Category: Environment

There is no use denying the fact that the modern world faces a nagging problem connected with the environment and high tempos of the worsening of its state. Ecologists are worried by the current state of affairs, underlining the fact that industrial development of society leads to a significant increase in the threat to the environment. With this in mind, the primary objective of the given study is the deep analysis of the main environmental risks that the UAE faces and the creation of the appropriate risk assessment method in order to understand the nature of the threat. The main hypothesis of the paper is the idea that the oil extraction industry could be taken as the main source of environmental problems peculiar to the UAE. Under these conditions, the appearance of a great number of various environmental problems, connected with the blistering development of the UAE, seems quite logical. These problems are

1. Urbanization.
2. Ballast water.
3. Water supply.
4. E-waste.
5. Influence of the oil extraction industry.

The first obvious problem is the urbanization that could also be taken as the primordial problem that triggered the appearance of the rest of the problems. It should be said that several decades ago, these lands were not so populated because there were no perspectives for their development. Thus, the increase in the demand for oil led to the blistering extension of the region and worsening of the environment. The great level of urbanization of this territory nowadays is taken as one of the most important problems of the UAE. The problem is that the growth of cities leads to the appearance of a great number of various issues such as overpopulation, contamination of the atmosphere, water and soil, waste, the state of the health of the nation, and a great number of others. That is why urbanization could be taken as one of the important problems of the UAE.

Another environmental issue, which has a chronic character, is the question of ballast water. Being one of the greatest producers of crude oil, the UAE also has the tendency towards the increase of the number of problems connected with the ballast water, which is used in the industry and then pollutes the environment. The state stimulates the development of the oil extraction industry, the problem should be solved in order to stop the deterioration of the state of the environment.

The region where the UAE is situated traditionally has the problem of water supply. The problem is that the desert character of the lands and a few numbers of sources of freshwater influenced the way in which people settled and obtained the needed amount of water. Thus, nowadays, due to urbanization and desertification, this traditional pattern is destroyed. The population had doubled since 1960 when the development of the region started (Alderman 2010). However, traditional sources were not able to supply people with the needed amount of freshwater and, that is why some new sources were found. Nowadays, distillation is used to provide water for all people. However, the issue is still topical as the quality of distilled water remains doubtful, and sewage waters used for irrigation should also be checked for their environmentally friendly character.

Moreover, nowadays, the UAE has a tendency towards the blistering development of the sphere of digital technologies. Additionally, being one of the richest states in the world, the UAE also has the increasing demand for various gadgets, that could be used by prosperous people. However, combination of these factors leads to the appearance of another problem, which is e-waste. The fact is that the majority of citizens of the UAE uses various electronic devices. In the process of usage a great number of these devices are thrown. Besides, e-waste poses a threat to the environment as it can pollute groundwater and the food. That is why, the problem should be analyzed in order to find a good solution and protect citizens of the UAE.

Finally, another important problem is connected with the development of the oil producing industry that serves as the main source of incomes for the UAE. Being one of the most environment damaging sphere of industry, oil extraction causes a great harm to nature and health of people. First of all, it pollutes soil and water, which are of a great importance for the desolated state. Moreover, oil spills cause a disastrous harm to the coastline and lead to the appearance of marine pollution. With this in mind, it is possible to say that the given sector is rather ambivalent for the UAE as it promotes its development and, at the same time, introduces a great number of problems. However, it is obvious that it will continue its development that is why, deeper investigation of the issue is needed.

With this in mind, it is possible to say that the aim of the given paper is to analyze the influence of oil extraction industry on the state of environment in the UAE and health of people and to prove the hypothesis that this sector can be taken as the most dangerous and that leads to the appearance of all above mentioned problems.

As it has already been stated, the given work revolves around the environmental issues peculiar to the UAE and their influence on the health of people. With this in mind, having outlined several important environmental problems, the paper will focus on the most important one. In order to make the deep analysis of the issue, review of the credible literature is made and the thoughts and ideas connected with the situation, suggested by various authors are analyzed. Moreover, it is obvious that the given issue should be investigated using the most efficient methodology like literature review, case study analysis and investigation of the state of environment. These methods could help to perform the analysis of the chosen issue and suggest the most efficient and modern solution to the existing problem. Resting on these facts, it is possible to state that the main goal of the paper is the deep and justified analysis of the environmental problems peculiar to the UAE.

Besides, it should also be said that being a very important and topical question nowadays, the issue of the environment is investigated by a great number of various researchers who tend to prove the idea that some immediate actions are needed in order to improve the current situation. The current situation in the UAE and its environmental problems are not an exclusion and scientists try to find the root of the problems and investigate the issue. Yet, a great number or researchers agree with the statement that the oil extraction industry is one of the main factors that leads to the appearance of various environmental problems. Harris in his research about the state of the Gulf region underlines the fact that being the main source of incomes, this branch of industry still threats the whole region and can lead to the further deterioration of lands and worsening of the environmental situation.

Moreover, underlining the desire of the countries of the Gulf to join the world elite, Harris predicts further intensive development of this sector which could mean the blistering worsening of the environmental situation. Tar-Ching Aw (2010) in the research connected with the peculiarities of global public health and the UAE also proves this idea, stating the fact that according to the statistics the health of people became significantly worse in last several decades which had passed since the blistering development of oil extraction industry. Thus, development of industry has the ambivalent character. It is obvious that it leads to the improvement of living conditions of people who are able to earn money working there. thus, at the same time, the state of environment becomes worse which has a great negative impact on the state of public health. In the work Aw (2010) underlines the shift of the character of illnesses from traditional to chronic ones.

This fact is taken by the researcher as the aftermath of the deterioration of the environmental situation and pollution of soil, water and air. The idea that all these elements are polluted because of the development of industry is not new. Grizzle, Ward, As Shihi and Burt in their research of coral reefs also come to the conclusion that the current state of water is not ideal and there is the tendency towards the worsening of the situation. Taking into account the problem connected with the water supply peculiar to the UAE, it is possible to say that it could be as taken a disturbing fact. Grizzle et al. (2015) say that the state of coral reefs could be taken as the indicator of the state of environment in general and the state of water particularly. Moreover, they tend to warn people that continuation of the policy of blistering urbanization and development of tourist infrastructure could lead to some catastrophic results that could change the functioning of the ecosystem. Researchers come to the conclusion that some measures to stop contamination are vital under modern conditions.

It should also be said that things are complicated by the UAE desire to develop the nuclear energy. Kaabi (2011) in his paper underlines the fact that being a very beneficial sector of industry which could provide more independence for the UAE, it, at the same time, could also make the state of environment, which is affected by the oil extraction industry, much worse. The author outlines the fact that the wastes of this industry are not recycled probably and contaminate soils, water and air (Kaabi 2011). However, the nuclear power station could have much more devastating influence on the state of environment. With this in mind, it becomes obvious that the environmental problems connected with the oil extraction industry do not just influence the state of environment, though, they make the further development of the country more complicated.

Kaabi (2011) comes to the conclusion that combination of these two industries could change the image of the land greatly and lead to some ecological catastrophe. Tourenq and Launay (2008) in their paper comes to similar conclusions. They tend to analyze the main threats and challenges that biodiversity of the UAE faces nowadays. In their research authors come to the conclusion that the state of biosphere has changed greatly since the start of blistering urbanization and development of the region (Tourenq & Launay 2008). Underlining the problems of desertification, pollution and population, they also state the fact that all these issues change the environment of the state and make it worse. Tourenq and Launay (2008) also consider the oil extraction industry to be the main cause of the appearance of all these problems as it served as the stimulus. Nowadays, the situation is not disastrous though there is the tendency for its worsening. That is why, the authors predict that in case of further urbanization of the region and development of the industry, problems could become much more complicated (Tourenq & Launay 2008). However, it should be said that the negative impact of the oil extraction industry on the state of health of people is the thing which introduces a great number of various disputes.

Gibson and Farah (2012) in their research connected with the investigation of the main risks to the healthcare sector that result from the high tempos of worsening of the state of environment, come to the conclusion that even great sums of money invested in this sphere by the government are not able to stop the process of deterioration of the state of soil, water and air. That is why, the idea that not aftermath but the initial causes of the appearance of the problem should be given great attention is suggested. The authors underline the fact that environmental risks to health in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) have shifted rapidly from infectious to noninfectious diseases as the nation has developed at an unprecedented rate (Gibson & Farah 2012, para. 1). They tend to prove the idea that further exploitation of oil deposits will obviously lead to the development of financial sector, though, at the same time striking the sphere of healthcare.

The necessity of the improvement of the situation in the sphere of industry is also shown by Barakat, Shanableh and Malkawi (2008) in their research that aims at investigating the main environmental risks which threats the UAE. The authors state the fact that development of the oil extraction industry has introduced a new danger that has traditionally been insignificant for the given region. Revolving around the possibility of earthquakes, the authors tend to show the tendency towards the strengthening of tectonic activity and the increase of a real threat of the earthquake. The main factors which influence the growth of this rate are the peculiarities of construction of some buildings, increase of the density of population and some the activity of various industries, including the oil extraction one (Barakat, Shanableh & Malkawi, 2008). Under this conditions, one of the main aims of researchers of the state is to create the rational and efficient approach to assess the natural hazards peculiar to the UAE. However, the paper by Alsenaani could be taken as a good attempt to create this very approach. The author tends to analyze the latest tendencies peculiar to the environment of the UAE and state the degree of risk. Alsenaanis paper centers around all possible hazards which could happen in the UAE and, moreover, the author introduces the efficient approach to determine the risk factors and make a certain conclusion.

Taking into account the threatening state of environment in the UAE, the author also underlines the fact that the risk assessment approach could help to the situation better and introduce some changes towards the way in which the state develops nowadays. Alsenaani (2013) manages to determine that some natural hazards are insignificant for the UAE while such threats as climate change or seismic activity could be taken as rather topical. Additionally, Willis et al. (2010) also tend to analyze the environmental risks peculiar to the UAE. Cogitating about the state of healthcare in the UAE, the authors present the results of a comparative environmental risk-ranking exercise that was conducted in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) to inform a strategic planning process led by the Environment Agency-Abu Dhabi (EAD (Willis et al. 2010, p. 1842).

These results show that among 14 environmental risks outlined by the researchers, ambient and indoor air pollution; drinking water contamination; coastal water pollution; soil and groundwater contamination; exposure to hazardous substances in industrial, construction, and agricultural work environments (Willis et al. 2010, p. 1842) could be taken as the most dangerous ones. The study, conducted by the authors, helps to realize the fact that the UAE suffers from a great number of various factors that have a pernicious influence on the health or environment. Willis et al. come to the conclusion that agencies like Environment Agency-Abu Dhabi should create a strategic plan that could help to make the influence of this factors less powerful and negative. That is why, it is possible to conclude that investigations connected with the main environmental issues peculiar to the UAE, tend to admit the fact that the state nowadays faces various challenges that mainly result from the blistering development of oil extraction industry which, in its turn, leads to the urbanization of the region.

With this in mind, it should be said that the following risk assessment methods could be recommended. They are:

1. Identification of the hazard.
2. Characterization of the hazard.
3. Exposure assessment.
4. Risk characterization.
5. Comparison with the previous showings.
6. Analysis of the obtained data.
7. Main steps to prevent the accidents.

The given scheme provides the detailed step by step instruction how the analysis should be performed and what stages should be accomplished first.

Additionally, the main measures of the given risk assessment method are the showings connected with the state of environment of the UAE and oscillations of these numbers that could help to obtain the information about the most important changes.

Additionally, it is possible to analyze the case study connected with the problem of the development of oil extraction industry and its influence on the environment of the UAE in order to understand the problem better. Mohamed Al Mazrouei (2014) in his paper UAEA Case Study in Managing the Energy Trilemma underlines the fact that it is vital to achieve the balance between secure, affordable and environmentally sustainable energy in the shortest terms. Tending to prove his assumptions, the author outlines statistics which shows that in several recent years the state of environment of the state has become significantly worse mainly due to the functioning of oil extraction and energy industries (Al Mazrouei 2014).

With this in mind, it is extremely vital to be able to reduce the negative impact of these factors on the environment for the country to be able to evolve. Thus, resting on the facts obtained from the given case study, it becomes obvious that there are no other sources of incomes similar to oil extraction for the UAE. That is why, the decision should be found not in the decelerating of the development of this sector, but some new and environmentally friendly ways to perform various actions in this sphere should be suggested. However, nowadays, there is still no efficient solution for this problem and further deterioration of the state of environment could be predicted.

Besides, it is possible to say that nowadays the UAE has one of the highest showings of urbanization in the world. This fact could not but influence the state of environment introducing new environmental threats to the state. Researchers, who work in the given sphere, also adhere to the idea the urbanization has the negative impact on the environment. Additionally, development of the oil extraction industry is taken as the primordial case. Under these conditions, creation of efficient risk assessment tool that will be able to monitor the state of this industry and the level of contamination could be taken as one of the possible solutions. The fact that the dangerous sphere are investigated and the most important steps are outlined could be taken as the great advantage of the suggested solution, as it could help to minimize the risks and reduce the negative effect of the functioning of the oil extraction industry. Moreover, a certain strategic plan that describes the main steps which should be accomplished to decrease the negative impact of this factor on the environment and be ready to face appearing challenges.

In conclusion, it should be said that having the beneficial impact on the state of the economy of the UAE, its blistering development at the same time promotes deterioration of the environmental situation in the country. Besides, oil extraction industry could be taken as one of the most important factors that triggers the appearance of other environmental problems. That is why, it is necessary to create the efficient risk assessment tool to monitor the situation in the state and respond to challenges which appear due to the high level of urbanization and development of industry.

It should also be said that the broader public should be informed about the main risk that the UAE faces nowadays for people to be ready to respond to it. Various means of media could be used to do it. Moreover, the given paper could be placed in the Internet for people to obtain the main idea connected with the peculiar risks.

Reference List

Al Mazrouei, F 2014, UAEA Case Study in Managing the Energy Trilemma. Web.

Alderman, L 2010, Dubai Faces Environmental Problems After Growth, The New York Times. Web.

Alsenaani, H 2013, A risk based approach for the assessment of natural hazards in the UAE, International Journal of Scientific World, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 79-99. Web.

Aw, T 2010, Global Public Health and the United Arab Emirates, Asia Pacific Journal of Public Health, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 19-24. Web.

Barakat, S, Shanableh, A & Malkawi, H 2008,  A Comparative Earthquakes Risk Assessment Approach Applied to the United Arab Emirates, Jordan Journal of Civil Engineering, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 139-151 Web.

Gibson, J & Farah, Z 2012,  Environmental Risks to Public Health in the United Arab Emirates: A Quantitative Assessment and Strategic Plan, Environmental health perspectives, vol. 120, no. 5, n. pag. Web.

Grizzle, R, Ward, K, AlShihi, R & Burt J 2015,  Current status of coral reefs in the United Arab Emirates: Distribution, extent, and community structure with implications for management, Marine Pollution bulletin. Web.

Harris, J 2013,  Desert dreams in the Gulf: transnational crossroads for the global elite, Race & Class, vol. 54, no. 4, pp. 86-99. Web.

Kaabi, H 2011, United Arab Emirates and the experience of a nuclear newcomer, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, vol. 67,no. 4, pp. 52-59. Web.

Tourenq, C & Launay, F 2008, Challenges facing biodiversity in the United Arab Emirates, Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal, vol. 19, no. 3, pp.283  304. Web.

Willis, H, Gibson, J, Shih, R, Geschwind, S, Olmstead, S & Hu, J 2010,  Prioritizing Environmental Health Risks in the UAE, Risk Analysis, vol. 30, no. 12, pp. 1842  1856. Web.

Abstract

The environment is the basic component that sustains human life on earth. Human beings are responsible for the conservation of the environment to ensure the sustainability of their livelihood. Environmental degradation has been a major threat to human livelihood in the last few decades. The world is currently experiencing increased global warming due to environmental degradation. Therefore, the sustenance of human living is at risk due to the increased temperatures, climatic changes, and rising sea levels. This paper looks into environmental sustainability concerning the current state and reversal logistics for a better environment in the future.

Introduction

In the contemporary world, there has been an outcry from different corners, calling for the conservation of the environment. In the past, scholars predicted the fatal consequences of environmental degradation caused by humans. Unfortunately, little was done to stop the degradation, and today the consequences are felt in different parts of the world. However, there is room for reversal by trying to conserve the environment. This observation underscores the great need for people to focus on improving the livelihood of future generations by conserving the environment.

Background Literature Review

The environment is defined as anything that forms a part of surrounding in peoples lives. However, studies focus on the aspects of nature that form a part of human livelihood. The aspects include water, soil, air, and vegetation. These four are the most crucial components of the environment that compliment human livelihood. All human activities are attached to the environment. Therefore, there is no livelihood or human development without the environment.

Water is the largest part of the physical environmental component in the world and a major element of the livelihood of every living thing. Water is needed for metabolism and as a habitat for livelihood. Therefore, water is a basic component of livelihood on earth. Besides, there cannot be human development without water. Water forms a basic component in economic development since it is a medium of transport, a construction component, and it is used as a coolant in machinery and other economic activities (Nhamo & Inyang, 2011). Additionally, it forms a critical component in supporting livelihood for aquatic animals, and thus it is a home for animals.

Water is essential for the growth and development of every living thing in the world. This aspect explains why there is no food without water. Plants rely heavily on water for their growth and development. On the other hand, animals rely on plants for food. Carnivores rely on animals that rely on plants for food. Hence, water supports the food chain, whereby, without water, there cannot be either plants or animals.

The soil is a crucial environmental component to human livelihood. Life without soil is unimaginable, and thus it should be conserved at all costs. Soil supports life by anchoring plants that provide food for animals. Moreover, soil forms a basic component for life support, whereby the right kind of soil is useful for the growth and development of plants in different environments. For instance, in wet highlands, there is a well-compacted soil structure to support vegetation as opposed to the deserts where there is sandy soil. Therefore, the soil is crucial for supporting livelihood here on earth. Soil also forms a crucial element for economic development. For instance, sand is used for construction purposes. Additionally, different kinds of soil determine the quality and nature of physical components that can be constructed at a given place.

Air is a crucial environmental component to the livelihood here on earth. There can be no life without air. Hence, it is the responsibility of every person to conserve the quality of air. Human activities are the main causes of pollutants that lead to air pollution. Air pollution is the most common cause of global warming that has caused problems for livelihood in the modern world. Therefore, there is a need to endeavor to ensure that air pollution is reduced effectively to cause a reversal shift in the situation.

Vegetation is one of the most crucial environmental elements. Vegetation cover comprises all forms of plant life in a given area. Vegetation cover provides essential requirements for livelihood. It provides food for living organisms. Some animals rely on plants for food in the direct form. On the other hand, other animals rely on animals that depend on plants for food. Therefore, such animals rely on plants for food indirectly. Besides, plants provide fresh air to the living animals as they take in carbon dioxide and produce oxygen in return. Moreover, plants provide a beautiful cover over the earth. Hence, vegetation forms a critical environmental component for the livelihood of all living things on earth.

Environmental Degradation

In the contemporary world, environmental degradation is the biggest challenge that people face in their daily lives. Human activities are the major cause of environmental degradation since people interfere with the natural environment. Consequently, the environment has its ways of fighting back, which are fatal for the livelihood of living things. As mentioned above, the environment comprises four main components that support livelihood. Other components, such as rocks and geological structures, form the physical nature of the environment. All of these components are vulnerable to human activities.

Human activities have different effects on every environmental component. First, water is prone to different forms of human activities. As mentioned earlier, water is essential for human livelihood. The three major forms of water pollution include industrial, urbanization, and farming activities. However, industrial activities are the worst forms of water pollution. For instance, there are high concentrations of industries in urban centers. Thus, large volumes of water are required for industrial activities. Water is used either as a raw material in the production or a basic coolant for the machinery. Consequently, industrial effluents are drained through water drainage systems as a disposal mechanism (Measham & Lockie, 2012).

These effluents find their ways into water sources, thus causing pollution. Polluted water is dangerous for the survival of living things. Numerous cases of pollution in the water ecosystem have occurred due to industrial activities that lead to the deaths of aquatic life. For instance, the leakage of oil in the Mexican Gulf led to the deaths of aquatic life. In most cases, industrial effluents are chemically charged, thus making them hard to purify before their disposal. Therefore, it seems very difficult to do effective waste management in industries.

Urbanization is another major cause of water pollution. In the contemporary world, urban areas are growing day by day due to the f rash carelessly, thus the massive movement of people relocating from rural to urban areas for job opportunities. Domestic waste is the greatest challenge that causes environmental pollution in urban areas. The majority of people in the population do not have proper etiquette for waste disposal. Therefore, they dispose of trash carelessly, thus causing heaps of wastes that are often difficult to clear. Domestic wastes cause water pollution by blocking drainage systems, thus creating pools of polluted water in the drainage systems, which is fatal for livelihood.

Farming is another major cause of water pollution in the contemporary world. Technological and innovation developments have led to new methods of farming where chemical products are highly used. In horticultural farming, farm chemicals are used extensively to control pests, weeds, and fertilizers. These chemicals take a long time to dissolve completely in the soil, and since watering is done to plants often, these chemicals are drained into the water sources. Thus, farming methods cause pollution in water ecosystems.

Second, as mentioned before, the soil is essential for the livelihood of human beings. However, human activities have direct effects on soil. Soil pollution has a direct effect on vegetation and water. Thus, soil pollution affects the environment in a greater way than it has always been perceived. Soil pollution largely occurs during construction and other human activities. For instance, road and railway construction affect the topsoil cover, whereby it is removed to create new structures and drainage systems. This move often leads to massive soil erosion that affects water ecosystems and vegetation cover. The long-term effects of soil pollution include desertification when plants die due to the poor quality of soil and massive soil erosion.

Urbanization affects the quality of the soil. Poor waste disposal causes pollution in soil, as is the case in the dumpsites that are found in the urban areas. Besides, farming activities affect the quality of soil whereby farm chemicals are used in huge volumes for a long time. This aspect is affecting the soil PH levels that determine the type of vegetation that grows well in that soil. Some farming methods affect the soil by making it prone to erosion. Industrial effluents also have adverse effects on the soil since most of them are chemically charged. Consequently, they interfere with the PH levels, and thus the quality of soil (Hyde & Reeve, 2011).

Third, air pollution is the leading form of pollution in the contemporary world. Air pollution is a global challenge since air has no boundaries, as opposed to other environmental components. The effects of air pollution are felt all over the world. Air pollution is caused mainly by industrial activities. Hence, the developed nations are the major causes of air pollution in the world due to heavy industrial activities. Air pollution leads to global warming, and thus changes in climate. Climatic changes have been experienced all over the world, whereby there are prolonged wet and dry seasons. Rising sea levels have been experienced in many parts of the world.

Air pollution has adverse effects on the livelihood of earth and in aquatic environments. The water cycle is affected negatively by air pollution whereby rainwater mixes with chemical molecules in the air and falls as acid rain. Acid rain affects the water and soil PH levels. The fatal effects of acid rain include the deaths of both plants and animals in water and on the land.

Fourth, vegetation is the most vulnerable environmental component to human activities and pollution. Forests are the worst hit by human activities. People like inhabiting areas that have a favorable climate for food supply and favorable temperatures. This aspect implies that natural forests are interfered with to make favorable habitats. The decrease in vegetation cover lowers the quality of air, thus increasing the global temperatures. The soil is left exposed and prone to erosion. Consequently, there is a vast growth in desertification in various parts of the world.

Findings and Reversal Logistics

Environmental Management

Environmental management and conservation are the only reversal mechanism that people have for the many environmental issues in contemporary times. Environmental resource management aimed at protecting and maintaining the ecosystem should be done for the sake of future human generations. Efforts have been made to address the issue, but little has been achieved. Developed nations are said to hamper these efforts by declining to implement strict measures that govern environmental management requirements to be met by the industrial sector.

The major cause of environmental degradation is the industrial activities that affect the quality of air by emitting gaseous wastes into the atmosphere. World climatic change conventions have been organized on numerous occasions in different parts of the world. Many agreements have been made for compelling governments to control their industrial sector to arrest environmental degradation menace. Despite the pressure from the international community, world economic leaders seem to lag behind in the implementation process.

However, environmental resource management is the responsibility of every human being for the sake of future generations. Civil societies are leading in the fight against environmental degradation, together with some individuals recognized by global awarding organizations for their efforts to conserve the environment. Civil societies try to compel governments to consider environmental conservation as a basic human right. In their submissions, the supporters of environment conservation hold that the government should regulate the industrial waste management by setting up minimum environmental requirements that should be met before issuing licenses to new business and the renewal of the existing ones (Marks, 2011).

Existing industries ought to improve in their environmental conservation by ensuring that gaseous wastes are well refined before they are emitted into the atmosphere. Additionally, industries should have disposal mechanisms for wastewaters to ensure that they do not find a way to natural water sources. This aspect would reduce water and soil pollution significantly, thus ensuring a better environment for future generations (Nhamo & Inyang, 2011).

Besides, civil societies are playing a major role in educating communities in developing nations on the need for environmental conservation. Developing nations have wide areas for forest covers, and efforts are made to reclaim deforested areas by planting tree seedlings. Governments have also been spearheading environmental campaigns as a means of encouraging the public to plant trees in public and private lands. This move would help significantly in reducing the adverse effects that are being experienced due to environmental degradation.

Conclusion

Environmental matters are pertinent issues to human livelihood in the contemporary world. The quality of life is highly dependent on the quality of the environment. Therefore, humanity should unite in the conservation of the environment to ensure sustainability. Human activities are major causes of environmental degradation, and thus the government should ensure that policies are in place to govern the adherence to environmental laws by industries and residences in urban centers and other areas of habitation. Civil societies and governments are spearheading environmental conservation awareness campaigns to ensure public participation as a way of ensuring quality and sustainable life for future generations.

References

Hyde, P., & Reeve, P. (2011). Essentials of Environmental Management. London, UK: IOSH Services Limited. Web.

Marks, R. (2011). China: Its Environment and History. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Web.

Measham, T., & Lockie, S. (2012). Risk and Social Theory in Environmental Management. Clayton, MO: Csiro Publishing. Web.

Nhamo, G., & Inyang, E. (2011). Framework and Tools for Environmental Management in Africa. Oxford, UK: African Books Collective. Web.

The Bhopal gas tragedy occurred on 3 December 1984 in the city of Bhopal, India. The plant had been designed to produce Carbaryl chemical, which is used as an insecticide. The cause of the tragedy became controversial and it provoked two distinct lines of debate.

One side believed that slack management was the cause of the disaster. Following poor sales at Bhopal in early 1980s, the corporate management responded by retrenching workers, and thus maintenance became poor and low-quality steel parts were favoured to cut on costs (DSilva, 2006). Due to accumulated decay and corrosion of pipes, water backflow into a tank containing Methyl Isocyanate (MIC) occurred, thus causing a chemical reaction.

The valves that had been designed to contain the resulting pressure had accumulated rust, which catalysed the reaction. The contents of the tank exploded, hence flooding the city of Bhopal with a mixture of hazardous gases. In addition, following earlier leaks and even complaints from local authorities and trade unions, the companys management failed to take constructive measures to address the issues.

Therefore, corporate negligence, lack proper skills, and poor attitude towards safety were major additions to the cause of the incident (Eckerman, 2005). On the other side, some people blame sabotage from workers as the cause of the accident. This argument holds that the MIC tank was watertight, and thus impossible for water to penetrate without human effort.

Conclusions were made that a malicious worker with the knowledge of the Bhopal plant directed pipe water into the tank. However, earlier leaks, claims of underinvestment in safety measures, and allowing substandard inputs to save on costs provided a clear link to a possible disaster.

If the corporate management had taken safety measures to respond to the sudden addition of water to the MIC tank, the disaster would have minimal impacts. The Bhopal gas disaster had numerous effects on the population of India, both direct and indirect.

The mixture of gases that was released into the environment was inhaled by the nearby residents most of whom succumbed to death due to choking, pulmonary difficulties, and stomach pains (DSilva, 2006). The long-term effects included stillbirths, respiratory problems, and economic downfall since fish and other agricultural activities were suspended unconditionally due to environmental contamination of soil and groundwater (Eckerman, 2005).

Lack of proper and sufficient safety measures facilitated the impact since the health care system was overstretched. The response measures by both the government and the company indicated lack of proper joint contingency plans to deal with such incidents. Most hospital-based services for gas-related victims were established after the incident.

The Bhopal Company took quick measures by establishing the employees relief fund to assist the victims. With the partnership of the government, the company conducted clean-up exercise at the site to control any further damage (DSilva, 2006). As much as the local government might have overlooked some of the crucial factors adding to the disaster, the main blame goes to the management of the company.

With the knowledge of the kind of chemicals that the company was handling and the previous cases of accidents happening within the company, the management should have had constructive contingency plans to reduce the risks of such a tragedy. In conclusion, improving safety, disaster management programs, and evaluating measures that assist in minimising impacts of such incident can help to reduce or prevent effects of disasters like the Bhopal tragedy.

References

DSilva, T. (2006). The black box of Bhopal: A closer look at the worlds deadliest industrial disaster. Victoria, BC: Trafford Publishing.

Eckerman, I. (2005). The Bhopal Saga: Causes and Consequences of the Worlds Largest Industrial disaster. Hyderabad, India: Universities Press.

Summary

In the article For Locusts, Overgrazed Land Is a Treat Main explores the threat posed by locust to farmers. The article points out that in the year between 2003 and 2005, swarms of locust destroyed crops in West Africa thus causing a harvest loss estimated at $ 2.5 billion. According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, about $400 million was used to bring the locust menace under control. Usually, it takes time for a community to recover from a locust invasion even after the attack has been contained and without warning, the locust may invade again eating every plant they get (Main, 2012).

Main tells a story of Arianne Cease, a Peace Corps volunteer who witness a terrible locust invasion while working in Senegal. Cease was so frustrated to witness the subsistence farmers setback caused by the locust that she decided to change careers. At Arizona State University, she enrolled for a doctoral program in order to study and understand locusts better. Ceases objective according to Main was to have a deeper understanding about the diet and ecology of Chinese grasshoppers, scientifically known as Oedaleus asiaticus (Main, 2012).

Ms. Cease went about studying this grasshopper species nutritional requirement by keeping them in two separate outdoor sections. One section or plot was well fertilized while the other was grazed heavily by sheep. The former plot which was heavily fertilized contained plants that were rich in nitrogen which is a nutrient element required for protein synthesis while the latter plot contained vegetations that were nitrogen deficient (Main, 2012).

In her study, Cease found that grasshoppers fed on nitrogen deficient vegetation thrived well by having high survival frequency rate and growing faster than those fed on nitrogen rich vegetations. These findings were contrary to Ceases and other researchers expectations. These findings linked land overgrazing to the emergence of grasshopper swarms. This study therefore revealed that this grasshopper species prefer nitrogen or protein deficient vegetations as compared to other species. These findings challenged the popular argument that grasshoppers are limited by nitrogen or protein levels in plants. To confirm these findings, Cease performed lab experiments (Main, 2012).

Main asserts that reducing nitrogen content of the grass through grazing provides insects with a better niche to increase and form swarms. Elser, a co-author of this study opines that knowledge of this relationship is essential in improving land management practices that can lead to locusts menace reduction. These practices may include, practicing animal grazing rotations or fertilizing vegetations to prevent grasshoppers from multiplying. Although according to Elser, this approach may not be ideal due to the worlds concern over nitrogen surface runoff from fertilizers, it is preferable to the careless insecticide spraying which might not be effective during locust outbreaks (Main, 2012). Adult grasshoppers in a day are known to eat a mass equivalent to their weight in plant mater and a small swarm can eat a vast land of plants. Although preventive measures have improved over the years, early intervention measures are necessary.

Similarity

The article is similar to the class lecture on ecology since it explores the balance be various components of the ecosystem. The article highlights the relationship between locust species and their impact on plants population. The different aspects of species population, community ecosystem and habitat are brought to the fore through a critical consideration of locust and plant relationship. The vegetations or plants which are eaten by locusts represent the producers of the ecosystem while the locusts represent the consumers. The over-dependence on plants by grasshoppers is studied and from the harvest loss estimated into billions, it is evident that the locusts are a threat to the habitat.

From this article, the difference between species, population, habitat and ecosystem is brought out clearly. The kind of relationship depicted is predation since the locusts attack vegetation yet the vegetation does not benefit in any way. The reproduction and nutritional behavior of grasshoppers was studied and it revealed that they thrived well in nitrogen deficient plants. Although not all aspects of an ecosystem are highlighted in this article, the producers which supports all other aspects is depicted to be in danger of extinction Like in any ecosystem, a system of conservation is required in order to balance the various components of the ecosystem. This serves to protect one or more component from overdependence by another. The researchers point that land conservational practices that might reduce grasshopper swarms in order to avoid overdependence on plants are necessary.

The article can thus be said to highlight the dangers of overdependence of one species by another and if conservational measures are not taken in time, the species is in danger of extinction. It is with the knowledge that the article shows measures that were taken to curb the locust invasion. In West Africa, the locusts are estimated to have caused harvest loss of at least $ 2.5 billion and a further $400 million to bring the locust threat under control.

Reference

Main, D. M. (2012). Environment. Retrieved 2012, from The New York Times. Web.

Introduction

Bonding has been deemed an effective financial assurance mechanism in promoting environmental conservation. It helps reduce the devastating effects of economic activities by fostering long-term risk management of potentially destructive goings-on that can have adverse effects on nature. Environmental bonds (EB) seek to deter potentially damaging practices, particularly industrial activities, by imposing costs that the pollutant companies incur through the purchase of assurances. This paper provides an insight into the utilization of environmental bonds as a mechanism for addressing environmental issue risks.

Environmental Challenges addressed by Environmental Bonds

Different industrial activities have damaging impacts on the environment. Some of the adverse effects have been empirically shown to have large-scale and long-term global effects. Environmental bonds serve as a proactive tool utilized to regulate the activities of pollutants with a view of reducing or eliminating the adverse effects they have on the environment (Gerard & Wilson 2009). Polluters are required to demonstrate commitment to the placement of funds as a surety that their actions will not cause damage to the environmental ecosystems. This financial responsibility or bonding requirements restricts polluters to sustainable economic activities (Hagendorff et al. 2014). The funds serve as a compensation scheme towards any damages that can arise shortly. The environmental bonds focus on the activities that pose large-scale threats to the global ecosystem. Both scientific and regulatory interests of the financial assurance mechanisms seek to ensure that the creators of industrial pollutants take full responsibility for their actions by monitoring dangerous emissions. The dominating problems addressed by the EB include greenhouse gas emissions such as carbon dioxide, oil spills, solid landfills, hard rock mining, and nuclear emissions (Gerard & Wilson 2009).

Examples of Environmental Bonds

Assurance Bonds

One of the most actively utilized approaches to reducing adverse environmental impacts is the assurance bonds. This form of bond applies to cases where environmental risks can be completely eluded. They are also essential where the restoration of the environment to its original condition following a destructive economic activity is possible (Costanza & Perrings 1990). A notable example of an assurance bond is the rehabilitation financial mechanisms utilized by most contractors in the United States. The surety bond ensures that the existing contract progresses even after the servicer breaches the agreement. In the US, such bonds are offered under the Small Business Administration (SBA) initiative that aims at promoting small and/or emerging firms (Hagendorff et al. 2014). Before the commencement of work, the DPI requires the operators to provide the rehabilitation bonds. In that case, the department undertakes the reinstatement tasks if the operators fail to meet the agreed obligations ((DPI 2010). For instance, operators conducting a resource activity are required to pay financial assurance to cover the risks that can occur to prevent or minimize the harm by rehabilitating the original state of the environment after the completion of the activity. It is worth noting that the full amount of the assurance bonds is refundable by the DPI given that the operator meets the stipulated rehabilitation requirements (DPI 2010).

Insurance Bonds

This approach, sometimes called the CAT Bonds, encompasses a risk-sharing strategy with the insurance firm (Hagendorff et al. 2014). The operator pays a premium to the assurance firm that in turn reinsures it at a Special Purpose Insurance (SPI) company. The SPI firm in turn issues publicly traded CAT bonds that, just like the assurance bonds, are refundable to the operator only if the harm does not occur before the maturity date of the bonds. CAT Bonds are appropriate for spreading the investors risks (Hagendorff et al. 2014). According to Coval, Jurek, and Stafford (2009), public trading attracts higher than the average returns. Furthermore, with the CAT bonds direct access to the capital markets, costs can go far beyond the financial capacity of both the operating and insurer firms. For this reason, CAT bond systems have been on a rigorously growing trend since 2005 (Hagendorff et al. 2014). They have been applied in covering pollution that is triggered by natural disasters such as landslides, tornadoes, and earthquakes.

Incentive Bonds

Environmental Incentive Bonds (EIB) offer monetary-related incentives to operators for causing a lesser amount of environmental pollution (US Environmental Protection Agency 2001). The approach is meant to motivate the polluters to reduce the harmful activities that affect the environment adversely. The operators who cause more pollution are obliged to pay more. The costs imposed on the polluters include those involved in the tradable permits and pollution charges. Incentive-based instruments can also be easily applied to control household polluters that are less controlled in most cases (US Environmental Protection Agency 2001). The incentive bonds are more effective as compared to the traditional environment regulations. This approach is mostly utilized in developing countries that are deemed more effective.

Substitute Market-Oriented Mechanisms

Various substitute market-oriented initiatives seek to alleviate risks that investors pose to the environment. Hacket (2011) reveals that the most common mechanisms based on the market are the Property Rights Systems (PRS) and Allowance-Trading System among others.

Marketable Tradable Allowance System (MTAS)

The Marketable Tradable Allowance System (MTAS) is a suitable alternative approach to the financial assurance mechanisms that can deal with the menace of polluters. They are a form of MBIs that are aimed at reducing the overall level of emissions (Hackett 2001). Policymakers aim at maximizing the growth of the economy by managing the environment to reduce costs. The MTAS help in evaluating the accrued level of harmful releases to the environment (Jaffe, Ranson, & Stavins 2009). A good example is the Acid Rain Programme (ARP) that has established systems to monitor the amount of pollutants released with a view of imposing equivalent penalties to companies that surpass the minimum thresholds of harmful emissions. The MTAS provides the operators with incentives to install environmentally friendly technologies that can help minimize the emission levels (US Environmental Protection Agency 2009). Nevertheless, the MTAS has one important limitation. Steven Hackett (2001) reveals that whilst the allowance program seeks to reduce the quantity of emissions in its endeavors to reduce the overall compliance costs, it fails to offer the best type of technologies that operators can use to achieve the desired results.

Subsidies, Loans, and Grants

The MTAS plays an active role in the mitigation of environmental risks through offering subsidies, loans, and grants to the operators of green investments. This role of the government can be extended to motivate the operators to invest in environmentally friendly technologies. Additionally, it can promote voluntary compliance with the regulations (Hackett 2001). For instance, the US government funds of up to fifteen million dollars at affordable interest rates to investors in an attempt to encourage property owners to initiate clean-up operations in pollution sites. It can also offer grants to meet the clean-up costs of the operators. The US government covers approximately 75% of the aggregate clean-up costs (US Environmental Protection Agency 2001).

Benefits and Shortcomings of the Environmental Bonds

Benefits of the Environmental Bonds

The EB has notable benefits over other approaches. Given that the firms cannot cause any environmental damage, the EB has been deemed more appropriate than other approaches such as tax collection and quantity restriction.

Increased Efficiency

The EB strategy augments the efficiency of the organizations operations. According to Shogren, Herriges, and Govindasamy (1992), perfect and close monitoring of the environmental bonds can result in desirable results regarding pollution of the environment. Given the monetary value of the bonds that the firms incur when their activities result in pollution, they will undoubtedly put the necessary efforts to evade such costs. The ultimate effect of such efforts is observable in a cleaner environment. In most cases, the assurance bonds are forfeited if the firm faults by causing pollution (Shogren, Herriges, & Govindasamy 1992).

Promoting Research Incentives

The environmental bonds initiatives offer research incentives in a bid to determine the value of the environmental damages that their activities cause. This notion not only shifts the burden of the valued proof of the environmental damage from the public to the firm but also acts as an incentive for the firm to indulge in deeper research and development. The firm looks for alternative technology that can elude the pollution of the environment in an attempt to evade the costs associated with the environmental bonds. Besides, the EB is a tool that motivates the firms to research the value of environmental degradation. The value registration obtained through the R&D can serve as a framework for evaluating aggregate effects on the environment to forecast suitable alleviation methods shortly. Indeed, Gerard and Wilson (2009) reveal that the EB is an effective tool that intensifies the responsibilities, awareness, and innovation of the involved organizations.

Disadvantages of Environmental Bonds

Despite the aforementioned benefits, the EB is associated with some disadvantages. According to Gerard and Wilson (2009), the main drawbacks of the EB include liquidity constraints and moral hazards.

Liquidity Constraints

According to Gerard and Wilson (2009), a liquidity constraint is a major limitation of the EB. Firms do not always have enough capital to post bonds that sometimes attract exorbitant costs. Given the escalating value of the environmental bonds in the past decade, most firms are faced with financial challenges that can constrain their assets. This situation is likely to force the firms unable to post bonds to drop the intended projects despite their beneficial potentials. This notion can hinder investment; hence, it can lead to the closure of the firm. Also, the concern for liquidity constraints can restrict new entry into a market due to the high costs of the environmental bonds (Shogren, Herriges, & Govindasamy 1992).

Moral Hazard Issue

The chief seller of bonds in every country is the government that is also the regulatory agency for the environment. While bonds can act as incentives for firms to participate in more research and development, they can also deter firms from investing. This case applies to multinationals (MNCs) that seek to invest in foreign countries. The regulator of bonds can sometimes tend to pursue self-interests such as taking away partial or complete part of the pledges even when the firms have not damaged the environment. This deviation of the government agency from the social welfare can scare away potential foreign direct investments (FDIs) as they fear losing a part or all the bonds posted.

Conclusion

The Environmental Bonds (EB) is a mechanism utilized by government agencies to help mitigate the risks posed by polluters. The paper demonstrates how the environmental bonds can be applied in creating environmental awareness by making the creators of pollutants take responsibility in the form of costs. In the light of this knowledge, various types of EB including assurance, insurance, and incentive bonds have been used to mitigate environmental pollution. The financial mechanisms can achieve notable results in environmental awareness and sustainable economic activities. However, they can cause undesirable effects in situations where they hinder investment through liquidity constraints and hazard issues to the firms and countries involved.

References

Costanza, R & Perrings, C 1990, A Flexible Assurance Bonding System for Improved Environmental Management, Ecological Economics, vol. 2 no. 1, pp. 57-75.

Coval, J, Jurek, J & Stafford, E 2009, Economic Catastrophe Bonds, American Economic Review, vol. 99 no. 1, pp. 628-666.

DPI 2010, Establishment and Management of Rehabilitation Bonds. Web.

Gerard, D & Wilson, E 2009, Environmental Bonds And The Challenge Of Long-Term Carbon Sequestration, J Environ Manage, vol. 90 no. 2, 1097-105.

Hackett, S 2001, Environmental and Natural Resources Economics: Theory, Policy and the Sustainable Society, M.E. Sharpe, New York, NY.

Hagendorff, B, Hagendorff, J, Keasey, K & Gonzalez, A 2014, The risk implications of insurance securitization: The case of catastrophe bonds, Journal of Corporate Finance, vol. 25 no. 1, pp. 387-402.

US Environmental Protection Agency 2001, The US Experience With Economic Incentives For Protecting The Environment, US EPA. Web.

US Environmental Protection Agency 2009, Acid Rain Programme SO₂ Allowances Fact Sheet, US EPA. Web.

Introduction

Aquatic habitats play a critical ecological role by supporting a rich biodiversity of plants and animals that live in them and the surrounding ecosystems. The intrinsic and monetary value associated with aquatic habitats makes them important resources in every society. For instance, they are sources of clean water and food. Furthermore most aquatic habitats normally support thousands of jobs in the tourism industry.

In this regard, they are used as cultural centers, and recreational facilities. Environmental and resource studies reveal that a significant number of aquatic habitats in the United States are likely to be lost in future. This is attributed to factors such as rapid increase in urbanization, high demand for water, overfishing and land use changes.

Nonetheless, most states have successfully implemented conservation measures to protect their aquatic resources. This paper sheds light on the geology, as well as, the types of habitats in the Trinity River. Furthermore, the management protocols of the river will be highlighted.

The Geology and Geography of the Trinity River

The Trinity River is one of the main water bodies in Texas. It flows from the northern part of Texas and covers approximately 710 miles. The river is made up of four tributaries which include the following. The West Fork begins in Archer County and flows towards the southeast part of Texas. It passes through Lake Bridgeport, Lake Worth and Eagle Mountain Lake.

The Clear Fork has its headwaters in Weatherford. It passes through Lake Weatherford and Benbrook Lake as it flows southeastward. The West and the Clear Fork merge in downtown Fort Wroth.

The Elm Fork begins in Gainesville and joins the West Fork in Dallas. The East Fork also joins the other three tributaries in Dallas, from which they form the Trinity River. The map of the river and its tributaries is shown in figure 1 in the appendix.

The hydrology of the Trinity is characterized by seasonal variations in the volume and flow of water. A significant decline in water volume normally occurs between August and October. However, little variation on daily flow is often observed during this season. The highest daily flows normally occur between January and June. This season is also characterized by the largest daily fluctuations in water volume.

Generally, the lowest stream discharge and flow variations can be observed from July to October. The largest daily fluctuations and flow rates can be observed from March to May. A sharp increase in water volume and flow rates normally causes floods in the Trinity basin. Furthermore, it leads to an increase in the rivers capacity to carry and transport sediments along its course.

The seasonal variations in the flow rates and water volume greatly affect the biodiversity of plants and animals living in the Trinity basin. Concisely, the variation affects the components of the habitats in the river. Additionally, it influences the nesting behavior of animals such as fish and the growth of plants.

For instance, when floods occur, the plants that grow along the river bank are likely to be destroyed. In contrast, these plants often wither when the rivers water volume reduces. Increased flow rates facilitate rapid transportation of nutrients which benefits the downstream plants and animal community.

Connectivity from the Trinity River to the adjacent oxbow lakes and wetlands greatly depends on the water volume and the flow rates. For instance, navigation and boat riding along the river is relatively easier and safer when the flow rates are stable. An increase in the rivers capacity to transport sediments causes an increase in fluvial processes such as bank erosion, transportation of water pollutants and weakening of channel stability.

Over the years, the hydrology of the Trinity River has significantly changed due to the construction of several dams and reservoirs. These structures usually trap sediments and reduce the flow rates. Consequently, little water flows downstream. However, the dams play a fundamental role in stabilizing the flow of water along the Trinity River. This has helped to reduce occurrences of flush floods along the basin.

Types of Habitats

The Trinity River basin consists of both man-made and natural habitats. The main habitats along the basin include the following. First, there are several lakes along the basin. These include Lake Bridgeport, Lake Worth, Lake Livingston, Eagle Mountain Lake, Lake Weatherford and Benbrook Lake. These lakes were formed after several dams and reservoirs were constructed along the Trinity River.

Thus, the lakes depend on the river and its tributaries for water supply. The lakes are home to thousands of different species of aquatic plants and animals. They also support the animals that live in the surrounding ecosystems by providing them with water and food. For instance, some species of birds such as vultures normally eat the fish from these lakes. Second, there are several floodplains along the river.

These plains consist of fertile land which supports the growth of indigenous trees and other plant species. Figure 2 shows part of the rivers floodplains and the plants that thrive in it. The Trinity River exhibits a low flow rate and little variability in water volume along the floodplains. This is attributed to the relatively flat topography of the plains which causes a lot of meandering in the rivers course.

The resulting reduction in flow rate ensures that the plant nutrients in the floodplains are not rapidly washed away. Additionally, the reduction in water volume fluctuation ensures that the plants have a stable supply of water throughout the year. The floodplains typically consist of plants that require a lot of water to survive. Such plants are hardly destroyed by sharp increases in water supply during floods.

Third, there are numerous forests and grasslands in the Trinity River basin. The grasslands cover approximately one percent of the basin and provide a suitable ecosystem for wildlife. Much of the grassland has hardly been destroyed by wildfires or human activities. Consequently, they have changed to shrub-fields and forests. Pine forests are also found along the Trinity River as it leaves Dallas.

Additionally, there are bottomland hardwood forests towards the southern part of the river. Figure 3 shows part of the bottomland forests in the Trinity River basin. These forests are not only habitats for various plant species, but also different animal and bird species. Empirical studies reveal that the acreage of forests along the Trinity basin has severely reduced in the last two decades.

The reduction is mainly attributed to human activities such as farming and residential developments which increase pressure on the limited land. Fourth, the Trinity River basin has a coastal plain that is made up of several oxbow lakes, sloughs, wide valleys, as well as, backwater tributaries. The lakes and tributaries found in this area host numerous fish species and aquatic plants.

Fifth, there is a delta region along the southeast part of the river. The delta consists of a wide valley and several streams which stem from the Trinity River. Finally, spawning habitats exists at various locations along the river. Most of these habitats are found between the Lewis Dam and the Dutch Creek. Spawning habitats are important since they provide a safe haven where fish and other aquatic animals can breed.

Biodiversity of Plants and Animals

The plants and animals that survive in the habitats found along the Trinity include the following. To begin with, numerous fish species are found in the Trinity River and the associated aquatic habitats. The most common fish species include alligator gars, blue catfish, longear sunfish, largemouth bass, white bass and silverband shiner.

Alligator gars are found in parts of the Trinity which are characterized by low flow rates and shallow waters. The floodplains are their preferred breeding grounds. Alligator gars are also found in the oxbow lakes in the Trinity River basin. The blue catfish are migratory and tend to prefer open waters with strong current. Adult blue catfish are found in the main river, whereas, the juveniles mainly live in the tributaries.

The reservoirs found along the Trinity also hold a large stock of blue catfish. Recent studies indicate that the stock of blue catfish has been declining in the Trinity River due to pollution (IRNR, 2012). Longear sunfish is one of the most abundant fish species in the river. They are mainly found in the northern part of the Trinity.

Largemouth bass are found in the tributaries, backwater areas, as well as, the oxbow lakes. Finally, silverband shiner occupies the upper and the lower parts of the Trinity. The distribution of fish in the river is shown in figure 5 in the appendix. Apart from fish, the river is also home to crocodiles, hippopotamus and turtles.

The main types of plants found in the river include various species of algae, papyrus, fungi and hyacinth. The plants and animals have symbiotic relationships in which the animals feed on the plants, while the plants obtain nutrients from the animals wastes.

The grasslands consist of both native and non-native grass species. Figure 4 shows the grass and tree species in the grasslands. Currently, native grass species are facing the risk of extinction due to their increased use in hay production. Shrubs, cactus and thorn trees are also found in the grasslands. Numerous species of reptiles can be found in the grasslands. These include snakes, tortoises, alligators, salamanders and lizards among others.

Cobras and pythons are the main snake species found in this area. The bottomland forests consist of both native and exotic tree species. These include honey oaks, hickories, honey locust and cedar elm among others (IRNR, 2012). Most of these tree species face extinction since the rate at which they are harvested exceeds the rate at which new ones are planted.

The animals found in the forests include waterbucks, gazelles, antelopes, monkeys and snakes. Several species of insects can also be found within the forests. Approximately, 750 species of birds live in the bottomland hardwood forests. The most common species include eagles, weaverbirds, sparrows and owls. The flora and fauna that exist along the Trinity River basin can only survive if their habitats are well managed.

Management Protocol

The responsibility of managing the Trinity River squarely lies with the Trinity River Authority (TRA). This organization was formed in 1955 to provide services that facilitate provision of clean water to the residents of the Trinity basin. Thus, the main objective of TRA is to improve access to clean water. The management responsibilities of TRA include the following.

First, TRA spearheads the formulation and implementation of development master plans for the Trinity basin (TRA, 2012). These plans incorporate the ideas and concerns of all stakeholders in the Trinity basin. TRA is also responsible for assessing the demand for water in the region and planning for the expansion of the existing water supply system.

Second, TRA is the sponsor of federal water projects at the county level (TRA, 2012). In this regard, TRA is the agent through which the federal government channels funds to finance water projects. TRA develops budgets to help in allocating the funds to various projects. Finally, TRA provides utility services such as wastewater treatment on behalf of the state government (Texas).

The measures taken by TRA to improve water quality help in conserving the Trinity River and the living organisms that depend on it. The Trinity River Adaptive Management Working Group (TAMWG) also participates in the management of the river. Unlike TRA, TAMWG focuses on the conservation of the Trinitys wildlife species.

TAMWG facilitates the formulation of policies that help in conserving all wildlife species within the Trinity basin. In this regard, the group seeks policy and management advice from various stakeholders. It then reviews the advice and makes the final policy recommendations for wildlife conservation.

The residents of the Trinity basin are also expected to participate in the management process by restraining from any acts that interfere with water quality and survival of wildlife along the basin (TRIM, 2012). As stakeholders, the residents actively participate in the management of the basin by providing insights that inform conservation policies.

Ways of Improving Environmental Management

Effective management of the river will help in improving its water quality. This will lead to a reduction in parasites and incidences of diseases which threaten the survival of plants and animals in the river. Through sound management practices, the rivers floodplain capacity can be increased.

Consequently, it will be possible to avert the risks associated with floods such as destruction of animal and plant habitats, destruction of plants and animals and erosion of the river banks. Moreover, conserving the Trinity ecosystem will boost recreational businesses that depend on the river and its tributaries. In order to realize these benefits, the following measures can be taken.

To begin with, conserving the rivers water and the surrounding landscape requires a reduction of pollution. The agencies which are responsible for managing the river should actively participate in environmental conservation research projects. Through these projects, the agencies will be able to develop conservation measures that are commercially viable.

For example, discovery of cheap waste treatment procedures will significantly reduce the amount of raw sewerage that is being discharged into the Trinity. Once effective solutions have been developed, the agencies should collaborate with the local communities to implement the solutions.

This can be achieved through outreach programs which sensitize the citizens on the methods of reducing pollution (TRIM, 2012). Through close monitoring, it will be possible to detect cases of water contamination and destruction of the flora and fauna that depends on the Trinity. Consequently, it will be possible to take timely action to restore the ecosystem to the desired condition.

A legal framework should be put in place to facilitate implementation of the rules and regulations that govern the use of Trinity River. In this regard, effluent charges can be used to force polluters to internalize the damage costs of pollution. Since effluent charges are charged per unit of emission, they encourage firms to adopt technologies that reduce pollution. Transferable emission permits can also be used to promote conservation.

In this case, it will be in the interest of firms to reduce their emissions so that they can sell part of their pollution permits to less efficient firms. Finally, effective liability laws and property rights should be put in place. Property rights will promote good land stewardship among private land owners. Liability laws, on the other hand, will force polluters to pay monetary compensations to aggrieved parties.

Trinity Rivers plant and animal resources can be conserved through the following policies. Harvesting of fish and trees can be controlled through taxes which increase the cost of harvesting. In situations where taxes can not be used effectively, a total allowable harvest should be set. Thus, anyone who exceeds the set limit will be prosecuted. Finally, only licensed firms should be allowed to harvest any resource from the river.

Conclusion

The Trinity River is one of the most important water sources and wildlife habitat in Huston. The river is characterized with several types of habitats which include lakes, reservoirs, coastal plains, delta, grasslands, forests and floodplains. These habitats are home to numerous species of plants and animals. Some of the animals found in the habitats include fish, snakes, birds, turtles, waterbucks and antelopes among others.

The plants found in the basin include different species of trees, algae, fungi and hyacinth. Most of these species face the risk of extinction due to factors such as land use changes, water pollution, rapid urbanization and overharvesting.

This risk can only be averted if the Trinity basin is properly managed. Some of the measures that can help in conserving the basin include reducing pollution, controlled harvesting of fish and establishing a legal framework that facilitates enforcement of the rules and regulations that govern the use of the Trinity River.

References

Campbell, H., Mcllgurm, A., & Tsamenyi, B. (1997). Fishery Management, Environmental Protection and Trade Liberalization. International Journal of Social Economics, 24(3), 128-138.

Ghosh, A. (2008). Environmental Conservation. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Guillen, G., Wrast, J., & Ramirez, D. (2009). Ecological Overlay for the Trinity River for Support of Development of Instream Environmental Flow Recommendations. Houston: Trinity Water Authority.

IRNR. (2012). Habitat Restoration in the Middle Trinity River Basin. Web.

Isamat, E., Romos, B., & Falgarona, J. (2011). The Conservation of the Agrobiodiversity of La Garrotxa Volcanic Zone National Park. International Journal of Environmental Quality Management, 22(2), 233-249.

Kumar, S. (2009). Environmental Protection. New York: Wiley and Sons.

Tisdell, C. (2005). Economics of Environmental Conservation. New York: McGraw-Hill.

TRA. (2012). Our Mission. Web.

TRIM. (2012). Measures for Water Conservation. Web.

Yen, S., Boxall, P., & Admowicz, W. (2000). An Econometric Analysis of Donations for Environmental Conservation in Canada. Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 22(2), 40-45.

At the Gulf Coast Energy Summit in Biloxi, Mississippi, on March 12 of this year, Rick Santorum, when discussing the connection between energy and climate change, was quoted as saying the following about the increase in carbon dioxide: The dangers of carbon dioxide? Tell that to a plant, how dangerous carbon dioxide is.

Rick Santorums comments are true because as long as the world struggles to fight the menace of climate change, plants find it difficult to adhere to environmental rules and regulations. This means that many companies find it difficult to adapt other sources of fuel that are eco-friendly to run their machines due to excessive costs. For example, the use of electrical machines remains so expensive when compared to the use of machines powered by diesel. Therefore, regardless of knowing the effects of carbon dioxide on the environment, plants do not consider using environmentally friendly fuels to run their machines.

Organizations have goals that guide their operations and hence remain hesitant to invest in expensive machines meant to save the environment. For example, the use of electrical machines will raise their electricity bills, hence affecting their profitability. Rick Santorum was right when delivering his statement. In fact, the fight against climate change should involve all stakeholders to make an informed decision. This means that plants, which emit a lot of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, should be involved in finding a viable solution to climate change. These manufacturing plants should be given a chance to argue out the fear they have concerned with the use of energy that is environmentally friendly.

Plants should consider finding ways of minimizing or fully eliminating the amount of carbon dioxide they emit to the environment. Therefore, Rick Santorum knew exceedingly well that no matter how hard one tries to educate people on energy and the environment, the solution lies with plants. The reason behind this argument is the fact that plants are large-scale carbon dioxide emitters in any country. Diesel is a cheap source of energy, and this is the reason plants rely on it for their production. Therefore, despite the dangers associated with carbon dioxide emission, plants find it cheap to continue using diesel, hence maximizing their profits.

In a March 12th speech to supporters in Tennessee, Newt Gingrich commented on the governments energy policy saying The President said we have to be practical. Drilling wont solve it. And then he offered his practical solution. Does anybody here remember what it was? Algae. Algae. I mean I think this summer as gas prices keep going up, one of our campaign techniques should be to go to gas stations with jars of algae and say to people would you rather have the Gingrich solution of drilling and having more oil or would you like to try to put this in your gas tank.

Newt Gingrichs comment about the governments energy policy was ironic. This is because the governments policy was concerned with adopting other forms of fuel to contain fuel shortages. In fact, there is nothing one can do by asking people to abandon the use of diesel and adopt that algae fuels due to the rising prices of gas. The government and other stakeholders in the energy sector should come up with a strategy to grow algae to produce biodiesel. The project should be based on a strategic plan aimed at helping the country to have sufficient fuel. After the adoption of algae fuels, the state should then come up with ways of minimizing the number of fossil fuels in the country.

This is the best way of changing sources of fuel because with time stakeholders will be evaluating the proposed sources to know more about them. For example, algae fuel may have its disadvantages, which the government can only understand upon its use. There can be a monumental mistake where the government stops drilling crude oil and start investing in growing algae. In case of algae fuels become ineffective, the government may incur a lot of losses in the economy because production may come to a stall due to lack of fuel. Therefore, the government should try to integrate the new product into the market slowly.

This will give them time to evaluate its efficiency and highlight areas of weakness hence coming up with means of fostering improvements. In fact, the government should involve everybody in the economy in making such crucial decisions. This means that the government should seek information from various stakeholders in the economy regarding the new source of fuel.

At present, many species of plants and animals are in direct danger of extinction. As reported by The Economist (2022), this issue is particularly noticeable in the case of Sumatran rhinos, which are essential to the preservation of plants. Namely, seventy-nine known plants in Southeast Asia require to go through an animals digestive system to germinate, and Sumatran rhinos are the only species capable of this process regarding all local flora (The Economist, 2022). As a result, if the Sumatran rhinos become extinct, humanity might face a reduced variety of invaluable plants.

The experts suggest that other animal species might preserve the flora in Southeast Asia as well. However, Dr. McConkey and Dr. Campos-Arceiz conducted a comparative analysis of local fauna and found that Sumatran rhinos were irreplaceable (The Economist, 2022). Ultimately, other local animal species consume only fifty-seven plants in the region, indicating that more than twenty plants will also go extinct if humanity loses Sumatran rhinos.

Reference

The Economist. (2022). Save the rhino, save the plant. Web.

Introduction

Urbanization is the process in which an increasing proportion of an entire population lives in cities and the suburbs of cities (Wagner 24). Urbanization is considered to be one of the major outcomes of industrialization. The process of industrialization led to the use of inanimate sources of energy and new tools for production in the pre-modern world economy. Consequently, there were surpluses in the agricultural and industrial sectors of the world economy.

The producers had to look for markets to sell their surplus produce. This led to the development of marketplaces and small urban areas which eventually became centers of commerce and industrial production (Wagner 27). In this regard, urbanization can be described as the increase in human population in discrete areas, thereby causing a change in land use in favor of residential, commercial and industrial purposes. According to Warren, nearly half of the world population lived in urban areas in 2008 (105-106).

Moreover, 70% of the world population is expected to live in urban areas by the year 2050 (Warren 105-106). In the last three decades, cities and towns have become the main habitats of mankind due to social and economic changes. Even though urban centers cover less than 5% of the total land area on earth, they have significant ecological footprint (Malik and Grohmann 78).

This implies that any form of uncontrolled urbanization can have severe environmental effects. The rapid exhaustion of the worlds natural resources is mainly attributed to urban development. Thus, sustainable urbanization can only be achieved if the environmental effects of urban developed are reduced. It is against this backdrop that this paper discuses the approaches that can be used to achieve urban development with minimal harmful effects on the environment.

Causes of Urbanization

Before embarking on an in-depth discussion of how urbanization can be achieved in an eco-friendly manner, a brief explanation of its causes and effects is in order. By clearly understanding the causes of urbanization, city planners and environmentalist can formulate appropriate policies to alleviate the negative effects of urban development. In this regard, the following factors are the main causes of urbanization.

First, urbanization takes place as individuals, business entities and governmental organizations attempt to reduce the time and the financial resources that are spent in order to access basic services (Malik and Grohmann 53). Most governments often promote the development of urban centers in order to enable their citizens to access basic services such as education and healthcare.

Similarly, business organizations often provide services such as banking, transportation and consultancy in urban areas. Providing these services in urban centers is often cheaper than providing them in rural areas. This is because the consumers of these services are usually located in one area in the urban centers. Thus, reaching them is easier and cheaper.

Second, urbanization normally takes place as people migrate to cities and towns in search of economic opportunities. In most countries, the rural populations often relocate to cities in order to improve their socio-economic conditions. Most businesses that create well paying jobs are often located in urban centers.

Similarly, research and development centers are usually located in large urban areas where electricity, transport infrastructure, security and water are available. Thus, cities and towns tend to have more job opportunities than rural areas (Malik and Grohmann 54).

In this context, job seekers often migrate from the rural areas to the urban centers in order to find better jobs. In emerging economies, people normally relocate to urban centers in order to start or to improve their businesses. The rationale of this move is that the demand for commodities and consumer goods is always higher in urban centers than in rural areas. Consequently, conducting business in urban centers is more profitable than in rural areas.

Third, urbanization occurs due to rapid population growth in the rural areas. In the last decade, improved healthcare and nutrition has led to high fertility rates, especially, in the least developed countries. As a result, most developing countries lack adequate land in their rural areas to support agriculture or food production. Consequently, agricultural communities have had to move to cities and towns with the aim of finding alternative economic activities (Wagner 64).

In the twenty first century, modern governments have focused on constructing new cities in order to promote efficient use of the available land. Concisely, cities cover a small land area; however, they can accommodate thousands of people. In this regard, relocating rural populations to cities enables governments to access adequate land in their rural areas for food production.

Finally, urban centers are administrative units through which governments serve their citizens (Wagner 72). Most cities in Africa and Asia began as administrative units which acted as the local headquarters of their colonial masters.

After gaining independence, most African and Asian countries focused on providing administrative services such as security and registration of persons in urban centers. This system can still be seen in the contemporary society. Nearly every country in the world has a capital city which is essentially the headquarters of its government.

Environmental Effects of Urbanization

Cities and towns contribute over 70% of the greenhouse gases that are emitted in various parts of the world (Williams 217-232). Human activities such as manufacturing goods have significantly increased air pollution through the emission of greenhouse gases.

This problem has been exacerbated by the fact that water bodies and vegetation in most cities have lost their capacity to absorb the greenhouse gases. The environmental problems in urban areas have been on the rise due to the increased use of non-renewable sources of fuel for industrial production and transportation.

Affluence and consumerism have led to a high demand for consumer products across the globe, thereby increasing environmental pressures (Williams 217-232). In least developed countries, cities are characterized by uncontrolled development and rapid population growth. Consequently, the demand for housing and consumer goods has tremendously increased in these countries. Construction of new houses often leads to the destruction of the vegetation which is expected to absorb the greenhouse gases.

These gases are responsible for the climate changes that have been witnessed in different parts of the world. For example, natural calamities such as floods and landslides regularly occur in most cities. Apart from air pollution, most urban areas are characterized by high noise levels. The main sources of noise in these areas include aircrafts, industrial production and construction activities. The effects of high noise levels on city residents include sleep disturbance, stress, loss of hearing and increased anxiety.

Energy consumption in urban areas is one of the major causes of heat islands. Heat islands occur due to the fact that the rate at which rural areas radiate heat into the atmosphere is at least twice as high as the rate in cities (Warren 105-106). Thus, cities are warmer than rural areas because they are associated with high energy consumption and low heat radiation. The use of energy for purposes such as cooking, transportation and generation of electricity in urban areas is much higher than in rural areas.

For example, the per capita consumption of coal in Chinese cities is at least three times more than the consumption in rural areas (Li, Liu and McKinnell 354-364). Heat islands usually trap atmospheric pollutants, thereby causing cloudiness and fog. It also causes high precipitation, thunderstorms and hailstorms in cities. Empirical studies show that city residents are increasingly becoming vulnerable to disasters such as floods and landslides due to climate change.

Urban development also causes water pollution. Waste management is normally a serious challenge in large cities, especially, in the least developed countries. In these cities, untreated solid wastes are often disposed in dumpsites. Eventually, these wastes contaminate groundwater sources.

In some cases, industrial wastes are discharged directly into water bodies such as rivers and lakes. These pollutants normally contaminate water, thereby causing the death of aquatic animals such as fish (Williams 217-232). The use of water from the contaminated water bodies often cause diseases such as diarrhea in cities.

Finally, urban development usually interferes with the course of rivers and streams. Real estate developers prefer to construct houses along the coastline or river banks. These areas are attractive to most real estate developers due to their scenic features.

However, urban developments in these areas usually lead to the destruction of riparian vegetation and alteration of stream channels (Suileman, Aguda and Farinde 213-216). For example, the construction of a dam to supply water in an urban area can alter the hydrology of a river and cause destruction to physical habitats. The environmental effects of urbanization are expected to increase if remedial measures are not taken at the right time.

Urban Development and Environmental Conservation

The discussion on the causes and the effects of urbanization reveals two facts. First, urbanization is a very important phenomenon in the contemporary world because it drives economic development. In a nutshell, urban areas are characterized with better living conditions and economic opportunities than rural areas.

Second, urbanization is associated with severe environmental effects which threaten its sustainability. Consequently, city planners and environmentalists must formulate and implement policies that can facilitate sustainable urban development. In this regard, the following measures can be adopted in order to achieve sustainable urban development and to protect the environment.

Land Use Planning

Land use planning helps in determining present and future land use patterns in urban areas. The main role of land use planning is to facilitate sustainable consumption of environmental resources, development of infrastructure and maintenance of public health and safety (Suileman, Aguda and Farinde 213-216). In this context, development of infrastructure refers to the construction of facilities such as roads, schools and hospitals, as well as, the process of creating jobs.

Environmental resources include parks, watersheds, wetlands and rivers among others. Maintaining pubic health and safety involves taking measures that can help us to cope with the effects of natural disasters such as floods and tropical storms. Urban planners must give priority to the protection and sustainable exploitation of the available environmental resources. Protection of these resources must be given priority due to the following reasons.

First, the process of developing infrastructure and ensuring public health and safety mainly depends on the quality and accessibility of the available natural resources. Second, long term damage to the natural environment has already occurred due to past land use decisions. Additionally, these effects are likely to increase in the future (Simonis 919-928). Finally, the implementation of undesirable land use decisions will lead to more environmental damages.

The resulting imbalance in the ecosystem and loss of natural resources will pose a serious threat to human civilization. Environmental resources can be protected through the how to and the where to strategies. The use of these strategies is based on the premise that ecological vision must be incorporated in future development plans in order to achieve sustainable urbanization. The two strategies can be explained as follows.

The Where to Strategy

This strategy is essentially a selection process that enables urban planners to choose the best land for development (Simonis 919-928). This process ensures that areas of ecological importance are protected from urban development. The areas of ecological importance are essentially the places where the environmental resources that support various ecosystems are found.

The main objective of the where to strategy is to enable urban planners, developers and governmental agencies to identify the important environmental resources that require protection from development (Simonis 919-928). The resources can be identified through the acquisition of knowledge about the environmental conditions of the areas in which urban development is expected to take place.

A variety of ecosystems can be found in different urban areas. The land use decisions that are made in such areas determine the ability of various ecosystems to provide the goods and services that are needed by the human population. Thus, the need to acquire adequate information about the environmental resources in a place becomes apparent.

Such information can help urban planners to make the right decisions in regard to land use and development. The environmental information should describe the topography, geology, vegetation and the wildlife of the area (Malik and Grohmann 235). In order to understand this information, a comprehensive environmental inventory must be created.

This inventory is essentially a collection of data that highlights the attributes of the environmental resources that can be found in an area that is being considered for urban development. The information that is contained in this inventory must be taken into account when land use decisions are being made. For instance, real estate development or industrial operations must be prohibited in important areas such as watersheds.

The How to Strategy

The how to strategy is implemented after the ideal land for development has been identified. It helps planners and developers to identify the best approaches to urban development. The first step of this strategy is concerned with the identification of the measures that must be taken in order to protect essential environmental resources.

The second step is concerned with the identification of the types of developments on the available land that respect ecological diversity, environmental security, economic viability, human creativity and the sense of community (Simonis 919-928). In this stage, urban planners, developers and designers are expected to use different planning approaches and sustainability standards such as smart growth and new urbanism in order to achieve sustainable urbanization.

Protecting Environmental Resources

Environmental resources must be protected from development. The characteristics of the resources determine the measures that can be applied to protect them. Thus, development can be prohibited completely in some areas. However, controlled urban development can be allowed in some regions.

Empirical studies indicate that a slope range of between 0.05 to 3% is suitable for any type of urban development (Malik and Grohmann 315). A slope range of between 20% and 25% is suitable for the construction of houses, whereas a slope range of between 4% and 5% is ideal for road construction (Malik and Grohmann 317). Generally, a piece of land whose slope exceeds 12 degrees should not be used for urban development. This is because such pieces of land have a high risk of soil erosion.

Similarly, development should be prohibited on pieces of land that are made up of organic and clay soils due to the following reasons. First, clay soils are associated with drainage problems. Besides, rapid subsidence usually occurs in clay soils. These problems are attributed to the fact that clay soils usually shrink and swell when the soil moisture changes. Second, organic soils should not be used for development because they support various species of plants.

According to Williams, water resources such as streams and lakes can be protected through buffer requirements (217-232). A buffer refers to a transitional land between the natural resource and the land that is subject to development (Williams 217-232).

Generally, streams and wetlands can be adequately protected by a buffer of approximately 200 meters. However, areas that are prone to natural disasters such as floods should not be used for urban development. Similarly, areas that host endangered animal and plant species should not be used for urban development.

Types of Development

The demand for environmental resources is often influenced by the lifestyle factors of the human population. In this regard, individuals should adopt lifestyles that are in harmony with the environment. In a nutshell, individuals should be aware of the environmental implications of their choices of residential areas, energy sources and production technologies.

According to Simonis, controlled development on environmentally sensitive areas should be based on an individuals choice rather than regulation (919-928). This view is supported by Ogbonna, Amagabara and Ekere who assert that empowered and motivated communities are more likely to protect the environment than their regulated counterparts (71-88).

Resource Use in Urban Areas

Constructing compact cities whose infrastructure and facilities are well designed can help in reducing energy consumption by improving efficiency in transportation and production. The heat island effect is one of the major outcomes of high energy consumption in urban areas. There are several measures that can be used to control urban warming. Heat radiation in urban areas can be improved by changing the materials that are used to construct the roofs of buildings (Warren 105-106).

In addition, radiation can be improved by changing the spatial arrangement of buildings. Changing the materials is cost effective since it can be used on existing buildings. For instance, changing the materials that were used to construct the roof a building can eliminate the cost of constructing a new building. Generally, existing roof materials should be replaced with those that have high reflectivity.

Water consumption in urban areas can be reduced through measures that encourage exploitation of alternative water sources and reduction of water pollution. For instance, peak urban runoff can be reduced by constructing water detention ponds. Warren asserts that water detention ponds are beneficial since they eliminate the need to re-engineer city drainage systems in order to manage flash floods (105-106).

Moreover, the detention ponds prevent contaminated water from entering into water bodies such as lakes and rivers. A water detention pond with a large surface area can help in reducing the urban heat island effect through evaporation. Furthermore, the water in these ponds can be used for non-domestic purposes such as irrigating flower gardens in the urban areas. This leads to clean water conservation.

Urban Development and Environmental Conservation Policies

Sustainable urbanization must be based on effective policies that guide development and facilitate environmental conservation. In this regard, the government must collaborate with stakeholders such as developers, urban planners and city residents to formulate policies that guide urban development and conservation of the environment.

These policies are likely to be accepted by all stakeholders if they are formulated through consultation and consensus building initiatives. Moreover, the pubic must be sensitized on the regulations that govern urbanization in order to enhance compliance with the existing laws. The policies should specify the type and the scope of the development projects that are allowed in specific areas.

According to Warren, the type of development projects that are to be undertaken in an urban area must have the least harm on the existing ecological systems (105-106). In this regard, the choice of development projects should be informed by ethical considerations rather than pure economic rationality. Concisely, residential, commercial and industrial developments in urban areas must be regulated through policies that facilitate environmental conservation or protection.

Urban development policies must be used in conjunction with environmental conservation policies. The main objective of environmental protection policies is to control the behaviors that contribute to pollution and destruction of natural resources. Empirical studies indicate that nearly all governments have laws that promote or encourage environmental conservation.

However, most of these policies or regulations have failed to achieve their objectives. This failure is attributed to factors such as poor enforcement, loopholes in the environmental laws, ineffective judicial systems and corruption. In some cases, the high cost of monitoring the activities of urban development agencies discourages the governments from enforcing conservation laws (Sexena, Srivastava and Samaddar 308-323).

In response to this failure, Warren argues that conservation laws or policies should be based on the market system rather than government intervention (105-106). This means that the market system should give urban developers the incentive to undertake environment-friendly projects. Moreover, protecting the environment should not compromise urban development.

Thus, environmental regulation should be based on the principle that polluters pay expenses, while cleaners make a profit (Sexena, Srivastava and Samaddar 308-323). In this context, developers, producers and city residents are considered to be the polluters whose activities result into undesirable environmental outcomes. The cleaners, on the other hand, are the companies that are responsible for cleaning the environment in order to restore it to its pre-pollution condition.

The developers demand cleaning services such as the disposal of the debris which are produced at construction sites or treatment of industrial waste. The pollution purification services are supplied by the cleaners. The price paid by the polluters for the cleaning services is proportional to the amount of emission or waste that is released into the ambient environment.

Consequently, the market forces of demand and supply will help in setting the optimum price and level of pollution. In this case, the polluters will have the incentive to minimize pollution in order to reduce their expenditure on cleaning services. In some cases, the polluters are given the option of either cleaning the environment or paying the tax equivalent.

According to Wagner, pollution can be reduced significantly through these market based interventions (79). This premise is based on the fact that market based interventions give polluters the incentive to invest in technologies that promote efficiency and reduce pollution. Additionally, implementing them requires little intervention by the government. Thus, their implementation is cheap and easy.

Recent studies show that solid waste in urban areas can be reduced by privatizing environment-related industries. Such industries are made up of companies that engage in garbage disposal and treatment of solid wastes. Privatization helps in improving the efficiency and productivity of these companies. In developing countries where local governments and municipal authorities lack the capital to clean the environment, private companies should be allowed to provide the cleaning services (Ogbonna, Amagabara and Ekere 71-88).

Similarly, promoting foreign direct investments in the environment-related industries can facilitate improved waste management in developing countries. For instance, multinational companies that focus on energy production can transform the solid wastes into electricity. In this case, the benefit will be two fold. First, the country will benefit from a clean and reliable supply of energy. Second, the solid wastes will be eliminated in a cost effective manner.

The Role of Technology

Sustainable urban development can be achieved through efficient technologies. In particular, the technologies used in construction, transportation and production must focus on efficient use of the available resources (Keirstead 6-19). Similarly, they must focus on reducing reliance on non-renewable energy sources such as oil (Song, Wang and Jie 5-14). In this regard, there should be a shift from the use of oil propelled cars to hybrid and electric cars.

Additionally, efficient trains should be used in order to reduce pollution in major cities. Advanced construction technologies should be used to build high-rise apartments in order to reduce the pressure on the land that is available for development. Furthermore, destruction of vegetation and physical habitats can be reduced by replacing bungalows with high-rise apartments.

Food consumption in urban areas tends to be higher than in rural areas. Consequently, most countries have adopted a mechanized agricultural production system in rural areas in order to meet the demand for food in their urban centers. Even though mechanization has tremendously improved food production, it has also created new challenges in the urban areas.

This is because mechanized agriculture often exacerbates the problem of unemployment in the rural areas. The surplus labor often migrates to the urban areas in order to find alternative economic activities (Malik and Grohmann 211). This form of uncontrolled rural-urban migration is one of the major causes of informal settlements in cities and towns. This problem can be addressed by promoting labor-intensive farming and food production in the rural areas (Simonis 919-928).

This policy is likely to be effective in overpopulated countries such as China and India where availability of cheap labor can facilitate high food production. Improving food production in the countryside through labor-intensive agriculture has two benefits. First, there will be adequate food for both the urban and the rural populations. Second, the quality of life will improve in the countryside. The resulting reduction in rural-urban migration will slow the rate of urbanization and its negative effects on the environment.

Conclusion

Urbanization is the process through which an increasing number of a countrys citizens relocate to urban areas such as cities and towns. Urbanization has significantly increased in the last three decades due to rapid industrialization in the contemporary world economy. Generally, individuals relocate to urban areas in order to improve their standards of living. Furthermore, urban areas have become centers of commerce, industrial production and innovation (Malik and Grohmann 114).

Most governments provide their administrative services in urban areas in order to reduce costs. Despite these benefits, urbanization has caused severe environmental problems such as pollution, destruction of vegetation and depletion of natural resources. The negative effects of rapid urbanization can be addressed through policies that help us to identify the ideal places for urban development, and the type of projects that should be undertaken in the identified areas.

Furthermore, governmental agencies must formulate policies that promote urban development without jeopardizing environmental conservation efforts. In a nutshell environmental considerations must be taken into account in the process of development in order to achieve sustainable urbanization. This can be achieved by minimizing the effects of urban development on the environment.

Works Cited

Keirstead, Ames. Applying Service Niche Indicators to Londons Energy System. International Journal of Environmental Quality Management 1.4 (2010): 6-19. Print.

Li, Baizhan, Meng Liu and Ken McKinnell. Impact of Urbanization on Building Energy Consumption and the Role of BEE Design Codes in China. Property Management 24.3 (2006): 354-364. Print.

Malik, Abdul and Elisabeth Grohmann. Environmental Protection Strategies for Sustainable Development. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008. Print.

Ogbonna, Daniel, George Amagabara and Tom Ekere. Urban Solid Waste Generation in Port Harcourt Metropolis and its Implications for Waste Management. International Journal of Environmental Quality Management 18.1 (2007): 71-88. Print.

Sexena, Susan, Richard Srivastava and Anthony Samaddar. Towards Sustainable Municipal Solid Waste Management in Allahadad City. International Journal of Environment Quality Management 21.3 (2010): 308-323. Print.

Simonis, Udo. Greening Urban Development: on Climate Change and Climate Policy. International Journal of Social Economics 38.11 (2011): 919-928. Print.

Song, Malin, Shuhong Wang and Yang Jie. Will Environmental Logistics be Promoted by Changing Industrial Structure? International Journal of Supply Chain Management 17.1 (2012): 5-14. Print.

Suileman, Abdul-Azeez, Akinola Aguda and Tajudeen Farinde. Spatio-Temporal Assessment of Urban Growth of Medium-Size and Nodal Towns for Sustainable Management. International Journal of Environmental Quality Management 24.1 (2012): 213-216. Print.

Wagner, Luca. Urbanization: 21st Century Issues and Challenges. London: Oxford University Press, 2008. Print.

Warren, Clive. Heat Islands: Understanding and Mitigating Heat in Urban Areas. Property Management 30.1(2012): 105-106. Print.

Williams, Peter. Managing Urbanization and Environmental Protection in Australian Cities: Approaches for Integrating Biodiversity and Urban Growth in Sydney. International Journal of Law in the Built Environment 4.3 (2012): 217-232. Print.

Offshore oil drilling refers to a process of drilling a wellbore through a seabed to explore and produce natural oil and gas that lie in the rock formations beneath the earths crust. The process of extracting oil and natural gas beneath the seabed requires different types of facilities to explore oil beneath the seabed (Russell 2009). Oil deposits can be found within the Earths crust by drilling through buried oil deposits. Reaching the buried oil deposits beneath the Earths crust is a very dangerous task. However, if the process is done correctly, it can result into huge economic gains. In spite of the gains, offshore oil drilling is associated with many challenges from the extracted hydrocarbons and the materials and equipments used during the off shore drilling process.

There are conflicting issues associated with offshore oil drilling in North Carolina (2010 Offshore Oil Drilling Legislation 2012). For example, environmentalists have raised issues concerning the dangers that are associated with oil spills in the Gulf of Mexico that presented numerous complications to the offshore drilling operations in North Carolinas coast. Before conducting offshore oil drilling, the site must first be identified as a prerequisite; the oil deposits are identified by surveyors through a process that maps the magnetic properties to discover the presence of oil deposits beneath the ocean floor. In order to conduct offshore oil drilling, environmental impact assessment must be carried out in order to identify the potential detrimental impacts and to provide solutions to mitigate the possible detrimental impacts and to enhance the beneficial effects associated with offshore oil drilling.

The process of offshore oil drilling is done by connecting the drill site to a platform with a marine raiser. The actual processing of the crude oil to a refined finished product is done onshore. There are many factors that are associated with offshore oil drilling that causes detrimental effects to the environment. For instance, offshore oil drilling is associated with various environmental impacts ranging from the actual point of locating the oil deposits to the processing stage of drilling and pumping out the oil to the surface of the Earth. Other negative impacts are linked to the infrastructure and equipments used during the actual drilling and transportation of the refined oil.

The detrimental environmental impacts vary in intensity due to various factors involved in the process. Environmentalists argue that when locating the oil deposits, the seismic surveys affect fish and other marine organisms. Moreover, offshore oil drilling is associated with noise pollution that greatly affects aquatic organisms. The process of drilling produces noise that impairs the hearing capacity of marine organisms.

Offshore oil drilling affects the ocean floor due to the physical disruption of the habitat of the benthic organisms. According to various surveys conducted, it is evident that most fossil fuel deposits exist within the ocean floors. These fragile ecosystems require environmental protection because they are habitats to marine life (Easton 2009). Other risks associated with offshore oil drilling include accidents that have led to deaths of workers in the rigs. The accidents also occur when the refined oil is being transported (Matthew 2010).

North Carolinas coast is endowed with many wild animals. Thus, it is important to note that offshore oil drilling can interfere with wild animals along the North Carolinas coast. Oil spills and leaks cause air pollution that adversely affects aquatic ecosystems and wild animals. Water pollution also occurs when the drilling fluids are discharged into the water bodies. The drilling fluids contain substances that are toxic to marine life. These fluids are used to lubricate and maintain the temperatures, as well as, to regulate the pressure when drilling. The toxic substances are derived from heavy metals and hydrocarbon products.

The drilling fluids are associated with varying levels of toxicity because they contain different concentrations of toxic substances that are harmful to aquatic life. The toxic substances cause distortion of the health and reproduction of marine organisms, which affects their population growth rate (Fain 2010). The oils spills on water surfaces affect aquatic life. Furthermore, the release of toxic substances may result into biomagnifications and bioaccumulation of the toxic substances in the food chains and food webs. Consequently, the concentrations of the toxic substances affect the organism in the higher tropic levels. There are effects from oil spills and leaks that expose sea birds and other marine organisms to risks. However, proponents of offshore drilling suggest that some marine organisms are adapted to the effects of oil in the water due to the natural seepage (Fain 2010).

Oil spills may also cause environmental pollution because they spread and take a longer duration on the surface of the water bodies before biodegrading. However, oil biodegrades when influenced by the tidal waves. Oil is a substance that can undergo biodegradation when it weathers under the presence of sunlight or can be biodegraded by the activities of microorganisms. Terrestrial organism can be affected when oil spills are spread up to the littoral zones of the coastal ecosystems.

Therefore, the oil spills are very dangerous to both marine and terrestrial ecosystems; hence, their presence can cause adverse effects on the populations of wild animals and other species on the North Carolinas coast. Moreover, due to the toxicity of oil and gas, the exposure of living organism to the oil spills can have a long lasting effect to the food chains and food webs. It is also evident that the clean ups of the oil spills can also cause detrimental effects to the environment. Decontamination of oil can affect marine organisms in a number of ways. For instance, the use of chemical methods, such as the addition of dispersants can introduce toxic materials to the marine ecosystems, hence, can endanger biodiversity.

Air pollution is another environmental impact that can occur as a result of offshore oil drilling in North Carolinas coast. Environmental pollution occurs during the process of drilling due to the emissions of greenhouse gases from the hydrocarbons released from the machinery and equipments used during the offshore drilling process (Is Offshore Drilling in North Carolinas Future? 2012). Moreover, air pollution is caused by the products that may affect air quality through emissions that increase greenhouse gas concentration in the atmosphere. It is estimated that a single rig can cause greater air pollution that can be felt by many people. Thus, the expanded offshore drilling in North Carolina will not reduce the greenhouse gas emissions but will contribute to climate change due to an increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (Russell 2009).

The positive impacts of offshore oil drilling in North Carolina include the reduction on the reliance of foreign oil. It is estimated that offshore oil drilling would drastically reduce oil imports in the U.S. Globally, the U.S. is the largest consumer of oil, but it produces little oil per day. Therefore, it is vital to improve oil production, in order to reduce the large import deficit that the country is facing. It is also predicted that the increase in oil production through offshore oil drilling may significantly reduce oil prices in international markets (Amato and Giordano 1982).

Furthermore, offshore oil drilling may increase government revenues through taxation. For instance, the bill by President Obama could increase North Carolina economy through raising taxes on energy, and the revenues obtained may be used as foreign aid to developing countries to create green industries that may reduce environmental degradation by enhancing a clean and healthy environment. According to a report by the congress, it is important to make available under leasing program, a five-year oil, and gas leasing program in the outer continental shelf areas that are approximated to contain numerous cubic feet of natural gas (Russell 2009).

The report by the congress also stated that the production for the five-year oil and gas leasing plan will increase by 2027 in daily production of approximately over three million barrels of oil and billions of cubic feet of natural gas (Amato and Giordano 1982). The congress made such a declaration following the high prices of gasoline that obtained millions of gallons, hence, the ban on offshore drilling was lifted. Individuals who encourage the extraction of oil through the process of offshore oil drilling claim that the business generates a lot of income to the federal government (Russell 2009).

Offshore oil drilling is a major issue that has caused various conflicts as states consider environmental safety with the economic gains that may be obtained from the economic activity. However, offshore oil drilling has been banned in some nations, while it is a legal, operation in some states. The offshore drilling in coastlines enhances economic development as the state governments obtain significant amounts of revenue from oil production. Many coastal states such as North Carolina have considered various mitigation measures including the adoption of bills that are linked to oil spills clean ups, and the recovery for dangers related to offshore oil drilling.

In North Carolina, there are laws that are implemented to protect the environment from negative effects from activities, projects, or developments on the environment. Moreover, these legislations require that an environmental impact assessment should be conducted on any development activity that may have potential negative impacts to the coastal regions (2010 Offshore Oil Drilling Legislation 2012). Due accidents that are linked with rig explosion, some states have introduced bills that would allow or prohibit offshore oil drilling.

For instance, in North Carolina, any responsible party associated with offshore oil drilling is liable for any damage caused by oil spills. The law requires that any responsible party for any negative effect to be responsible for all the clean ups and the costs associated with the removal o f wastes that arise from oil discharges in the fishing grounds, platforms, as well as rigs (2010 Offshore Oil Drilling Legislation 2012).

Offshore oil drilling can be improved through the implementation of sustainable technologies in oil exploration and offshore oil drilling processes. Thus, instead of putting a ban on offshore oil drilling, it is necessary to incorporate various ways to reduce the potential negative impacts and enhance the beneficial impacts of offshore oil drilling. For instance, it is vital to implement vigorous environmental impact assessment procedures before beginning the surveys and actual offshore oil drilling. Environmental impact assessment is very important in ecologically sensitive areas such as the marine and the coastal environments.

An important solution is to develop new technologies to survey the presence of oil deposits that will not interfere with marine habitat or disturb marine life. Moreover, it is advantageous to use drilling fluids that have substances with low toxicity levels and that can biodegrade easily to avoid bioaccumulation and biomagnifications of toxic substance in the food chains and the food webs (Rosenbaum 2008). Companies that are involved in offshore oil drilling should develop and implement a comprehensive waste management plans that allow for proper waste disposal. They should adhere to environmental standards in order to maintain environmentally health and safety through minimizing oil spills.

Those who oppose offshore drilling argue that improved energy efficiency will lead to savings of millions of barrels of oil than could be obtained from the US (Russell 2009). Moreover, Russell (2009) posits that improved fuel efficiency standards may save millions of barrels daily more than the amount, which would be tapped from the offshore oil deposits (Russell 2009). There are many sources of clean and renewable energy such as wind and geothermal power. These are renewable energy sources that have the potential to meet the rising global energy demands. Therefore, it is important to implement an effective and efficient way of utilizing the alternative sources of energy sustainably (Mathew 2010).

In conclusion, the evaluation of potential impacts of offshore oil drilling does not consider the ecological and economic benefits of the coastlines. Therefore, it is important to conserve energy, protect the environment, and develop alternative sources of clean energy. The North Carolina coastlines are a major source of revenue and a beneficial recreational area that may face pollution from offshore drilling. In the past, environmentalists have raised alarms on the continued harmful effects of oil spills on the environment and biodiversity.

This explains the dangers of offshore oil drilling having many detrimental effects to the health of the environment and biodiversity. Moreover, even with environmental impact assessment and audit in the daily operations, offshore drilling is very costly to the environment, particularly the coastal biodiversity and due to the catastrophic accidental oil spills and leakages as well. The increase in global human population has increased energy demands, hence, there is need to increase energy production through exploration and utilization of alternative sources of energy (Rosenbaum 2008). It is important to put more emphasis on renewable energy sources such as wind energy and geothermal power.

A better solution is to increase the fuel efficiency standards and improve technologies that can enhance the development of alternative sources of renewable and clean energy. For instance, the idea of opening up the coast to offshore oil drilling can be replaced by wind energy that is abundantly available and sustainable. However, critics still maintain their argument that fossil fuels will still be required in order to meet the energy requirements for the growing population. Thus, it is important to focus on energy conservation and management in order to achieve sustainability, and to enhance environmental protection for offshore drilling to be sustainable in order to meet the growing energy demands.

References

2010 Offshore Oil Drilling Legislation. 2012. National conference of state legislatures. Web.

Amato, Roger V, and Giordano Anthony C. 1982. Oil and gas developments in Atlantic coastal plain and outer continental shelf in 1981, American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v.66, n.11, p.2006-2010.

Easton, Thomas A. 2009. Taking sides: clashing views on environmental issues, Fourteenth Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Fain, Travis. 2010. Gulf oil spill casts shadow over drilling off N.C. coast. Winston-Salem Journal. Web.

Is Offshore Drilling in North Carolinas Future? 2012, Carolina Journal Radio. Web.

Matthew W. Daly. 2010. Obama restores eastern Gulf drilling ban, Washington Post. Web.

Rosenbaum, Walter A. 2008. Environmental politics and policy, Eighth Edition. Washington, DC: CQ Press.

Russell, Gold. 2009. Drill, Baby, Drill: Does Virginias Gov-Elects Call For Offshore Drilling Add Up? Wall Street Journal. Web.