting of sulfide metals would perhaps produce sulfur dioxide gases. The sulfide gases are known to react with other chemicals in air to form a dangerous sulfuric acid mist. Acidic rains augment the levels of acids in soils, lakes, and rivers. These acids are dangerous to aquatic life and vegetation. This would mean that smelter pollutants would affect wildlife as well. Copper pollutants have harmful chemicals that can affect vegetation, even though plants and animals use them for nourishment. Arsenic chemicals are toxic substances that affect the normal functioning of the heart and the nervous system.

Regulatory Recommendations

Research shows that wastes and slag, which are by-products of smelter plants, are simple to manage. One of the recommendations is that wastes and slag should be recycled to prevent their effects on the environment and human beings. If this option is adopted, the waste material to be disposed of would be little hence the environment would not be affected. Another recommendation is that the smelter plant should adopt the current technologies, which have been proved to prevent smelter pollution. New technologies have the capability of capturing sulfur dioxide. The new devices, such as electrostatic precipitators, should be used to capture chemical particles. The particles could perhaps be returned to the boilers for more processing.

Site of the Smelter

Several health issues would emerge as regards situating the smelter in a low-income neighborhood. One of them would be child health concerns. Children are said to be more vulnerable to chemicals as opposed to any other category of individuals in society. Therefore, children would demand special attention as regards chemical contamination. Since children spent most of their time playing outdoors, they are expected to inhale harmful gases and would possibly come into contact with contaminated materials. Moreover, it is believed that children would inhale harmful gases from dust since they are short as compared to adults. Children are at risk of being affected by chemicals since their cells are still developing. Some environmentalists would argue that children rely on adults for risk identification and management.

Some politicians would claim that the smelter plant would interfere with the social welfare of the poor because it would expose them to hazardous conditions yet they have no access to proper health care. Therefore, the poor would demand that they be compensated for being exposed to harmful gases from the smelter. Moreover, the poor would demand that they be employed in the smelter plant, even though some might not have adequate skills for running the machines.

To avoid conflicts with the poor, some enforcement measures would be adopted to resolve the problem. The smelter plant officials would be called upon to honor the ideals of corporate social responsibility whereby the proceeds from the plant would be used to construct social amenities such as schools, dispensaries, and social halls.

For the plant to meet its objectives, it should adopt some general recommendations such as involving the community in the running and managing of the plant. For instance, the locals should be incorporated into the management committee. This would help in formulating policies that would solve the issues related to environmental conservation and human health.

Offshore oil drilling refers to a process of drilling a wellbore through a seabed to explore and produce natural oil and gas that lie in the rock formations beneath the earths crust. The process of extracting oil and natural gas beneath the seabed requires different types of facilities to explore oil beneath the seabed (Russell 2009). Oil deposits can be found within the Earths crust by drilling through buried oil deposits. Reaching the buried oil deposits beneath the Earths crust is a very dangerous task. However, if the process is done correctly, it can result into huge economic gains. In spite of the gains, offshore oil drilling is associated with many challenges from the extracted hydrocarbons and the materials and equipments used during the off shore drilling process.

There are conflicting issues associated with offshore oil drilling in North Carolina (2010 Offshore Oil Drilling Legislation 2012). For example, environmentalists have raised issues concerning the dangers that are associated with oil spills in the Gulf of Mexico that presented numerous complications to the offshore drilling operations in North Carolinas coast. Before conducting offshore oil drilling, the site must first be identified as a prerequisite; the oil deposits are identified by surveyors through a process that maps the magnetic properties to discover the presence of oil deposits beneath the ocean floor. In order to conduct offshore oil drilling, environmental impact assessment must be carried out in order to identify the potential detrimental impacts and to provide solutions to mitigate the possible detrimental impacts and to enhance the beneficial effects associated with offshore oil drilling.

The process of offshore oil drilling is done by connecting the drill site to a platform with a marine raiser. The actual processing of the crude oil to a refined finished product is done onshore. There are many factors that are associated with offshore oil drilling that causes detrimental effects to the environment. For instance, offshore oil drilling is associated with various environmental impacts ranging from the actual point of locating the oil deposits to the processing stage of drilling and pumping out the oil to the surface of the Earth. Other negative impacts are linked to the infrastructure and equipments used during the actual drilling and transportation of the refined oil.

The detrimental environmental impacts vary in intensity due to various factors involved in the process. Environmentalists argue that when locating the oil deposits, the seismic surveys affect fish and other marine organisms. Moreover, offshore oil drilling is associated with noise pollution that greatly affects aquatic organisms. The process of drilling produces noise that impairs the hearing capacity of marine organisms.

Offshore oil drilling affects the ocean floor due to the physical disruption of the habitat of the benthic organisms. According to various surveys conducted, it is evident that most fossil fuel deposits exist within the ocean floors. These fragile ecosystems require environmental protection because they are habitats to marine life (Easton 2009). Other risks associated with offshore oil drilling include accidents that have led to deaths of workers in the rigs. The accidents also occur when the refined oil is being transported (Matthew 2010).

North Carolinas coast is endowed with many wild animals. Thus, it is important to note that offshore oil drilling can interfere with wild animals along the North Carolinas coast. Oil spills and leaks cause air pollution that adversely affects aquatic ecosystems and wild animals. Water pollution also occurs when the drilling fluids are discharged into the water bodies. The drilling fluids contain substances that are toxic to marine life. These fluids are used to lubricate and maintain the temperatures, as well as, to regulate the pressure when drilling. The toxic substances are derived from heavy metals and hydrocarbon products.

The drilling fluids are associated with varying levels of toxicity because they contain different concentrations of toxic substances that are harmful to aquatic life. The toxic substances cause distortion of the health and reproduction of marine organisms, which affects their population growth rate (Fain 2010). The oils spills on water surfaces affect aquatic life. Furthermore, the release of toxic substances may result into biomagnifications and bioaccumulation of the toxic substances in the food chains and food webs. Consequently, the concentrations of the toxic substances affect the organism in the higher tropic levels. There are effects from oil spills and leaks that expose sea birds and other marine organisms to risks. However, proponents of offshore drilling suggest that some marine organisms are adapted to the effects of oil in the water due to the natural seepage (Fain 2010).

Oil spills may also cause environmental pollution because they spread and take a longer duration on the surface of the water bodies before biodegrading. However, oil biodegrades when influenced by the tidal waves. Oil is a substance that can undergo biodegradation when it weathers under the presence of sunlight or can be biodegraded by the activities of microorganisms. Terrestrial organism can be affected when oil spills are spread up to the littoral zones of the coastal ecosystems.

Therefore, the oil spills are very dangerous to both marine and terrestrial ecosystems; hence, their presence can cause adverse effects on the populations of wild animals and other species on the North Carolinas coast. Moreover, due to the toxicity of oil and gas, the exposure of living organism to the oil spills can have a long lasting effect to the food chains and food webs. It is also evident that the clean ups of the oil spills can also cause detrimental effects to the environment. Decontamination of oil can affect marine organisms in a number of ways. For instance, the use of chemical methods, such as the addition of dispersants can introduce toxic materials to the marine ecosystems, hence, can endanger biodiversity.

Air pollution is another environmental impact that can occur as a result of offshore oil drilling in North Carolinas coast. Environmental pollution occurs during the process of drilling due to the emissions of greenhouse gases from the hydrocarbons released from the machinery and equipments used during the offshore drilling process (Is Offshore Drilling in North Carolinas Future? 2012). Moreover, air pollution is caused by the products that may affect air quality through emissions that increase greenhouse gas concentration in the atmosphere. It is estimated that a single rig can cause greater air pollution that can be felt by many people. Thus, the expanded offshore drilling in North Carolina will not reduce the greenhouse gas emissions but will contribute to climate change due to an increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (Russell 2009).

The positive impacts of offshore oil drilling in North Carolina include the reduction on the reliance of foreign oil. It is estimated that offshore oil drilling would drastically reduce oil imports in the U.S. Globally, the U.S. is the largest consumer of oil, but it produces little oil per day. Therefore, it is vital to improve oil production, in order to reduce the large import deficit that the country is facing. It is also predicted that the increase in oil production through offshore oil drilling may significantly reduce oil prices in international markets (Amato and Giordano 1982).

Furthermore, offshore oil drilling may increase government revenues through taxation. For instance, the bill by President Obama could increase North Carolina economy through raising taxes on energy, and the revenues obtained may be used as foreign aid to developing countries to create green industries that may reduce environmental degradation by enhancing a clean and healthy environment. According to a report by the congress, it is important to make available under leasing program, a five-year oil, and gas leasing program in the outer continental shelf areas that are approximated to contain numerous cubic feet of natural gas (Russell 2009).

The report by the congress also stated that the production for the five-year oil and gas leasing plan will increase by 2027 in daily production of approximately over three million barrels of oil and billions of cubic feet of natural gas (Amato and Giordano 1982). The congress made such a declaration following the high prices of gasoline that obtained millions of gallons, hence, the ban on offshore drilling was lifted. Individuals who encourage the extraction of oil through the process of offshore oil drilling claim that the business generates a lot of income to the federal government (Russell 2009).

Offshore oil drilling is a major issue that has caused various conflicts as states consider environmental safety with the economic gains that may be obtained from the economic activity. However, offshore oil drilling has been banned in some nations, while it is a legal, operation in some states. The offshore drilling in coastlines enhances economic development as the state governments obtain significant amounts of revenue from oil production. Many coastal states such as North Carolina have considered various mitigation measures including the adoption of bills that are linked to oil spills clean ups, and the recovery for dangers related to offshore oil drilling.

In North Carolina, there are laws that are implemented to protect the environment from negative effects from activities, projects, or developments on the environment. Moreover, these legislations require that an environmental impact assessment should be conducted on any development activity that may have potential negative impacts to the coastal regions (2010 Offshore Oil Drilling Legislation 2012). Due accidents that are linked with rig explosion, some states have introduced bills that would allow or prohibit offshore oil drilling.

For instance, in North Carolina, any responsible party associated with offshore oil drilling is liable for any damage caused by oil spills. The law requires that any responsible party for any negative effect to be responsible for all the clean ups and the costs associated with the removal o f wastes that arise from oil discharges in the fishing grounds, platforms, as well as rigs (2010 Offshore Oil Drilling Legislation 2012).

Offshore oil drilling can be improved through the implementation of sustainable technologies in oil exploration and offshore oil drilling processes. Thus, instead of putting a ban on offshore oil drilling, it is necessary to incorporate various ways to reduce the potential negative impacts and enhance the beneficial impacts of offshore oil drilling. For instance, it is vital to implement vigorous environmental impact assessment procedures before beginning the surveys and actual offshore oil drilling. Environmental impact assessment is very important in ecologically sensitive areas such as the marine and the coastal environments.

An important solution is to develop new technologies to survey the presence of oil deposits that will not interfere with marine habitat or disturb marine life. Moreover, it is advantageous to use drilling fluids that have substances with low toxicity levels and that can biodegrade easily to avoid bioaccumulation and biomagnifications of toxic substance in the food chains and the food webs (Rosenbaum 2008). Companies that are involved in offshore oil drilling should develop and implement a comprehensive waste management plans that allow for proper waste disposal. They should adhere to environmental standards in order to maintain environmentally health and safety through minimizing oil spills.

Those who oppose offshore drilling argue that improved energy efficiency will lead to savings of millions of barrels of oil than could be obtained from the US (Russell 2009). Moreover, Russell (2009) posits that improved fuel efficiency standards may save millions of barrels daily more than the amount, which would be tapped from the offshore oil deposits (Russell 2009). There are many sources of clean and renewable energy such as wind and geothermal power. These are renewable energy sources that have the potential to meet the rising global energy demands. Therefore, it is important to implement an effective and efficient way of utilizing the alternative sources of energy sustainably (Mathew 2010).

In conclusion, the evaluation of potential impacts of offshore oil drilling does not consider the ecological and economic benefits of the coastlines. Therefore, it is important to conserve energy, protect the environment, and develop alternative sources of clean energy. The North Carolina coastlines are a major source of revenue and a beneficial recreational area that may face pollution from offshore drilling. In the past, environmentalists have raised alarms on the continued harmful effects of oil spills on the environment and biodiversity.

This explains the dangers of offshore oil drilling having many detrimental effects to the health of the environment and biodiversity. Moreover, even with environmental impact assessment and audit in the daily operations, offshore drilling is very costly to the environment, particularly the coastal biodiversity and due to the catastrophic accidental oil spills and leakages as well. The increase in global human population has increased energy demands, hence, there is need to increase energy production through exploration and utilization of alternative sources of energy (Rosenbaum 2008). It is important to put more emphasis on renewable energy sources such as wind energy and geothermal power.

A better solution is to increase the fuel efficiency standards and improve technologies that can enhance the development of alternative sources of renewable and clean energy. For instance, the idea of opening up the coast to offshore oil drilling can be replaced by wind energy that is abundantly available and sustainable. However, critics still maintain their argument that fossil fuels will still be required in order to meet the energy requirements for the growing population. Thus, it is important to focus on energy conservation and management in order to achieve sustainability, and to enhance environmental protection for offshore drilling to be sustainable in order to meet the growing energy demands.

References

2010 Offshore Oil Drilling Legislation. 2012. National conference of state legislatures. Web.

Amato, Roger V, and Giordano Anthony C. 1982. Oil and gas developments in Atlantic coastal plain and outer continental shelf in 1981, American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v.66, n.11, p.2006-2010.

Easton, Thomas A. 2009. Taking sides: clashing views on environmental issues, Fourteenth Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Fain, Travis. 2010. Gulf oil spill casts shadow over drilling off N.C. coast. Winston-Salem Journal. Web.

Is Offshore Drilling in North Carolinas Future? 2012, Carolina Journal Radio. Web.

Matthew W. Daly. 2010. Obama restores eastern Gulf drilling ban, Washington Post. Web.

Rosenbaum, Walter A. 2008. Environmental politics and policy, Eighth Edition. Washington, DC: CQ Press.

Russell, Gold. 2009. Drill, Baby, Drill: Does Virginias Gov-Elects Call For Offshore Drilling Add Up? Wall Street Journal. Web.

Introduction

Today, one of the major threats to humanity is global warming. This has been attributed to the increased emission of greenhouse gases into the earths atmosphere. The industrialized countries of the West are mainly responsible for the current high levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

Therefore, the Kyoto Protocol was formulated under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in order to set binding obligations on industrialized countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Currently, a number of the industrialized countries have signed and ratified the Protocol. This paper examines the Kyoto Protocol as well as the role of the United States of America in it.

Formation of the Kyoto Protocol

A number of international conferences on climate change laid the foundation for the formation of the Kyoto Protocol. For instance, in 1992, the United Nations held a conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, which led to various outcomes. One of the major outcomes of the conference was the formation of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.

The mandate of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change was to reduce any form of human activities that would threaten international climate. In 1995, parties to the Convention met in Berlin in order to develop specific targets that would reduce the emission of greenhouse gases.

This marked the beginning of major negotiations on the Kyoto Protocol. Consequently, the negotiations on the Protocol were concluded on December 11, 1997. Due to a complex ratification process, the Protocol entered into force on February 16, 2005.

The Objective of the Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol was formed in order to stabilize the amount of greenhouse gas emissions by the developed countries. It is based on the principles of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Thus, it seeks to operationalize the principles of the Convention. The Protocol has set binding obligations on the developed countries because they are the major emitters of greenhouse gases.

Therefore, the developing countries are not bound by its obligations. However, countries that are bound by the Protocol are those that have approved it. In its first commitment period, 35 developed countries signed and ratified it. This target aimed at reducing the amount of greenhouse gas emissions by five percent.

The Role of the United States of America in the Kyoto Protocol

The United States of America is partly responsible for the increased levels of greenhouse gases. It accounts for twenty five percent of the worlds greenhouse gas emissions. It is also one of the countries, which participated in the negotiations on the Kyoto Protocol.

Thus, during President Clintons administration, the United States signed the Protocol. However, President Clinton did not submit it to the Senate for advice and consent. His major concern was that the Protocol exempted the developing countries from its binding obligations. Consequently, in 2001, the United States withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol.

Conclusion

The Kyoto Protocol is one of the major international strategies that seek to curb climate change by stabilizing the greenhouse effect. However, its success highly depends on the cooperation among developed and developing countries. Furthermore, the withdrawal of major states like the United States of America may jeopardize its future effectiveness.

Works Cited

Saundry, Peter. The Kyoto Protocol and the United States. 2006. Web.

UNFCCC. An Introduction to the Kyoto Protocol. 2011. Web.

Introduction

Seawater and air/sea interaction are undoubtedly the key topics of the course. It is fascinating how wind and water affect the entire ecosystem of the beach. There are also ecosystems created by people, which are interesting to learn since such areas serve to protect nature but can be dangerous to the environment if built incorrectly. Madeira Beach and Tarpon Springs are great examples of such forces and how people use and battle them.

Beach Zonation

The beach area consists of several zones, each performing its function in the ecosystem. Starting from the Gulf, the beach has the intertidal area, the foreshore, the backshore, and the dunes. The place where flotsam and other debris build up is called a wreck line or a debris line. It usually consists of the things that get washed up in storms or other wave activity and are located slightly offshore. Madeiras jetties help stop erosion by breaking the waves to preserve the beach. The Surf Zone is the place where waves are breaking. They break one-half of their wavelength as far as the depth goes (Beach Zonation at Madeira Beach, Nichol). The beaches in Florida have a white color because they consist of a mix of washed-down minerals during the glacier melt. There is quartz, limestone from the bedrock, and many algae mixed up, which results in white and fluffy sand.

Tarpon Beaches

Sunset Beach is an example of a man-made beach with cleaner sand and a little dune development. There are no waves on this beach because it is shallow, so they break at half their wavelength. The causeways are artificial structures built with riprap and pavement on top of them (Parks of Pinellas  Tarpon Springs Man-Made Beaches, Nichol). They restrict the tidal flow, break the waves, provide habitat for mangroves, and are a cheap and easy way to build roads to nearby islands and spoils. However, they stop the oceans natural flow, causing eutrophication and sedimentation. The engineers allow for tidal flow by building a bridge on the causeway that enables the water to go through, although it is restrictive.

Fred Howard Beach is a man-made beach with no natural sand budget, so all sand has been brought in. The sea oats are protected because they hold together the dunes, which have naturally formed since the beach was made. There is cabbage or sable palm, Floridas state tree. The leeward side of Fred Howard Park is quiet; there are no waves, and it is protected from wind, which is why leeward sides tend to form a muddy substrate. The windward side, which has a current, is windy to the extent that dunes were naturally formed to help stop sand erosion. Spartina is a salt marsh grass developed on the islands leeward side.

Sediments in the shallow saltmarshes of Fred Howard Park are colored differently because of the different kinds of bacteria growing in those sediments. The current creates erosion, which cuts away the sediments and deposits them in the protected by the causeway area. Mangrove areas are a perfect habitat for small organisms because these zones are shallow and have plenty of food and resources. The estuaries are called The Nurseries of the Sea because they provide a quiet, perfect habitat with a high tide for small fish and crabs to live. Therefore, the larger fish wait for the tide to drop and wash the smaller fish out, which makes it a perfect ecosystem.

Conclusion

Madeira Beach and Tarpon Springs are great examples of natural and man-made beaches. They have different ecosystems and are used in different ways. Artificial beaches are built with great care to preserve the surrounding environment and affect it positively. They save and protect many important and disappearing Florida habitats. It is interesting to learn how people adapt, protect, and battle such forces of nature as wind and water.

References

Nichol, C. (2022). Beach zonation at Madeira Beach. YouTube. Web.

Nichol, C. (2022). Parks of Pinellas  Tarpon Springs Man-Made Beaches. YouTube. Web.

When federal environmental assessments are performed early in the planning phase of an agency, this can aid in making certain that environmental issues, as well as social and economic issues, are incorporated into decision-making. According to Gibbons, since environmental risks are also hazardous to the financial capability and social suitability of the agency, environmental assessments, whether or not mandated by law, are now regarded as excellent business practices. Environmental assessments are necessary to carry out in agencies in which the federal government is concerned under precise circumstances illustrated in the act. If any of these legislative requirements are absent, there is no power to carry out an environmental assessment, even in what may otherwise be considered as undeniable circumstances.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency assessed the most important and controversial environmental issue concerning mercury emissions. In March 2005, nine states filed lawsuits against the agency. The agencys chief assessor had affirmed that the agencys mercury release parameters did not adhere to the Clean Air Act. The regulations were also apparently influenced by the top politicians of the country. The lawsuit charged that the agencys verdict permitting exclusion from utmost available power technology was unlawful. It also alleged that the agencys pollution system permitted power plants to give up decreasing mercury emissions. The lawsuits helped in remedying the situation because numerous states started ratifying their mercury emission policies (Collin 97).

Upon the analysis of the assessment, the main problem was that mercury emissions were an inevitable issue to the elite. This is due to the fact most of the mercury plants belonged to the elite who did not want to risk their wealth from the assessments made by the environmental agencies. However, there were alternatives to this problem. The most preferred alternative was the awareness conventions concerning the cumulative environmental risks of mercury pollution worldwide as well as having follow-up programs for the agency. The follow-up programs were to authenticate the precision of the agencys environmental assessment. They were also to determine the efficiency of any actions taken to alleviate the unpleasant environmental effects by the agency without compromising the environmental protection (Croitoru and Sarraf 146).

The magnitude of the problem is that mercury emissions pose danger to human beings, living creatures, and plant life. By decreasing mercury use and emissions to the atmosphere, these threats would minimize. Environmental assessment of mercury emissions is vital in minimizing the risk factors that mercury poses.

The assessment was of importance because it was to provide an unbiased set of rules concerning mercury emission policies and to also improve the quality of future environmental assessments. It was also to implement adaptive management measures. Environmental results are examined so that counteractive actions may be taken, if necessary. New improvement procedures may be executed, or current ones may be customized. The Agency has designed its quality assurance program to include both compliance monitoring and quality considerations, and it has produced various reports and proposals concerning environmental assessment (Frances 93).

If there was a failure to carry out a deliberate environmental assessment, this would result in intolerable environmental harm that would occur worldwide as well as high cleanup and other costs in the future. Environmental degradation would eventually rise to levels higher than it now is without any environmental assessment (Costanza and Jorgensen 210).

Works Cited

Collin, Robert. The Environmental Protection Agency: Cleaning up Americas Act. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2006. Print.

This book offers a chronological synopsis of the Environmental Protection Agency from its commencement in 1970 to date.

Costanza, Robert, and Steve Erik Jorgensen. Understanding and Solving Environmental Problems in the 21^st Century; Toward a New, Integrated Hard Problem Science. Amsterdam; Boston: Elsevier, 2002. Print.

The purpose of this book is to promote the integration of the social and natural sciences to create a better comprehension of intricate environmental concerns.

Croitoru, Leila, and Maria Sarraf. The Cost of Environmental Degradation: Case Studies from the Middle East and North Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank, 2010. Print.

This book collects the best case studies of assessing environmental degradation expenses in North Africa and the Middle East and reviews their impacts.

Harris, Frances. Global Environmental Issues. 2^nd ed. Chichester, West Sussex; Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. Print.

This book discusses key international environmental matters in an informative approach with several illustrations and case studies.

Gibbons, Whit. What are our top 10 Environmental Problems? 2006. Web.

Online Environmental Forum. 2012. This source deals with the top ten environmental challenges such as global climate change and pollution in order of increasing importance.

Introduction

The significant deterioration of the environment is one of the major concerns of the modern world. Such aspects as the blistering development of industry, growth of cities, and the increase in the number of people has given rise to several problems related to the negative effects of waste products. A number of scientists seek to determine the current state of the problem and find the most efficient solution.

In this regard, the question of solid waste management obtains the special significance as the tendency towards urbanization conditions the further increase of the amount of waste. The efficient solution to this problem could be taken as a guarantee of the further development of society and industry. Being responsible for the further evolution of a state, the government tries to create new tools and methods to improve the situation. Yet, there is also the tendency towards the privatization of solid waste management by private companies.

Advantages and disadvantages of privatization

The significance of the new practice is proved by some investigations devoted to the efficiency of the approach and the possible aftermath of the adherence to the given pattern. Zafra-Gomes et al. (2015) state that the given strategy could be taken as the ideal solution in terms of the financial crisis. Delving into the precise investigation of the question, they are sure that the transfer of the ownership of the government to private companies might have a great positive effect on solid waste management and contribute to the general improvement of the situation (Zafra-Gomes et al., 2015).

However, there are also opponents of the given strategy who tend to prove the idea that it might result in the deterioration of the waste management and loss of control over it. Besides, numerous studies show that the usage of private companies to monitor the situation and recycle waste could be less cost-based and might help to improve the situation in the sphere (Bel & Warner, 2008).

Utility and cost

Revolving around the advantages and disadvantages of privatization, it is vital to mention several important aspects. First, despite some benefits, it could not be taken as an ideal solution to the problem. Studies evidence that the service quality did not vary significantly after the privatization (NSWMA, n.d.), though there could be some slight improvements. Moreover, in case the choice of the company is determined by the community, the practice could be even less efficient (Zafra-Gomes et al., 2015). Yet, scientists are still sure that the analysis of the potential owner might help to achieve significant progress in the given sphere.

Another concern related to the privatization of solid waste management is related to the reduction of costs. Bel and Warner (2008) state that even though cost reduction is the key benefit claimed by privatization, there are still numerous factors that impact the financial side of the problem. Cost savings are not systematic in the sphere of solid waste management, but it is still possible to achieve a significant improvement. For this reason, the usage of the given practice could be accepted to save funds.

The factors impacting the communitys choice

One should also admit the great role community plays when it determines whether to privatize the solid waste management facility or keep it public. Zafra-Gomes et al. (2015) are sure that the strategy could even harm the public interest in case the factors impacting the efficiency of the new owner are not taken into account. Collection cost is one of the major concerns impacting the choice.

The fact is that any community is interested in the efficient and cost-saving solid waste management that will be able to improve the situation in the sphere. For this reason, the members of the community analyze the main aspects of the would-be owner of facilities and makes choice resting on the benefits provided by it. However, there are still numerous cases that evidence the lack of investigation of the terms of partnership which results in the deterioration of the situation.

Competitiveness

Finally, there is another positive effect of the usage of privatization in the sphere of solid waste management. Regarding some peculiarities of the modern market environment, the new entry into the market will obviously increase the level of rivalry and promote the development of competitive bidding market in communities. Several companies interested in the issue could try to win the rivalry and privatize the waste management facilities to obtain benefits. However, to attract the attention of customers, a company should suggest some obvious advantages. In its turn, it might result in a significant improvement of the general state of the issue.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the privatization of solid waste facilities could be taken as one of the major concerns of modern social services. Trying to find an efficient solution to the nagging problem, the government and communities involve numerous companies in the process. However, this ambivalent character of this strategy introduces the need for the further investigation of the given sphere to determine whether the privatization could be accepted as the ideal perspective for the whole sector.

References

Bel, G., & Warner, M. (2008). Does privatization of solid waste and water services reduce costs? A review of empirical studies. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 52, 1337-1348. Web.

NSWMA. (n.d.). Privatization: saving money, maximizing efficiency & achieving other benefits in solid waste collection, disposal, recycling. Web.

Zafra-Gomez, J., Plata-Diaz, M., Perez-Lopez, G., & Lopez-Hernandez, A. (2015). Privatisation of waste collection services in response to fiscal stress in times of crisis. Urban Studies, n. pag. Web.

Introduction

The ecological systems theory was developed by renowned scholar Urie Bronfenbrenner. The theory argues that development should be viewed as a socio-cultural phenomenon shaped by a number of systems containing, factors that shape development. The theory identifies five systems that contribute to development as direct social inputs and also greater cultural influences (Bronfenbrenner, 1981).

The systems include the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, and macrosystem. The microsystem is basically the setting in which the individual lives and includes family, peers, school, and neighborhood. Most research is done on this system as the individual has the most direct interaction with the social agents of development and actively participates in constructing these settings. The mesosystem involves the interaction of two microsystems; they may be for example family to church or school to peers. The exosystem is the interaction whereby the individual does not play an active role in forming the setting but is nevertheless directly affected the system.

The macrosystems, on the other hand, revolve around the culture of the people among which the individual dwells. More recently developed is the chronosystem which looks at the way in which the environment of the individual changes and affects their development over time in their lives. Examples of these may include the effects of time or important events or socio-historical events that might occur in the individuals life (Bronfenbrenner, 1981). This paper will attempt to illustrate ecological theory.

Overview

I chose to recognize and implement the cultural and social components necessary to construct a convincing argument that utilizes the foundations of the Ecological Theory to confirm its validity by using two individuals as illustrations.

I chose a 13-year-old female (Sarah) with Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation, and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. She interacts with others by using sign language and typing on the computer. She attends Jenks Middle School in Jenks, OK. She lives with her mother and step-father. Her biological father has very little to do with her and her mother believes it has to do with her disabilities. She loves surfing the Internet, swimming with assistance and watching television especially the food network channel. Sarah can utter a few words but you have to really listen to understand what she is saying. She has an older brother (17) and a younger brother (5); the younger brother picks on her a lot because I dont think he understands why she cant communicate and play like other children.

The second individual is an older adult (Vernon) who is an 80-year-old male with Alzheimers disease, Congestive Heart Failure and just had a hip replacement. He is married; his wife is 75 years old and they live in an assisted living facility where she has to help with him 5-6 hours a day, seven days a week. In order to continue her social life, she is very active in the community. Vernon walks around their 2 bedroom apartment most of the time chanting; his wife says the only time he really sits still is when The Price is Right is on; otherwise, he is up and just shuffling around the apartment. Vernons wife has several locks on the door with an alarm in case he tries to get out of the apartment. They had two sons; one was killed in Vietnam and the other drank himself to death.

I seek to relate these individuals to the ecological theory separately so as to bring out their unique situations.

Argument

Cerebral palsy is a disorder that hinders movement and posture and may lead to child inactivity due to slow or limited development of the childs brain. It is also often accompanied by the slow development of cognitive ability (Anonymous, 2007). Sarah is a young kid affected by this disorder in addition to Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder.

As indicated by the ecological theory, the microsystem is the most crucial system as the individual interacts directly with the social factors. Sarahs immediate surrounding is her family. Her family setting is complicated as it is because she has to deal with living with a stepdad and a biological father who doesnt seem to want anything to do with her due to her condition. According to Bronfenbrenner (1981), an unstable and unpredictable home setting does not allow the child enough time or opportunity to interact with the parents and this is one of the most destructible forces to a childs development.

In this case, Sarahs dad does not have any time for her and she basically lacks the biological fathers love that is so important in her development both socially and in cognitive ability. Bronfenbrenner (1981) insists on the theory that deficiencies in a childs microsystem cannot be replaced by over involving other systems. Primary relationships for example between parents and children should be permanent.

Lack of or insufficient love, support and guidance may lead the child to seek attention and comfort in other places like the internet and mass media for example. I observed that two out of three things that Sarah likes doing involve the internet and mass media (television), she even communicates by typing on a computer; an indication that she spends a lot of time on the computer given that she suffers from mental retardation. She also likes to watch television. This general behavior could be attributed to the fact that her family microsystem is not as supportive and loving as should be and so she, therefore, prefers doing something that doesnt involve anyone else and where she can just enjoy without the fear of being picked on.

On the other hand, it can be observed that Sarah likes to swim with little assistance! This is probably the case because of the kind of interaction she has with her swimming teacher. She probably even works harder to impress her teacher because it is only then that she can receive much-needed love, support, and a sense of understanding. This then illustrates the mesosystem; the child develops an interest outside the hostile family setting because she can get some comfort and joy at school or at the swimming club. The family and school microsystems interact here and one becomes the cause of development of the other.

Another manifestation of the mesosystem could be between the peers and family microsystems. Sarah prefers to surf the net rather than play with other children or her younger brother who often picks on her. She cannot play with her elder brother, although he could be more understanding of her condition because he is a lot older and probably has very different priories and interests from Sarahs.

Sarah has to contend to living with her stepdad whether she likes it or not. That is an ascribed position in which she finds herself but can do nothing about. The presence of the step father clearly kills any hope of the biological father ever coming back in her life directly or living with her. This is a clear illustration and manifestation of the exo and meso systems; she has no power over this and the whole living with a step dad scenario is created as a result of disintegration of her nuclear family micro system. This may have a silent but lasting impact on her in terms of morals and spiritual well being.

As learned above, Sarah suffers from Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation, and Obsessive Compulsive Disorder. This is also an ascribed status that she can do nothing about but continues to define her as a person and determines almost everything she can or cannot do Anonymous (2007). Her development physically, mentally and socially is limited by her condition and may even determine whether or not she will ever achieve all her dreams like having a successful family one day.

The micro-system comes into play with regard to the attitudes and culture of the people around Sarah. Most societies stigmatize mentally challenged individuals let alone those affected by multiple conditions like Sarah. Her younger brother for instance picks on her all the time because of her inability to communicate like the other kids. This is probably a brother has not been educated by the parents on Sarahs condition and is an obvious indication that the society in which Sarah lives is not doing much to educate and sensitize its members on conditions like Sarahs. This is bound to mount stigmatization that could in turn greatly reduce chances of Sarah having a comfortable life that is as close to normal as possible.

Sarah lives with a step father and has a biological dad who does not care much about her. The assumption here is that Sarah was born out of wedlock or the mother and biological father separated. Whatever happened was obviously a very significant event in Sarahs life and would change her life forever. This then illustrates the aspect of the chronosystem as outlined by Bronfenbrenner (1981).

Vernon is an elderly male aged 80 and suffers from Alzheimers disease, Congestive Heart Failure and recently had a hip replacement. Most of Vernons micro-system is shaped by his 75year old wife. His wife basically takes care of Vernon most of her time. Vernons sons form another important factor in his Micro system.

Vernon spends most of his time in their apartment and loves to watch The Price is Right. His wife helps him most of the day but still finds time to get involved in community work. Helping him for more than five hours each day of the week is an indication that his wife loves him and is committed to ensure that he leads a normal life even with his age and condition. His wifes presence, care and love are vital for Vernon because it contributes greatly to his emotional and mental well being. Insufficient or lack of support for a person in Vernons condition would be detrimental to his well being mentally, emotionally and even physically.

Bronfenbrenner (1981) observed that such primary level relationships should be permanent to ensure emotional stability. Vernons condition calls for his wifes understanding, endurance and tolerance. His wife provides all this and forms what is agreeably a stable and secure micro system for Vernon. Vernon spends much of his time chanting in his living room. This could very well be an indication of a troubled man. Challenged by Alzheimers disease, Vernon probably only has scattered recollections of his sons and their deaths could very well be the cause of his troubled mind. This has a huge effect on his mental stability and thus the almost day long chanting. This is a clear illustration of the effect of a micro system on an individual. Vernon probably has some fond memories of The Price is Right and finds comfort in watching it hence the observed inclination to stop most other activities to enjoy the show.

Vernons wifes micro system is also greatly influenced by Vernon. The wife has to endure living with a man she loves but has almost been incapacitated by disease and age. It can be fairly concluded that Vernons wife is involved heavily in community work as a way of getting away of the troubles of taking care of her husband and finding a little time to relax. The mesosystem then comes into play here because I observed that the family micro system (sick husband) leads her to get involved in community activities to get away from her daily duty of taking care of her husband. She could also jus be looking to break the monotony of staying indoors with her sick husband. She applies the same commitment she has to her husband to the community work. Vernons wife locks the doors while leaving probably to ensure that her activity time is not interfered with by incidents that that may as a result of her unattended to husband leaving the house.

In Vernons case, the exosystem manifests itself in his sons. One of his sons was killed in Vietnam during the war and this has a direct impact on his life though he had no power to prevent this. The other son drank himself to death; Vernon probably did not have control or even knowledge of his sons drinking problem although it directly influences his family micro system. A similar micro system directly affects his wife, probably in a greater way, because she has to deal with the two deaths and an ailing husband. This is bound to mould her character into some unique way due to her peculiar circumstances.

The cultures and people in Vernons society mould the macro system. This is evident as both Vernon and his wife live in an assisted living facility. This could be an indication that their society has a positive attitude towards old and sick people and provides help to them by having them in an assisted living facility. The community also allows Vernons wife to participate in their activities despite her age and ailing husband.

From both the above cases, it was clear that indeed all the five systems described by Bronfenbrenner have a role in shaping the development of any human regardless of age or condition. The systems achieve this by individual influence and interrelationship between them. The micro system was observed to be the most influential in both the cases above. The individuals were found to interact more directly with the micro system more than the other systems.

References

Anonymous. (2007). Definition and classification of cerebral palsy. Developmental medicine and child neurology, 49 (8), 8-9. Web.

Bronfenbrenne, U. (1981). The ecology of human development: experiments by nature and design. NY: Harvard University Press. Web.

Timber is a building material that is easy to obtain and cheap. Moreover, it is renewable, recyclable, environment friendly and its manufacturing methods are simple. Forests can be used as carbon sinks by harvesting wood and using it for various purposes while replanting new trees. This process is termed carbon sequestration (APP Timber 1). The director of FSC, Fraser Steele, states that

Timber, correctly managed, has the potential to be one of, if not the most, environmentally friendly building material available. It was important to me that if we were to choose from the many chain of custody schemes available, it must be the scheme with the highest credentials (FSC Australia 3).

Proper management of forests and natural habitat is important in ensuring continuous supply of wood for construction purposes. Forest management in the various countries safeguard the woodlands. Geoff Henley states:

Wood is the ultimate material for the age of sustainability which is now upon us. The environmental credentials of forests and wood are excellent, and wood has a vital role to play in the tansition of the worlds economies to greater sustainability (APP Timber 3).

Many programs and bodies have been set up to ensure strict adherence to environmental standards when supplying wood for different purposes. The Forest Stewardship Council, set up in 1993, gives Forest Management, Chain of Custody and Controlled Wood certifications (Dispenza 4).

Despite its positive impacts on the environment, the use of wood as a main construction material in Australia is yet to cement. This can be attributed to lack of proper management of forests that can lead to sustainable forests. The Australian Forest Certification Scheme is a body in Australia that promotes sustainable management and safeguarding of forests (APP Timber 2). In 2009, the Forest Stewardship Council Australia decided not to certify indigenous forests or products obtained from indigenous forests due to non compliance with the required minimum standards. Its report stated Comments in a news release by Tasmanian Senator Richard Colbeck today as inaccurate, misleading and unhelpful to the Tasmanian forests and forest products industry (Spencer 1). However, Australia was recertified in 2011, and this will go a long way in heartening forest sustainability.

References

APP Timber. Why Use Timber as a Building Material. n.d.

Dispenza, Kristin. What is Sustainable Forestry? Global Sustainable Forestry Certification Programs. 2011. Web.

FSC Australia. FSC Case Studies. Building on Tradition: Glenalmond and FSC COC Certification. Forest Stewardship Council. 2010. Web.

Spenser, Michael. Forest Stewardship Australia. FSC. Melbourne. 2009.

House sustainability was never taken seriously in the past. With the mounting pressure for going green and a sense of responsibility, many people are today erecting houses which are sustainable to conserve and sustain the ecology for the future. Sustainable home design incorporates and centers on economic accountability, social and negligible environmental impact (Sustainable Homes Design Plans par.2). The procedure for building a sustainable house involves architects, engineers, landscape designers, interior designers and clients who come together to make decisions and choices and go through the creation and post creation phases. These people ensure that the project is completed as per the design.

In the recent years, the world has experienced a lot of rural to urban migration. Peoples lives are thus revolving around the cities with majority not having time to relax and appreciate nature due to busy lifestyles. To ensure conservation, people have to reconsider their busy lives and learn to relate and value the natural world. Moreover, nature helps in alleviating stress and this in turn raises productivity levels.

When designing houses, the exterior should be well thought-out as well as the interior since the outdoor space is the first attraction that meets the eye before entering the main house. Furthermore, it helps the inhabitants interact with nature (Lewis 1). In designing outdoor spaces, materials could be recycled to reduce wastage, plants, flowers and grass incorporated and use of proper lighting that is catchy.

Examples of designs of outdoor living spaces are shown in figures 1, 2 and 3 below.

References

Lewis, Stephanie. Living Green in Outdoor Spaces. 2010. Web.

Sustainable Homes Design Plans. 2012. Web.

Water is an essential resource that cycle through the environment (ACSSU222). Water acts directly as the source of life for plants because it carries nutrients, from which plants derive their food. When it comes to animals, water is an essential aspect of animals life. Animals usually feed on plants, which in turn depend on water for growth and survival. Thus, water also acts as a source of life for animals. In addition to that, water provides a natural habitat for many animal and plant species, therefore ensuring their survival. The phrase water cycle refers to the continuous movement of water from the surface of the Earth to the atmosphere, and then back to the surface of the Earth (Nelson, 2002). Nelson (2002) asserts that during this cycle, water moves typically from the Earths surface and the surface of water bodies, such as oceans and lakes, into the atmosphere. Here, it is cooled down and falls back to the surface of the Earth.

Natural and processed materials have a range of physical properties; these properties can influence their use (ACSSU074). Natural and processed materials can either be categorized as solids, liquids or gases according to their physical properties. Solids, liquids and gases have different observable properties and behave in different ways (ACSSU077). Solids are compact, and they have definite shape and volume. The reason why solids are dense is that the molecules that make up the substance are close to one another; thus, there is no space between the molecules (Nelson, 2002).

On the other hand, liquids do not have a definite shape but instead they adopt the shapes of the vessel containing them, however, just like solids, fluids also possess definite volume (Nelson, 2002). The molecules that make up liquids are loosely packed, allowing for big spaces to exist between the molecules. This is because the molecules in gases are more loosely packed, allowing for even bigger intermolecular spaces. Gases adapt the volume of the container enclosing them (Nelson, 2002).

A change of state between solid and liquid can be caused by adding or removing heat (ACSSU046). Removal of heat from a substance in the liquid state will result to the substance changing into solid whereas addition of heat from a substance in solid-state will result in the substance shifting states from solid to a liquid state. The change of state is brought about by the fact that addition of heat increases the kinetic energy of the molecules thus increasing their ability to move and be further away from one another and that is why the addition of heat results in a substance shifting states from solid to liquid (Olien, 2005). On the other hand, removal of heat reduces the kinetic energy of the molecules resulting in less movement of the same. Consequently, the molecules are tightly packed together, and thus the resultant state is solid (Olien, 2005).

Description of the Diagram

The diagram is a representation of the water cycle. It shows the processes involved in the cycle: condensation, precipitation, and evaporation. During evaporation, waters move from the Earths surface to the atmosphere, a process that involves the addition of heat. During condensation, heat is removed from the water, which results in cloud formation. During precipitation, water condenses and falls to the ground as hail, snowfall, or rain.

Evaporation

According to Olien (2005), the processes involved in facilitating the water cycle are evaporation, condensation, and precipitation. Evaporation is the process by which liquids are transformed into a vapour state and rises to the atmosphere (Koontz, 2011). This, therefore, implies that during evaporation, water changes state from liquid to vapour. According to Koontz (2011), this change of state happens when the heat is added to the water. The heat that causes water typically to evaporate from the Earths surface comes from the sun. Evaporation takes place from various places on the Earths surface, including lakes, oceans, and rivers. In addition to the three places mentioned, water also evaporates from the plants through a process known as transpiration. Transpiration involves the loss of water by plants through various surfaces on their bodies, such as the leaves and stems, and this water finds its way into the atmosphere (Koontz, 2011).

Condensation

In addition to evaporation, the second process that is involved in the water cycle is called condensation. Condensation is the process by which water vapour turns into liquid (Petersen, Sack & Gabler, 2011). The water vapour that evaporates from the surface of the Earth rises to the atmosphere, and as a result of a fall in temperature, the vapour turns (condenses) into liquid. Condensation, therefore, involves the subtraction of heat from a substance, whereby if a substance in a gaseous state is subjected to low temperatures, it turns back to a liquid state.

Precipitation

The third process involved in the water cycle is precipitation. According to Petersen, Sack & Gabler (2011), precipitation occurs as a result of the accumulation of the condensed water vapour in the atmosphere. Petersen, Sack & Gabler (2011) explains that the condensed water vapour usually accumulates and forms clouds. After some time, the amount of accumulated clouds gets too heavy to be suspended in the atmosphere. Consequently, the cloud, which is an accumulation of droplets of water, falls back to the Earths surface in the form of rainfall, hail, or snowfall.

Changes to materials can be reversible, such as melting, freezing, evaporating; or irreversible, such as burning and rusting (ACSSU095). Reversible changes are those changes whereby various processes can be applied to the material to enable it to go back to its previous state (Petersen, Sack & Gabler, 2011). These processes usually involve either addition or removal of heat. For instance, a process such evaporation is reversible because evaporation facilitates the changing of state from liquid to the gaseous state through the addition of heat. However, when the heat is removed from the gaseous state, the substance will revert to a liquid state, and therefore such a change is reversible. Just like evaporation, condensation and precipitation are also reversible as in both the two, the substance can be converted to its previous state. However, there are also those changes that are referred to as irreversible changes. This is because once a substance has undergone these changes, no process will be able to revert it to its original state and such changes are rusting and burning (Petersen, Sack & Gabler, 2011).

Environmental Factors influencing the water cycle

Several environmental factors influence the water cycle. It is important to know and understand these factors in order to grasp the concept behind the water cycle. First and foremost, environmental temperature is a very important factor, as far as the water cycle is concerned. As already stated, the various processes that are involved in the water cycle are dependent upon temperature variations. This consists of either addition or subtraction of temperature from water mass. For this reason, the temperature is an important determinant when it comes to determining the course of the water cycle.

High temperatures will result in a high evaporation rate since the amount of heat being added to water will be high (Smithson, Addison & Atkinson, 2002). On the other hand, low temperatures will result in a high condensation rate, because water will be losing heat at a fast pace. Consequently, low temperatures will also increase precipitation. This explains why there is a lot of snowfall during winter; the temperatures at this time are low. Other factors, such as the presence of water bodies and vegetation, will also increase the amount of water that can evaporate into the atmosphere. This will also increase the precipitation rate (Australian Curriculum, 2013).

Impact of Human Activities

Having seen the environmental influence on water, it is now easy to understand how human activity can impact this cycle. Human activities that directly increase environmental temperature will result in a high evaporation rate. Consequently, a lot of moisture will be present in the atmosphere. In addition to that, the destruction of vegetation and water bodies by humans can also greatly influence the water cycle, whereby such activity will result in less water evaporating to the atmosphere (Rice, 2007). Consequently, the amount of water that condenses to form clouds will be reduced, thereby reducing the rate of precipitation.

References

Australian Curriculum. (2013). Science. Web.

Koontz, R. M. (2011). Water Goes Round: The Water Cycle. Michigan: Capstone.

Nelson, R. (2002). The Water Cycle. Sydney: Lerner Publications.

Olien, R. (2005). The Water Cycle. Michigan: Capstone.

Petersen, J. F., Sack, D. I. & Gabler, R. E. (2011). Physical Geography. New York: Cengage Learning.

Rice, W. B. (2007). Inside the Water Cycle: Earth and Space Science (Science Readers). London: Taylor & Francis.

Smithson, P., Addison, K., & Atkinson, K. (2002). Fundamentals of Physical Environment. London: Routledge.