Category: Environment

The article on Two insects threatens Louisiana citrus describes insects that threatened Louisiana citrus in the year 2009. The insects diaprepes root weevil comes in various colors; that ranges from glossy black to yellow-orange scales and causes numerous problems in different plants according to Dr. Natalie Simpson an entomologist (Grimaldi 23). The article states that the weevil has a wide host range of approximately 270 different host plants that include ornamental plants and trees. The report also states the symptoms of the disease being massive damage on the young trees and Louisiana crop. This happens because the weevil feeds for several months on the roots. Adult Weevil feeds on the foliage but the larva does most damage especially to the foliage. Plant death result from destruction of tap roots that lead to deprivation of nutrients and water hence, opportunistic micro-organisms gains easy entry. The environmental factors were blamed for causing the disease (Penton media Inc 3).

Insect identification

Again, Grimadi (32) suggested that the identification of the insect at first was not properly identified. According to Raga, the disease was first suspected to be caused by grasshoppers. Later he discovered that it was something more serious than the grasshopper when die bark of the trees continued. It was this time that the insect was discovered to be the cause of the disease. The Diaprepes root weevils, Diaprepes abbreviatus reported in Florida in 1964 in citrus. An ornamental plant imported from Puerto Rico caused the establishment of the disease. The insect belongs to the kingdom-animalia, Phylum Arthropoda, Class-Insecta, Suboreder-Polyphaga, Family- Curculionidae, Subfamily-Entiminae, Genus Diaprepes and species-diaprepes abbreviatus (Weissling 1758).

Biology of the insect

Tripleholn suggests that female diaprepes root weevils lays around 5,000 eggs in their life span. The eggs hatch into larva that feeds on the leaves, finally falls, burrow in the soil they then feed on the roots of the plant (Triplehorn 2). Simpson suggested three lines of defense, through expensive. He said that the egg stage, the larva stage and the adult should be controlled (Simpson 43). The life cycle and the biology of the weevils were correctly known after correct identification.

The growers were alert of the insect that transmit the disease that can kill citrus trees immediately after discovery. The story scared the readers as the author advised the growers to be on the lookout because the pest could be a potential problem for other crops such as sweet potato and sugarcane. He also advised the growers to keep an eye on the psyllid. The state did not have an eradication approach to combat the problem. Simpson (54) explained that want they did was to try coming in and proactively and aggressively treating the population to slow down the spread in the state.

Conclusions made about the core issues

Plaquemines Parish, in the State where the citrus production centered, officials used helicopters to spay all the trees for the psyllid (Penton Media Inc 5). The main problem with the psyllid is the greening disease meaning the areas that have the insect but do not have the disease. The economic losses associated with the weevil are quite large and can result to total loss. Reduced output and escalated cost of production account to losses for the growers. The LSU Agcenter Researchers and state officials recommended a treatment plan that included growth regulators, which cause the female to lay sterile eggs (Penton Media Inc).

Work cited

Grimaldi, Engel. Evolution of the Insects. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 2005.

Penton Media Inc. Two insects threaten Louisiana citrus, 2009. Web.

Simpson, Nigg. Diaprepes abbreviatus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), host plant associations. New York: Sage Publishers. 2000. Print.

Triplehorn, Johnson. Borror and DeLongs Introduction to the Study of Insects, 7th Edition. New York: Perennial-Harper. 2005.

Weissling, Thomas. Diaprepes Root Weevil, Diaprepes abbreviates (Linnaeus) (Insecta: Coleoptera: Curculionidae). University of Florida IFAS Extension.1758.

Introduction

As well as any other country with a developed industry sector, UAE is likely to face numerous environmental problems that are particularly acute in the modern age. While advanced factories and manufacturing plants contribute to the countrys prosperity, they inevitably perform significant harm to the nature putting the local wildlife under a constant threat.

In the meantime, specialists point out that the activity of UAEs focused on the environment preservation has become more consistent and efficient within the past decades. Thus, the government shows high awareness of the current challenges encouraging both governmental structures and non-governmental groups to work-out productive solutions (Aspinall, n.d.).

The paper at hand provides a brief analysis of the UAE laws and regulations aimed at protecting the environment. One attempts to examine the existing environmental policy as well as to estimate its major benefits and drawbacks. A particular emphasis will be put on elucidating solutions and recommendations for potential improvements.

Brief Profile

The principal governmental structure responsible for the problems of the environment in UAE is the Ministry of Environment and Water (MOEW). The fundamental function of the relevant institution is to ensure effective development that does not endanger the local environment. The ministry deals with several branches of the protection field including agriculture, animals, water resources, and support services (UAE State of Environment Report, 2015).

Another organization with a similar function is the Environment Agency in Abu Dhabi. The institution was founded two decades ago, and it now focuses both on the preservation of the environment and raising the level of green mentality in population. The agency cooperates closely with other organizations of a common character including local private companies, NGOs and international agencies (Environment Agency Abu Dhabi, 2016).

From the legislative perspective, the protection of environment is regulated in accordance with the following laws:

• UAE Hunting Law, Federal Law No. (9) for 1983  the law is aimed at restricting hunting for particular species of birds and animals. Its implementation was determined by a crucial decline in the population of some representatives of fauna in UAE (Aspinall, n.d.).
• Federal Law No. (7) of 1993 for the establishment of the Federal Environment Agency  the relevant documents state the objectives and goals of the agency and elucidate the financial side of its functioning (Aspinall, n.d.).
• Federal Law No. (23) for 1999 for Protection of the Marine Environment  the law introduces a series of guidelines for the appropriate exploitation of marine resources.

Finally, one of the most consistent laws that provide regulations for general environmental protection is Federal Law No. (24) for 1999 for Protection and Development of the Environment. According to the relevant document, the preservation activity is to focus on protecting the environmental diversity, fighting and restricting all kinds of pollution and harmful activity, contributing to the development of local species, to name but a few (Federal Law No. (24) of 1999 for the Protection and Development of the Environment, 1999). One of the principal benefits of this document is a relatively recent date of issue; thus, it takes into account all the peculiarities and difficulties that exist in the current context.

SWOT Analysis

Strengths

The analysis of the UAE structures responsible for the preservation of the local environment shows that the relevant system has numerous advantages. To begin with, one of the targets of the local government implies the development of the so-called green economy. Therefore, the authorities are determined to maintain a balance between industrial development and environmental sustainability (UAE State of Green Economy Report, 2014). The relevant approach seems to be highly reasonable because any efforts aimed at environmental protection are useless unless the economic sector is involved in the activity.

Furthermore, the environmental policy is highly transparent. Thus, the Ministry of Environment and Water provides annual reports that elucidate all the critical points regarding the environmental issue. The following strategy allows maximizing the efficiency of the institutes performance, increases the general level of the populations awareness, and enables one to foreground beneficial solutions.

Moreover, a particular emphasis is laid on the innovative aspect in the framework of the environment. Hence, the government performs significant contributions to the development of the innovative technologies capable of minimizing the risks of pollution without thwarting the progress (UAE State of Environment Report, 2015).

Another positive characteristic of the environmental policy of UAE is including environmentally-focused education on the top-priority list. The government makes a lot of effort to improve the scientific knowledge in the relevant field by founding various institutions and encouraging foreign specialist to the share their knowledge. The international cooperation helps the country to stay in steps with the latest trends. One should likewise point out that a major part of the efforts is aimed at informing the locals on the problems of the environmental sector (UAE State of Environment Report, 2015).

Finally, the favorable statistics serve to be a sign of a high-quality performance in the environmental field. Hence, according to the official report, the population of UAE has increased significantly within the past ten years. More than that, the volume of organic production in the area has enlarged to more than a triple (UAE State of Environment Report, 2015).

Weaknesses

Among the weaknesses of the environmental policy in UAE, one might point out the lack of cooperation between governmental organizations and the local community. Whereas the Ministry announces social participation to be one of the key aspects of efficient performance, they do not provide any explanation on how such participation can be potentially realized (UAE State of Environment Report, 2015). As a consequence, one may presume that the majority of the population remains uninvolved in the common activity aimed at the preservation of the environment.

Opportunities

One of the most promising projects of UAE in the framework of environmental preservation is the development of green economy. In case the country succeeds in realizing the announced plans, it has an opportunity to become the leader in the region. Moreover, the current global market shows a high demand for the innovations that both preserve the nature and maximize performance. Thus, UAE is likely to receive considerable profit in case their technologies prove to be effective from the economic perspective.

Threats

One should necessarily note that UAE is likely to face both regional and global challenges. First and foremost, the major threat of the nearest future is excessive amounts of waste that local industry produces. Thus, the Minister of Environment and Water, Dr. Rashid bin Fahad, notes that the problem of managing waste is acute for all the countries in the modern world. Its solution requires the implementation of innovative strategies. (Todorova, 2014).

Another serious challenge, which is particularly important for the relevant area, is the shortage of seawater. The dry climate of the local region complicates the situation and makes the authorities look for alternative ways out. According to the research, the level of the ground water in the region has decreased significantly since the end of the twentieth century.

Lastly, it is the consequences of the greenhouse effect that concern the UAE government as well as the rest of the world. The increased temperature, along with a high level of gas concentration, represents a danger to the local environment (UAE State of Environment Report, 2015).

Solutions and Recommendations

One might assume that the UAE environmental policy might benefit in case the government encourages local communities to take an active part in the common activity. To create consistent motivation, one might, first and foremost, increase the level of the general awareness in the population. The relevant mission can be accomplished by creating more organization that will be responsible for informing the locals on the current environmental threats, involving them in some socially useful activities and monitoring the state of the environment and the effectiveness of the current regulations.

Moreover, it is essential to note that some of the challenges are too global for UAE to cope with them alone. Hence, such issues as the shortage of water, the greenhouse effect, and the management of waste need closer cooperation with the world community. Therefore, UAE might particularly focus on collaborating with other representatives of the region as the latter have common problems and are aware of the peculiarities of the relevant area.

Conclusion

The analysis of laws and regulations for environmental protection in UAE has shown that the country pursues a reasonable and consistent policy in the relevant field. One should necessarily note that the local Ministry of Environment and Water announces promising plans in the following direction. Hence, the government is determined to transform the economic sector and make it less harmful. Therefore, one has enough reasons to presume that UAE has chances to become the leader of the region from the perspective of environmental protection and preservation.

In the meantime, the country has to face problems the solution of which requires external assistance. Therefore, the collaboration between UAE and other countries and global organizations is likely to continue due to the presence of common threats and challenges.

Reference List

Aspinall, S n.d., Environmental Development and Protection in the UAE, Web.

Environment Agency Abu Dhabi 2016, About Us, Web.

Federal Law No. (24) of 1999 for the Protection and Development of the Environment 1999, Web.

Todorova, V 2014, Sweeping Changes to Environmental Protection in the UAE, The National, Web.

UAE State of Environment Report 2015, Web.

UAE State of Green Economy Report2014, Web.

This case study is about how Total Company used legitimacy theory to fix its problems that emanated from negative publicity as a result of two major environmental disasters. These disasters include sinking of Erika tanker which caused significant damages as a result of massive spillage of oil in Bretagne, France, and the AZF chemical plant disaster which took place in Toulouse, France. Considering that this company has presence all over the world and operates in an environmentally hazardous industry, it is exposed to social and ethical controversies. The case is about assessment of the strategies that were put in place by Total Company in a bid to downplay and rescue its performance on environment, together with other actions associated with these scenarios.

The case is based on theory of legitimacy which is derived from social contract between the society and organizations. The results of the case study demonstrates how Total Company applied communication strategies to portray its activities as legitimate in the eyes of the public, in addition to supporting the idea of environmental and social disclosures as strong authenticity tools instead of commitment towards accountability itself (Scott, et al. 2000).

The recent accounts of social contract theory shows that society and individuals liberties as well as groups rights are based on mutually beneficial contracts which members of the society build amongst themselves (Rawls, 1999). Shocker and Sethi (1973) proposed that any social organization, whether implied or expressed, does its activities in the society through social contract. In this regard, growth and survival of such an organization is generally dependent on delivery of some socially wanted results to the community, and the delivery of political, social and economic assistance to those parties from which it draws its powers. Shockrer and Sethi (1973) added that, in a vibrant society, both the needs for the organizations services and its origin of organizational power are subject to changes overtime.

Legitimacy theory provides that companies must relentlessly appear to operate according to the wishes of the society. This means that companies must aim at portraying a legitimate image to the outside world (Deegan, 2000). Lindbolm (1994) describes legitimacy as a situation which takes place when the value system for an organization is going hand in hand with the value system of the extended social system upon which the organization is part and parcel. The organisations legitimacy threat is probable whenever there are potential or actual discrepancies between two value systems.

Erika and AZF Toulouse

Total Oil Company was taken to court; following allegations that it was responsible for the 1999 oil disaster which involved breaking up of an oil tanker, off the coast of France (International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds, 2006). The tragedy caused death of hundreds of thousands of birds and a disappointing economic cost. In 2001, Total was examined by the judiciary and slapped with a massive $6.8 million, in addition to being barred from transporting oil using very old ships (The Oil Daily, 2001a). Total resulted to application of all manner of judicial remedies to salvage the situation, but only managed to put off the financial ruling and case trial for a number of years. Following this disaster, Total made an effort of seeking judicial redress in order to reduce its accountability and responsibility for the harsh environmental, social and financial effects occasioned by the shipwreck (Suchman, 1995). The key issue that surrounded this crisis was whether Total was accountable for the poor condition of the Erinka vessel. In a strong defense, the company argued that it had legitimately used the vessel, and that it had acted in good faith (The Calgary Herald, 2007). A lawyer who spearheaded the Totals defense argued that Total was not responsible for the disaster since there was a hidden fault in the vessel because it had rusted on its underneath. Elsewhere, the captain of the ship argued that the rescue operators and the Italian owner had not acted on time. Apparently, the defense team was hell bent on passing the blame to other parties.

Later in 2001, another disaster which was referred to as AZF Toulouse killed 31 people and left thousands of others injured (United Nations Environment Program, 2006). Thousands of homes and offices were damaged, and many institutions destabilized. Just like the Erinka incident, the company attempted to use judicial remedies to shield itself from responsibility and accountability of the massive damage (Powell and DiMaggio, 1991). The conclusion that the incident resulted from mishandling of products, as the corroboration evidence had alleged, could have been extremely detrimental for the company as it could have resulted in full accountability of the damages (Ruef and Scott, 1998). Therefore, Total attempted to link the disaster to a planned terrorist attack of September 11, 2001. It was interesting to note that these allegations were only directed to the media and never discussed in any official meeting. Just like the reaction to the Erika incident, Total sought legal action (Gilchrist, 1998).

Analysis of Erika and AZF Toulouse

The data obtained from interviews, annual reports, CSR reports, websites and internal press release demonstrated how Total applied legitimacy theory to salvage the situation (Total, 2006). Total did not indicate any key environmental concern in relation to its policies between 1996 and 1998. Instead, the company seemed to undertake its normal operations, focusing on profits maximization. Furthermore, analysis of 1996 to 1998 annual reports chairmans messages revealed no sign of environmental initiative. The reports were rather aimed at enhancing the companys image by focusing on future environmental efforts instead of the past achievements. For instance, 2000 financial reports indicated that the company would spend some resources in some of its refineries, with the aim of providing environmentally friendly products, which was in line with its plans for future standards (Gilchrist, 1998).

In addition, despite the fact that the companys corporate website revealed some environmental commitments, during the time of the two disasters, the disclosures on the link were obviously absolutely limited. Remarks from various viewpoints such as the Totals sustainable development management a few days after Erinka incident virtually supported Total failure. For example, one employee commented that he found it interesting because the CEO was considering himself as a victim of the disaster, yet the issue was associated with the companys relations only (Gilchrist, 1998, p. 25).

One member of the Totals management provided that the companys actions were wrongly received by the public since the company experienced the disaster and unfortunately, a miscommunication similar to what is described in management books as what to avoid ensued, though the aim was generally to clear the company off the negative publicity (Gilchrist, 1998). One attorney had once revealed that Total had been left with no option but to do whatever it could, after all, conviction of such a company was considered virtually impossible. The attorney added that the company would not mind spending a colossal amount of money to rescue its image which was considered more important (Gilchrist, 1998).

Total made disclosures in the corporate press releases, with the intention of regaining the public confidence following the Erinka disaster. For example, for the first time, Total made a press release in on December, 1999, giving details regarding the oil disaster, and at the same time reflecting on some of the efforts that were undertaken to handle the disaster. Some of the actions that were mentioned included direct financing of fuel pumping from the Erinka crisis. The reports added that some compensation funds would be set aside to indemnify those who suffered economic losses, and to pay back the expenses spent in cleaning up land and sea contamination. The reports estimated that the company would spend up to 40 million francs to fund the crisis through cleaning of the environment (Patten, 2002). The public release shows that Total Company was focused on ensuring timely legitimation process. On a separate account, 1999 annual reports disclosed some legitimacy strategies. All in all, the comments from the chairman did not disclose any environmental pursuits (Weber, 1968).

Conclusion

This case brings up the popular perception of accountability and responsibility. Total Company has employed legitimacy theory to fix the problems it experienced after two major disasters. Since the company operates under environmentally sensitive industry, it is highly exposed to public scrutiny. Its decisions in regard to environmental disclosure bring up the wide perception of accountability and responsibility through application of legitimate theory (Yin, 1994).

References

Deegan, C., Rankin, M. and Voght, P., 2000. Firms disclosure reactions to major social incidents: Australian evidence. Accounting Forum, 24, pp. 101-130.

Gilchrist, V.J., 1998. Key informant interviews. Crabtree and W.L. Miller: New York. International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds 2006. Web.

Lindbolm, C.K., 1994. The implications of organizational legitimacy for corporate social performance and disclosure. New York: Accounting Conference.

Patten, D.M., 2002. The relation between environmental performance and environmental disclosure: a research note. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 27, pp. 763-773.

Powell, W. and DiMaggio, P., 1991. The new institutionalism in organizational Analysis. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Rawls, J., 1999. A Theory of Justice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Scott, W.R., Ruef, M., Mendel, P.J. and Caronna, C. A., 2000, Institutional change and healthcare organizations. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Shocker, A. and Sethi, S., 1973. An approach to incorporating societal preferences in developing corporate action strategies. California Management Review, pp. 97- 105.

Suchman, M.C., 1995. Managing legitimacy: Strategic and institutional approaches. Academy of Management Review, 20(3), pp. 571-610.

The Calgary Herald (Alberta), 2007. Total in court over oil spill: French state seeks $199M in damages. Bloomberg, 13 Feb. p. 45.

The Oil Daily, 2001. Total Fina blast investigated. The Oil Daily, 13 September, p. 56.

Total, 2006, Official Corporate Website. Web.

United Nations Environment Program, 2006. Web.

Weber, M., 1968. Economy and society: an interpretive sociology. New York: Bedminster Press.

Yin, R.K., 1994. Case study research: designs and methods. London: Sage Publications.

Introduction

Compliance with environmental regulations has significant effects on production costs in different industries. Some of the industries that are affected include paper, steel, and other services that are faced with tough environmental regulations. Environmental regulations affect the costs of firms in several ways. Accounting systems identify and separately capture, and accumulate visible costs associated with environmental compliance, like installation and maintenance of equipment for controlling pollution and costs incurred when treating end-of-pipe emissions (Krishnan 6).

Environmental regulations also have indirect effects on costs, through additional limitations on the technology used production of firms. For example, environmental compliance may require firms to replace inputs with less polluting ones or to make changes in the production process to prevent emissions. These aspects are covered in environmental accounting. This essay will look at the issue of environmental accounting and estimation of hidden costs in Dubai, especially in gas and oil firms.

The motivation of the Study

The total cost of environmental regulations is the total of visible costs, which are easily identified and dealt with by accounting systems. There are also hidden costs that are not directly identified by the accounting systems. Visible costs include costs of installing equipment and operations of treating released pollutants, costs that result from treatment of wastewater, and those of treating and disposing of harmful solid wastes. Most accounting systems accumulate visible costs into environmental costs which are usually separated from other overhead costs.

In addition to the visible costs of compliance with regulations, costs of firms are indirectly affected by environmental regulations when other limitations are included in the production processes, changes in the composition of raw materials, proportions of inputs, and use of energy. Since the accounting systems do not separately report changes in the costs of raw material as environmental costs, such costs which result from changes in regulations are hidden within the costs for materials.

For example, strict standards that regulate emissions from coke ovens reduce the consumption of coke by adding pulverized coal and natural gas into their blast furnaces. As a result, this leads to a reduction in the rate of average coke for firms while the use of other fuels is increased. In response to regulations of air quality, many mills are replaced with natural gas or electricity in their furnaces and boilers. The increases in costs due to such changes are hidden under costs of energy or factory overhead costs.

Firms incur additional indirect costs on labor during monitoring and reporting of emissions, and maintenance of equipment used in the control of pollution. Environmental regulations also lead to increases in general and administrative costs. For example, legal staff gets involved in regulatory activities like getting permits and licenses. However, such costs are not usually reported as environmental costs, but instead, they are included in administrative and general overhead costs. Such hidden environmental costs are difficult to relate to specific transactions. Hidden costs are estimated through other methods.

The hypothesis of the Study

Environmental regulation in Dubai affects the control of the hidden cost.

Research Problem

Accounting systems often do not identify separately the costs that accompany certain changes, but instead, include them in other related costs. The hidden costs are huge and end up changing the costs identified by the costing system of a firm. Environmental regulations also force the society to incur external costs, for which firms are not responsible, but which can turn into the material in the long run.

Most of the field studies indicate that costing systems do not discover the full impact of cost regulation. Most companies lack enough systems for managing and measuring environmental costs. They never follow up or accumulate environmental costs separately and a big percentage of the costs are hidden in different overhead accounts. As a result, most companies fail to understand environmental regulation costs.

Objectives of the study

The study aims at analyzing the issue of environmental accounting with an emphasis on hidden costs. There are visible costs of compliance with environmental regulation but other costs are hidden hence they end up being included in other overhead costs. The study will focus on the following specific objectives.

• To compare the estimated cost and the hidden cost during 2007-2011. During environmental protection interventions, the estimated cost is always different from other environmental protection costs hence the study will seek to make a comparison between the two.
• To propose appropriate measures of regulating the hidden cost to manage the environment in a better way. The hidden cost might increase to significant levels unless suitable mechanisms of regulating it are put in place hence this study will seek to propose the best measures of regulating the hidden cost.

Scope and Limitations of the Study

Apart from addressing hidden costs, the study will focus on several ways through which environmental accounting is conducted. The first method of conducting environmental accounting is an accounting of natural resources. This includes data on the stock of natural resources and the changes that affect them as a result of human activities. Such accounts cover forests, agricultural land, fisheries, water, and petroleum. Some countries also include monetary data on the value of the resources. Valuation attempts cause some limitations. The value of resources is determined easily in situations where the products find their way into the markets for sale.

Valuing the changes that occur in the stock is difficult because it might be as a result of changes in the market price or physical changes in the resources. Environmental products that are not taken to the markets make valuation difficult since changes in the flow of stock are not easily established. However, physical data can be connected to the economy to formulate policies. For instance, changes in income can at times be linked to changes in the resources or the effect of environmental disasters on the economy (An Introduction to Environmental Accounting 3).

The study will be faced with several limitations. For instance, the statistical models used by managers to estimate hidden regulatory costs and make quantitative judgments about the advantages of developing detailed costing systems will present challenges. The estimates only measure margin hidden costs. The average level of hidden cost which in most cases is lower than the marginal cost is not estimated. In addition, the estimated costs are based on statistical relationships between variations in total costs and visible environmental costs. If firms combine environmental expenditures with expenses that either lead to an increase or a decrease in the total cost, then the results of hidden cost estimates are not fair.

The other limitation which presents itself is that inclusion of the value of non-marketed environmental products always causes disagreements. Some individuals attempt to give the reasons why the values are included while others advance reasons why the inclusion is not important. In some sense, the value of the items is important when the accounts are used in assessing exchanges between economic and environmental goals. Otherwise, there might be evidence of costs incurred in environmental protection without proof of any benefits. There are differing views that argue that valuation goes beyond normal accounting hence it should be treated differently. There view is due to the concern that valuation methods are not easily standardized hence it might not be able to compare the resultant accounts across different countries or economic sectors in one country.

Another limitation of the study is that creating a GDP that addresses environmental issues is not easy. The majority of the individuals involved in creating environmental accounts try to show that it is less important. Since methods of environmental accounting are not standardized, the GDP can change into another meaning in projects that calculate it hence making it difficult to compare values across countries. However, this indicator is determined mathematically by accounting projects that are designed in terms of money.

Conclusion

Environmental accounting plays an important role in modern business. Many local, federal, and international regulations that cause significant costs on businesses have emerged. Identification of environmental regulation as an important cost driver, and formally including impacts of regulations in the accounting systems of firms are important for effective decision making. In addition, regulators need to understand the full costs of regulation to determine the best types of regulation that will make the identification of hidden costs possible.

Works Cited

An Introduction to Environmental Accounting n.d. Web.

Krishnan, Ranjani. Estimating the Hidden Costs of Environmental Regulation 2002. Web.

Today, many environmental questions are raised to understand the worth of human contributions and the quality of interactions with nature. In the chapter People or Penguins, William Baxter underlines the necessity to analyze environmental issues as human-centered and cost-effective. The author admits that he does not find it necessary to preserve penguins for their own sake but observe the environment from the peoples perspective (Baxter, 2019). His goal is to solve as many environmental problems as possible, and identifying an optimal state of pollution is the first step (Baxter, 2019). In addition to clearly defined criteria for reasonable judgments, this chapter shares a strong background on preserving clean water and air for people, not nature.

Before discussing the ethical connection between humans and the environment, there are four main criteria for the reader to consider. One of Baxters statements is that every individual is free to do whatever is wanted within the no-interference context. Second, it is important to consider waste as something bad but integral in human existence. The third recommendation is to treat a human as an end, not a means for improvement (Baxter, 2019). Finally, the preservation of incentives must be supported to maintain motivation and interest in doing something. People get a chance to set priorities and investigate the environment for personal benefits. The authors idea is to show that it is normal for society not to preserve the environment or keep a natural balance but promote a wise usage of available resources.

There are many interesting and provocative ideas introduced in this chapter. Instead of relying on a fascination with the natural world, people have to observe what they can or cannot do to obtain an optimal pollution state. The cost has already been set, and the next decision is up to humans to clarify their roles in protecting the environment, supporting their own needs, and thinking about the future, not in terms of clean water or fresh air but overall human satisfaction.

Reference

Baxter, W. F. (2019). People or penguins. In L. Vaughn (Ed.), Doing ethics: Moral reasoning, theory, and contemporary issues (5^th ed., pp. 442-446). W. W. Norton & Company.

Executive Summary

Fieldwork and Geographic Context

The United Arab Emirates has splendid beaches along the Persian Gulf. This study focuses on two adjacent ones: Kite Beach in Dubai and Umm Al Quwain (UAQ) Beach in the eponymous city. As shown in Figures I(a) and (b), on the overall map of the United Arab Emirates (UAE), the beaches are connected, a fact that simplified the authors work; it made it easy to trace the ranging of physical features on the coastline. Notably, the studys objective was to examine environmental processes and coastal management practices in the sites. The belief that each area has a basic structure and a regional specificity served as the explorations driving force.

The physical processes studied included erosion, wave action, deposition, coastal landforms, beach shape, and longshore drift. Authorities implement coastal management approaches, including soft and hard engineering, policies, and natural processes, to mitigate physical processes. The researcher carried out the study on the identified two sites because they could access them with ease. The author also originated two hypotheses, one for each of the identified areas, as follows:

• Hypothesis 1: There are prominent/noticeable physical processes and coastal management activities in Kite Beach.
• Hypothesis 2: There are prominent/noticeable physical processes and coastal management activities in Umm Al Quwain Beach.

Methods of Investigation

The author investigated physical processes and coastal management practices on the two sites using observation and measurements. The author observed the coastlines for signs of erosion like hydraulic action, corrosion, abrasion, attrition, and solution. For evidence of deposition, the author observed and recorded wave refraction. For wave action, the researcher observed and measured energy reflection and dissipation.

Lastly, for longshore drift, the researcher observed sediment transportation. For evidence of hard engineering as a coastal management technique, the author looked for sea walls, ripraps, groynes, gabions, revetments, and tetrapod. For proof of soft engineering, the author observed the coastlines for planted vegetation and beach replenishment.

The author also looked for and recorded information about beach signage, access restriction, and managed retreats as evidence of policy as a coastal management technique. Lastly, the author also observed the beaches for signs of natural processes like the presence of mangroves and the absence of human activity. The justification for using observation and measurement is that they are the most natural ways of comprehending coastal geography.

Quality and Treatment of Collected Information

The data collected by the author reveal little evidence of physical processes like erosion and deposition along the UAE coastline. However, because these processes are unavoidable, the researcher needed a significantly large amount of time to observe and record them. Notably, previous data about the erosion rate along the UAE beaches suggest that the ocean consumes about 50 meters of land every two years.

At this rate, most of the facilities next to the beaches, including homes, resorts, and restaurants, are vulnerable to destruction as maritime forces edge closer. Expectedly, erosion in the identified sites occurs through corrosion (solution), attrition, hydraulic action, and corrasion (abrasion). Although the author did not record any meaningful erosion process during the study period, they observed irregularity in the beach shape and gradient, a pointer of past erosion over thousands of years.

Regarding management activities, the development of the coastal area in the UAE started in the 1970s and has been accelerating. Part of the reason for this growth has been a population increase and a rise in international tourists numbers. The development has included various offshore development schemes, including Palm Jumeirah, Palm Jebel Ali, The World, Jebel Ali Port (expansion), Palm Deira, and Deira Sea Corniche.

For these developments, which contain famous amenities like the notable Burj Al Arab Hotel, the UAE coastline, particularly around Dubai, is a popular tourist destination. Yearly, millions of people from all over the world flaunt the region for enjoyment. In addition to that, the local population is rising fast, and people are settling close to the Persian Gulf rather than further inland, where there is nothing more than expansive deserts and bare lands.

Therefore, the coastal area is experiencing a negative impact on natural processes like erosion and human activity. Local authorities have resorted to coastal management to prevent further degradation of the coastline, primarily due to rising human activity and artificial islands presence in the area.

Conclusion

The collected data confirms the first hypothesis but not the second one. In other words, the author observed significant coastal management activities on the two beaches and little evidence of erosion. The author could not see and measure any significant decline and other natural environmental processes because they take a long time to occur. However, there is an irregularity in the coastlines shape and gradient, suggesting previous erosion over the years.

Additionally, the author observed incredible coastal management activities on the two beaches. These findings imply that the UAE is actively managing its beaches because it is aware of the rising impact of human activity in the area. The negative human impact is due to increases in the local population and tourists visiting the region annually. Coastal management practices are a deliberate effort by local authorities to save the beaches by minimizing and ultimately eradicating negative human impact.

Fieldwork and Geographic Context

The quality of data collected varies depending on the field worker. Experience is vital in ensuring that mistakes are avoided. Fieldworks success depends on the researchers curiosity and zeal to gather more data (Delamont & Atkinson 152). However, when human beings are subject during a study, there are protocols to follow, which reduce the acquisition of theoretical explanations when dealing with cultural practices (Delamont & Atkinson 152). Most of the data is qualitative, with the analysis methods used being thematic or narrative.

Background and Socio-Economic Information

The research attempts to find out what coastal management strategies and physical processes are on the coastlines in the UAE. The countries surrounding the Persian Gulf have a unique marine ecosystem that is at risk due to anthropogenic impacts. They are rapidly growing in population, with urbanization being a threat to the coastal area.

The ecosystem in the Gulf is unique with tourism assets, fisheries, and oil reserves. However, increasing pressure, overfishing, overpopulation, pollution, and destruction of habitat create the risk for the ecosystem loss in the wake of climatic change (Gulseven 208). UAE has been undergoing dramatic constructions in the past two decades. Lamine et al. are concerned about significant climate changes and the endangerment of species and the natural ecosystem (2972). The changes were detected in the rapid rise of humidity and wind speed.

There are multiple reasons affecting the coastal issues, and it is necessary to consider them all for an effective management. The United Arab Emirates is located between Saudi Arabia and Oman, which is mostly arid and semi-arid land. The majority of the country experiences high temperatures and infrequent precipitation (Lamine et al. 2979.). The changes detected currently include a rapid rise in sea level, scarcity of water, and drought, worsening due to global warming (Lamine et al., 2983).

Other factors are high carbon dioxide emissions harmful to the ozone layer as energy consumption from the ecosystem is high. Significant environmental problems affecting the country are air pollution, loss of wildlife, and land pollution. The government is among the leading oil and gas producers in the world hence utilizing available natural resources.

Effects of Climate Change

Climatic change globally has become a merging issue with the worlds population increasing, posing a threat to the natural ecosystem with flora and fauna. The UAE investigated the effects of rising emissions of carbon dioxide in 2010. Dust storms are common in desert climate regions like the UAE. Dust storms are associated with high temperature, less precipitation, and increasing winds (Climate Change and Energy Dynamics 212).

The changing wind patterns in the Persian Gulf moving temporary soil and mineral particles. Second, rising sea levels associated with the melting of polar ice, leading to land loss and overpopulation (Pickett et al. 259). Thus, climate change is a severe issue relevant for multiple countries of the world including UAE.

However, the coastal region is facing conservation challenges affecting the marine ecosystem. First, the buildings near the coast affect its structure and change its condition. The depressions have since turned to inlets channeling wastewater to the marine environment (Pickett et al. 258). Moreover, the exposure of beaches without regulations has resulted in the pollution that reduced fish population affecting fisheries (Pickett et al. 263).

The ocean walls are affected negatively with most mangrove forests being harvested by farmers to act as fodder to cattle. As the ocean water volume increase, the temperatures are fluctuating as a result of global warming (Ben-Romdhane et al. 52). Few policies and rules have been introduced in beaches such as do not litter, but there is a need for stronger policies with repercussions to offenders against the environment.

In the same manner, a few techniques were introduced to protect the marine environment. Hard engineering involves the creation of structures to reduce damage made on a topographyfor instance, the installation of gabions in landscapes with deep Galleys to regulate or control water movement. Soft engineering involves the planting of vegetation like trees to replenish the appearance of the beach. Policymaking is the imposing of restrictive access to services, places, and products like trees to protect an ecosystem.

The UAE coastline has witnessed high growth in population density in the last five years. The construction of islands and buildings resulted in a rapid negative change in climate conditions. Urbanization has also contributed to the invasion of species which are a negative effect on the biodiversity as they displace native species (Shibieka et al. 13).

Increased use of energy also contributed to high carbon emissions to the atmosphere. Carbon is harmful to the ozone and causes acid rain and the reduction in the size of the ozone layer (Shibieka et al. 19). Nevertheless, water sources are scarce as most water is salty and the nature of UAE is an arid, semi-arid area.

Overfishing is also a threat to the marine ecosystem as fish deplete in number. In some beaches, small channels of inlets with waste are released to the ocean killing fauna (Bazrkar et al. 641). Rapid population growth led to the increase in a waste generation which sometimes is released to the sea. Lastly, air pollution and land degeneration are also challenges affecting the United Arab Emirates coastline.

Hypotheses

• Hypothesis 1: There are prominent/noticeable physical processes and coastal management activities in Kite Beach.
• Hypothesis 2: There are prominent/noticeable physical processes and coastal management activities in Umm Al Quwain Beach.

Method of Investigation

Based on the hypotheses, the research methods used were observation and measurement. A site visit was made to learn more about climate change. The purpose of the investigation is to understand changes in the area by measuring the depth of the sand. To do this, it was necessary to make different holes in the sand with the poles, measure them with the measuring tape, and record them in a table and chart for at least 3 times. Another method was using the degree measurer to check the wind patterns. Observations were also made to understand approaches taken to protect the beach. Tools used included poles, tape measure, degree measurer, and field book to record observations and findings. Data was collected in field books with a slight difference in the cognitive reasoning and interpretation of comments.

Methods Carried Out That Relate to the Hypothesis

Collected comparative data helped make conclusive remarks by comparing the durability and effectiveness of tactics used to protect the coastline. It is necessary for choosing the best tactics and its further development. The data comprises quantitative data as shown in Table 1. It will involve measurements of different points around the given area for comparison.

Data Analysis

Data Representation

Table 1. Comparative Data on Climate Change in UAE.

Text Analysis

Soil erosion is a significant challenge with the depressions and galleys formation that create wave cut. The number of individuals accessing the recreational facility is limited, with rules and signage giving guidelines on protecting the beach. The coastal region is now an urban center as recreational facilities are developing along the beach (Yilmaz and Shabib 60).

Despite being a restricted area, the beach has a litter, and the number of amenities present is few. The results were analyzed using statistics and confirmed that the hypothesis was true. The value of probability was one indicating a high chance of infectivity of coastal protection techniques (Bazrkar et al. 627). Water levels are rapidly increasing and keep fluctuating in different depths in the sand.

The United Arab Emirates coastal region is currently endangered as most of the ecosystem has been tampered by humans and nature. Environmental agencies are scarce, and policies are not strict, giving citizens a leeway to depreciate the environment (Bazrkar et al. 619-655). Climate change is evident in the data collected, with most urbanized areas and sparsely populated areas having different water levels. The results confirm that the hypothesis is correct; hence management techniques to protect the coastal region are not sustainable.

Evaluation

The research was organized with straightforward and understandable data collection. The sites were easily accessible, and the conclusive information was given for assessment. However, recreational facilities were challenging to access as the number of people in them were limited. Moreover, some of the information given was based on peoples opinions without evidence to confirm facts from fiction. Additionally, the field trip was short and should have involved various comparisons between beaches and management. These comparisons are vital since management techniques are unique to different coastal topography and ecosystems.

Conclusion

The rapid growth of population and urbanization is a major enemy to the coastal ecosystem. Over the past two decades, the anthropogenic constructions on land and sea have caused destruction and rapid changes affecting marine life and the environment (Yilmaz and Shabib 60). While leaders attempt to improve citizens livelihoods, the environment should be a pivotal aspect to consider during the creation and implementation of policies.

A team of experts should form an independent association to direct leaders on ways to protect the coastal ecosystem with strict consequences to citizens who violate. The amount of waste disposed of in the sea should be channelled to eco-friendly disposal methods that protect marine life (Yilmaz and Shabib 60). Mangrove forests should be protected from farmers. However, even now, there are some positive tendencies. For instance, the use of nuclear energy has already helped in the reduction of carbon emitted to the atmosphere.

Works Cited

Bazrkar, Mohammad H., et al. Urbanization and Climate Change. Handbook of Climate Change Adaptation, edited by Leal Filho, Walter, 2015, pp. 619-655.

Ben-Romdhane, H., et al. Coral reefs of Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates: Analysis of Management Approaches in Light of International Best Practices and a Changing Climate. Frontiers in Marine Science, vol. 7, 2020. Web.

Climate Change and Energy Dynamics in the Middle East: Modeling and Simulation-Based Solutions, edited by Qudrat-Ullah, Hassan, and Aymen Kayal, Springer, 2019.

Delamont, Sara, & Paul Atkinson. Ethnographic Fieldwork. SAGE Research Methods Foundations, 2020.

Houghton, John. Global Warming. Cambridge University Press, 2015.

Gulseven, O. Measuring Achievements towards SDG 14, Life below Water, in the United Arab Emirates. Marine Policy, vol. 117, 2020, p. 103-972. Web.

Lamine, E. B., et al. Identifying Coastal and Marine Priority Areas for Conservation in the United Arab Emirates. Biodiversity and Conservation, vol. 29, no. 9-10, 2020, pp. 2967-2983. Web.

Pickett, Nathaniel R., et al. Science, Technology, and Society Approaches to Fieldwork in Geography. The Professional Geographer, vol. 72, no. 2, 2019, pp. 253-263.

Shibieka, Amna, et al. Exploring Challenges of Adopting Sustainability Assessment: Methods in UAE  Perspectives of Project Professionals. 5^thInternational Conference on Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies, 2019. Web.

UAE. Climate change. Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation and UAE Embassy in the US. 2020. Web.

Yilmaz, A. G., and A. G. Shabib. Rainfall and Air Temperature Projections for Sharjah City, United Arab Emirates. International Journal of Water, vol. 13, no. 1, 2019, p. 60. Web.

The adaptation of living things to their environment is such that their features are only suitable for survival in their respective environments. Although organisms can tolerate a deviation of the environmental conditions form the optimum, severe and persistent alterations may lead to the deterioration of the organisms condition or even death.

The terrestrial and aquatic environments present considerably different conditions for the existence of life. Although the aquatic and terrestrial microscopic organisms may not exhibit significant structural differences, plants and animals living in these environments have distinct and different characteristics that enable them to survive in their respective environments (Dejours, 1987).

Plants feature a cuticle, which protects them from the external environmental conditions. Aquatic plants have a thin cuticle since they live in water and do not need to undertake water preservation. This is a feature of fresh water aquatic plants. In addition, the stomata, which are the respiratory openings for the plants, are in abundance on the upper side of the plant to facilitate rapid water loss to maintain osmotic balance.

Water is a dense medium, and thus plants living in water have a weak shaft for supporting the foliage and the upperparts of the plant. Furthermore, the plants stem is relatively weaker and they tend to float in water. Aquatic plants are submerged either partially or wholly in water.

Thus, water covers most of their surfaces and can be readily absorbed. Their roots are small, highly flexible, and adapted for absorbing oxygen rather than water. Aquatic plants may also feature wide leaves to enable them to float and enhance transpiration (Cavendish, 2001).

On the other hand, terrestrial plants have a thick cuticle on their leaves for protection from excessive transpiration that could desiccate the plants cells. In addition, the plants stomata are few and are located on the bottom of the leaves away from direct sunlight and convection current.

Air, the atmospheric medium in which terrestrial plants thrive, is much less dense compared to water. Thus, terrestrial plants need stronger stems and shafts for the support of the foliage and other upper parts of the plant. Terrestrial plants have rigid and highly developed roots that facilitate water absorption and anchorage. Terrestrial plants may have thin leaves or leaves of various shapes adapted to the environmental temperatures rather than a mechanism of support (Solomon, 2005).

One of the major unique features of the aquatic animals is that their appendages have undergone differentiation into fins or webbed feet for movement in water. Their skin or outer covering is smooth and may consist of a mucus membrane to reduce friction during movement.

Aquatic animals feature a thick subcutaneous fat deposit. This fat helps the animals to maintain a regular and constant body temperature in the relatively cold water. Most aquatic animals have transparent eyelid to protect against friction with water. Although some of aquatic animals have lungs for ventilation, most of the animals have gills for respiration or a combination of lungs and gills (Cavendish, 2001).

On the other hand, terrestrial animals have limbs with separated digits for grasping or climbing. Furthermore, some flying animals have their limbs differentiated into wings for flight purposes. Most animals have their outer covering covered with fur or hair. This keeps the animal warm in the air and may serve to protect the skin.

Most terrestrial animals have a thin subcutaneous fat layer, but have more muscles to aid their locomotion and elevation from the ground. Except for some reptiles such as snakes, most animals have thick and opaque eyelids to protect their eyes from solid objects and dryness. For terrestrial animals, lungs are the primary respiratory organs, and they are highly developed (Solomon, 2005).

References

Cavendish, M., B. b. (2001). Aquatic life of the world. New York: Benchmark books.

Dejours, P. (1987). Comparative physiology: life in water and on land. Padova: Liviana.

Solomon, E. P., Berg, L. R., & Martin, D. W. (2005). Biology (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Thomson Learning.

Introduction

Some of the key indisputable facts about Bayou Vista and Omega Bay are the major dangers facing the two communities following environmental exposure to Vinylchloride (VC) and Polyvinylchloride (PVC) chemicals disasters. Christensen and White (2011) point out that the aforementioned chemicals from industries and local factories pose serious health threats and possible deaths. Empirical research studies on the environmental impact assessment of these two communities reveal that individuals exposed to the chemicals have developed various health complications. For instance, one of the key health-related problems is cancer. This has been attributed to long term exposure to Dioxins and vynil chloride monomer.

Exposure to Vinylchloride (VC) and Polyvinylchloride (PVC)

Duan, Sheppard and Fedler (2010) posit that the organochloride vinylchloride or chloroethane is a chemical that has the formula H₂C:CHCL and appears as a colorless compound. This chemical is an important component in chemical industries that deal with the production of polymer polyvinyl chloride. It is worth noting that this organic compound is a gas at ambient or room temperature and pressure. Besides, it is carcinogenic, flammable and highly toxic. Besides, it has a sickly sweet aroma. Vinyl chloride is one of the most harmful chemicals being released into the environment on a regular basis.

One of the industries that manufactures PVC in Bayou Vista is the Vista Chemical Company. It has several operating plants one of which is the Chocolate Bayou. The latter produces aromatics, butadiene, propylene and ethylene. On the other hand, Vaneer industry has been using the mentioned chemical in the production of PVCs in Omega bay which its community and the nation at large have been using. Reports indicate that these industries release large amounts of vinyl chloride into the atmosphere forming dense clouds which when compared with the surrounding air, is twice as heavy. This has been a significant health threat due to the possibility of fire outbreak. Zhou et al. (2011) posit that a fire explosion from the autorefrigerate released may eventually cause an emission of toxic carbon monoxide and hydrogen chloride.

Polyvinylchloride is a widely produced and used plastic for construction, electrical cable insulation, upholstery and clothing as well as for other applications. In many industries, the level of chlorine is added in PVCs via chlorination. It is also important to note that while PVC poses no health risks to human beings, its carcinogenic precursor, which is usually referred to as vinylchloride (VC) monomer when combined with heavy metals has the potential of causing massive health problems. The table below shows a summary of proof of causation from Bradford Hill criteria, health outcome and category of the two chemicals that are harmful to the environment.

Carcinogenetic of vinyl chloride and Polyvinyl chloride

Determining the carcinogenetic of both polyvinyl chloride and vinyl chloride have been major areas of study with specific attentions to the risks they pose to the environment as well as their epidemiological presentation. Reports from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) as well as the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSN) indicate that these chemicals are potential carcinogens in the physical environment and human beings. As such, exposure to these chemicals causes health complications (Tao, Li & Xu, 2011).

Carcinogenicity of Vinyl chloride and Meta analysis

Studies from laboratories point out that exposure to vinyl chloride of about 25 ppm to an environment and eventual inhalation by organisms definitely causes angiosarcoma, while limited exposures of approximately 1 ppm induces mammary carcinomas. Besides, other investigations show that vinyl chloride is mutagenic in Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium and the Drosophilla. In addition, an exposure to the halides of vinyl chloride has adverse effects that include spleen or liver abnormalities, skeletal effects, skin effects, respiratory effects, cardiovascular effects and the central nervous ;system effects.

Carcinogenicity of PVC

The inertness of PVC makes it a very useful material due to the levels of low toxicity. However, it is imperative to note that PVC powder has the potential of causing possible medical problems. Significant health related issues from polyvinyl chloride are related to dioxins, additives, incineration products and its carcinogenic precursor vinyl chloride monomer. These when exposed to the environment, can cause massive health impacts similar to those of vinyl chloride on both plants and animals.

Plasticizers within a PVC product may cause health risks when leached into an environment. However, this is not a common occurrence due to the nature of PVCs and the fact that vinyl articles mare tightly bound. However, exposure to PVC products used to make floors and others like toys, curtains and car interiors release gases containing chemicals in the air that when inhaled causes cancer and other health complications..

Contamination and health effects

A health and environmental survey conducted by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry in Texas reveal that many industries in Bayou Vista and Omega Bay release toxic chemical substances which expose the.environment to sediments, ground water, biota, air, surface water and soil contamination. An analysis of the subsurface and surface soils at the area surrounding Vista industry revealed massive contaminations of the soils with chlorine and benzene found in the soil. Samples of ground water and surface water were also tested and high levels of chemical contaminations discovered. According to the United Nations, major contaminations from vinylchloride (VC) in these communities have been in the hydrosphere and the atmosphere. When the industries in these regions release toxic substances into the atmosphere, they spread very fast due to atmospheric dynamics polluting the air while rain water washes some to the nearby rivers that carry toxic substance downstream.

Reports indicate that the areas surrounding Bayou Vista and Omega bay have been exposed to vinyl chloride monomers and which as a result of carcinogenicity, has caused rising cases of liver cancer among the local populations and substantial deaths (Ishii et al., 2012). The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the US indicates that the exposure of the environment to vinyl chloride monomer has caused the mentioned communities incapacitating reversible and serious reversible illnesses. Dioxins have been major sources of health complications like endometriosis, different cancers, reproductive disorders and immune system suppression (Huang et al., 2012). Other related dangers include the release of vinylchloride (VC) monomer and dioxin toxins to the natural system and the bio-accumulative effects among the biota. Notably, chemicals used in making PVCs are highly persistent when they get into the biological systems.

The health dangers associated with this environmental exposure of vinyl chloride and polyvinyl has on the two communities are very extensive. Besides affecting the social sphere of the environment, the atmosphere, soil and water ways in these areas have also been affected. Zhou et al, (2011) posit that these dangers are highly intertwined and demand central application of the correct policies to address them. The need to develop considerations with the environmental integrity should be emphasized. It is also imperative that before disposing toxic substances key prior analysis of their effects be established to determine the expected negative effects and therefore address them to prevent disasters. Ecologically, the two regions have remained highly contaminated and therefore totally abused (Zhou et al, 2011). Socially, the trauma of experiencing problems from exposure to toxic chemicals and resulting factors like lifetime deformities, key illnesses, death of relatives and living in evacuation areas have been issues that have traumatized the populations in these regions. It is from this consideration that the precautionary principle should be fully embraced in all industries globally to avoid such problems.

Addressing environmental exposure

Addressing environmental exposure to toxic substances from industries has been cited as a key facet in dictating how communities and states need to prepared in ensuring that the environment is protected. Environmental exposure to pollution as Crews and Gore (2011) posit is one of the greatest dangers that many communities near industries are facing today. Despite the problem being scientifically proven, many communities and individual entities still follow the Marxist model of maximizing their returns at the expense of an endangered environment. Planners too have failed to focus on this danger by putting up structures that promote continued emission of toxic substances. As indicated earlier, pollution effects usually have far reaching implications which can last for many years without being detected and can cause tremendous damage to all the spheres of the environment-biotic, atmospheric and lithosphere. Efforts to reduce environmental exposure are indeed necessary to promote a safe and healthy environment.

References

Christensen, K. & White, P. (2011). A methodological approach to assessing the health impact of environmental chemical mixtures: PCBs and hypertension in the national health and nutrition examination survey. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 8(11), 4220-4237.

Crews, D. & Gore, A. (2011). Life imprints: living in a contaminated world. Environmental Health Perspectives, 119(9), 1208-10.

Duan, R., Sheppard, C. & Fedler, C. (2010). Short-term effects of wastewater land application on soil chemical properties. Water, Air and Soil Pollution, 211(1- 4), 165-176.

Huang, C., Lyu, S., Chen, J. & Hu, M. (2012). The anti-metastatic efficacy of [beta]- ionone and the possible mechanisms of action in human hepatocarcinoma SK- Hep-1 cells. The British Journal of Nutrition, 107(5), 631-638.

Ishii, H., Kobayashi, T., Kudou, M., Nishimura, M., Toma, A., Nakamura, K., Mazaki, T. & Itoh , T. (2012). Anatomical liver segmentectomy 2 for combined hepatocellular carcinoma and cholangiocarcinoma with tumor thrombus in segment 2 portal branch. World Journal of Surgical Oncology, 10(1), 22.

Tao, M., Li, H. & Xu, H. (2011). Influencing factor analysis of the investment efficiency of the environmental governance. Grey Systems, 1(3), 240-249.

Zhou, Y., Wang, H., Chen, Y. & Jiang, Q. (2011). Environmental and food contamination with plasticisers in China. The Lancet, 378(9803), e4

Introduction

This paper provides a consistent summary of the wastewater reuse trends in the United Arab Emirates, which influence not only the environmental protection but the politics and economy of the country as well. It is acknowledged that Arab countries get only 2 % of the world precipitation. The statistic data points out that the amount of water is insufficient for the states that occupy 10 % of the globe territory (Water Reuse in the Arab World: From Principle to Practice par. 1). Both surface and ground water resources are extremely scarce in the countries of the Arab world. Due to this factor, the irrigation is mostly unsuccessful in the countries of Middle East, which are known for the highly developed agricultural sector. The UAR belongs to the mentioned states as well. Consequently, the citizens of the country suffer from the marginalization of domestic agronomy. Moreover, water demands are steadily increasing, according to the enhancement of population throughout the UAR, which, subsequently, reduces the amount of water supplies per capita.

Therefore, the United Arab Emirates government is expected to take some decisive measures that would ensure the existence of long-term water delivering as well as stipulate the development of reuse and recycle technology. The primary reuse technique, which is mainly employed in the wastewater sector in the UAE, is the green space irrigation. It stems from the policy of green paradise that was launched by the country authority. The regulation includes the expansion of plants and, accordingly, irrigation network throughout the country (Saseendran par. 2). Despite its efficiency, the policy barely touches the problem of domestic wastewater crisis, which still deprives many citizens of the essential water supplies.

Literature Review

The list of literature entries includes some academic articles. For instance, Balancing environmental impacts and benefits of wastewater reuse by Hamilton, Versace and Stagnitti refers to the issue of finding a solution to the harmful influence of wastewater devices installation on a nature. Water quality in drip irrigation by Nakayama and Daniels reveals the benefits of water conservation as the innovative method of wastewater reuse. The article that was written by McDonnell and de Silva, Water reuse as part of holistic water management in the United Arab Emirates, dwells on the general specification of recycling in the UAE. Finally, the improvement of desalination process is recounted in the work Improvement of desalination efficiency in capacitive deionization using a carbon electrode coated with an ion-exchange polymer by Kim and Choi.

The newspaper articles Water Management in UAE, Dh6 Billion to Turn Dubai into Green Paradise by 2025, and Reusing Water is not a Luxury but a Need, Says Expert disclose the nature of irrigation and pollution eradication in the UAE.

Finally, the book that was written by Dalahmeh and Baresel, Reclaimed wastewater use alternatives and quality standards, shows the opposition between recycling and finding the new sources of water. Additionally, the web sources Wastewater reuse in Arab Countries: ACWUA report and Water reuse in the Arab world: From principle to practice provide the practical reports and statistics on recycling in the UAE.

Evaluating the Strategies of Wastewater Recycling in UAE

Assessing Water Demands in UAE

The reuse and recycle policy implementation is dependent on the relative estimation of sector demands, which predetermine the needs of the population. Thus, one distinguishes three primary domains that require water supplies in the UAE. These are private, agricultural, and industrial sectors. According to the general water expenditure assessment, the area of domestic water usage accounts for 24 % of public consumption in the country. The fundamental reasons for the insufficiency of water management in the household settings are the irrational employment of the resources as well as air conditioning, which stipulates the excessive usage of bottled water. Therefore, the experts differentiate few critical steps that would regulate the system of water consumption. Specifically, it is claimed that a delivery of drinkable water through the taps, as well as the introduction of some innovative irrigation techniques, could reduce the level of expenditure considerably.

The sphere of agriculture manages the biggest amount of water, due to the favorable climate conditions that exist in the country. The wastage of the valuable resource primarily refers to the issue of irrigation inefficiency. Thus, it is stated that traditional methods of inundation provoke the losses of 30 % of water, which is evaporated in the course of spray sprinkling. Consequently, the government is establishing innovative approaches, such as, for instance, drip irrigation, which could improve water management. Finally, the sector of the industry does not refer to the extensive consumers of water in the United Arab Emirates since the sphere is not entirely developed. Thus, approximately 9 % of the resource is directed to the manufacture. Water is used for the purpose of machines cleaning. Still, the wastewater that remains after the procedures can be used for irrigation (Dakkak par. 6). Therefore, in this respect, the efficient accumulation of water refers to the primary tasks of the sector management.

Water Reuse Planning

The development of a consistent recycling plan, which would be suitable for the implementation in UAE, should rely on the agricultural orientation. In other words, since the sector is the largest consumer of water resources, it is critical developing the winning strategies, which would reduce the level of expenditures. Thus, the planning should mainly target the improvement of irrigation processes and techniques.

The usage of desalination accounts for the purification of water resources. The method assists in depriving the supply of minerals and salt, which makes water usable and applicable for both human consummation and irrigation. The application of the technique in UAE yields some fruitful results. Nevertheless, the pace of desalination procedures is quite slow so that to satisfy the demands of the population. Therefore, some improvements to the system have to be made. From the technology perspective, the general performance of desalination can be improved through the application of a carbon electrode, which is cross-linked with sulfosuccinic acid. The methodology improves the coating. Therefore, the electrochemical properties of the design improve, and desalination tools become less vulnerable to damages (Kim and Choi 902).

The second issue concerns the elaboration of the actual purification quality. It is often stated that water that is cleaned through the method of desalination gets contaminated on the way through the tubes. The problem provokes the impossibility of drinking water directly from the taps. The sources of contamination come from the agents that may be found in the old cells. Since the government of the UAE does not regulate the processes of tubes cleansing, the responsibility for the contamination is imposed on the property owners, who rarely purify the cells. In fact, the cleansing of water pipes requires some particular machinery, which is not always accessible to the individual holders. Therefore, the improvement of purification should be sustained through the implementation of the new policy. Due to it, a particular service of tubes cleansing would be created. The local authorities, subsequently, would have a chance to control the accomplishment of the purification operations as well as ensure that the procedures are conducted in every six months.

After the implementation of tubes cleansing policy, the government of the UAE has to take care of the advertisement of tap water usage. Due to the statistic data, an excessive consummation of bottled water is one of the reasons for extensive completion. Therefore, making desalinated pipe water drinkable could stimulate a decline in water purchasing. The aim may be reached through the increase of prices for bottled water.

The introduction of drip irrigation is the final step on the way to water reuse in the UAR. The technique gains popularity, due to the agricultural infrastructure of the country. Drip irrigation evolved in the 1960s as a tool that might have been used exclusively for the purpose of expensive crops treatment (Nakayama and Bucks 189). Lately, however, the technology turned into a powerful farming strategy that reduces the level of water evaporation. Therefore, the UAE government should initiate an enforcement of a new law that would treat the implementation of drip irrigation devices. Furthermore, the local authorities should issue the subsidy for the individual farming institutions so that they could install the tools. Incentivizing and educating the farmers on the methods of drip irrigation belong to the primary tasks of the government as well.

Environmental and Health Implications

The reuse of wastewater stipulates a range of environmental and public health implications. Thus, it is claimed that the implementation of recycling devices often causes pollutions. Moreover, wastewater is rich in the disease-causing bacteria, which represent a direct threat to human health. Therefore, the process of water purification should target the exclusion of micropollutants as well as minimize the eutrophication of moisture content (Dalahmeh and Baresel 12).

The World Health Organization (WHO) suggests some consistent methods of health protection, which are used throughout wastewater treatment. Thus, due to the new policies of WHO, the allowable concentration of harmful microorganisms is not specified (Wastewater Reuse in Arab Countries par. 23). Instead, the organization offers an establishment of a new target value under the name Disability Adjusted Life Years. The measurement of the indicator provides a specification of health-risk level for various usage sectors. The strategy is beneficial since it influences a selection of irrigation methods as well as predetermines the content of drinkable water, which does not pose any threat to human health.

Finding a balance between the efficient implementation of wastewater reuse techniques and environmental impacts is the primary challenge. It is acknowledged that pathogenic microorganisms devastate the natural reserves of plants and animals. Furthermore, they damage the quality of soil, which results in the small crops growth. Therefore, it is recommended to hold water condensation and install the recycling devices in the places, which provide no direct access to the worlds of marine, flora, and fauna (Hamilton, Versace and Stagnitti 122).

The authority of the United Arab Emirates has lately taken an orientation on green space irrigation. The strategy contributes to the general improvement of the environmental conditions in urban areas. Moreover, it reduces the number of carbon emissions and offset polluting (McDonnell and de Silva 117).

Challenges and Problematic Considerations

The processes of wastewater reuse and recycling evoke a broad range of economic concerns. Naturally, the installation of technological devices, which provide purification or reuse, is quite costly and requires some substantial budget allocations.

In this context, one can differentiate the following challenges that hinder the development of active wastewater recycling in the UAE. First, the water that is used for the purpose of irrigation is, basically, poorly estimated. Nevertheless, its low price does not correspond to the real cost of wastewater reuse and cleansing. Second, the treatment of wastewater, as well as conveyance infrastructure, requires some expensive tools employment. Third, there is hardness in creating some stable material incentives for the successful reuse. Fourth, the economic analysis of wastewater recycling infrastructure is not appropriately developed in the United Arab Emirates. Finally, there are some economic and social aspects, which reduce the demand for the reused water resources.

Since the UAE is a country with highly developed agriculture, the demand for irrigation is critically high. However, water suppliers often underestimate the real value of the resource, which is received in the result of desalination. Therefore, the purified wastewater is mostly sold at cheap prices. The issue creates a budget crisis, for the results of recycling employment do not pay off. Therefore, it is crucial for the UAE authority to conduct a marketing reform so that to link the actual value of purified water to the irrigation demand.

The wastewater reuse planning design is often underdeveloped. For instance, it is hard for the farmers to differentiate a method, which would help to reduce the cost of water transportation. Therefore, the inefficiency of operational designation, as well as high prices for technical devices, leads to the quality reduce in the recycling processes (Todorova par. 6).

The problem of material incentives refers to the issue of investment. Thus, the experts acknowledge that it is hard to involve the citizens of the UAE into the active process of wastewater reuse sponsoring. Therefore, it is critical devising a system of effective advertising, which would reveal the beneficial aspects of wastewater recycling.

The lack of reuse economic analysis inflicts the underdevelopment of cost-benefit planning. In other words, the UAE economists have problems with estimating the value of wastewater maintenance and transfer. Therefore, some consistent instruction on the methods of economic assessment would provide a favorable influence on the policy realization.

According to the current statistics, the population of the United Arab Emirates tends to prefer water resource alternatives over recycling. Therefore, a successful accomplishment of wastewater reuse is impossible without providing the citizens with a powerful incentive to trust the quality of recycled water.

Conclusion and Recommendations: Wastewater as a Valuable Resource

In this work, some fundamental specifications of wastewater reuse in the United Arab Emirates are regarded. Specifically, the primary strategy of the active water recycling is suggested. It includes the improvement of desalination method as well as the employment of drip irrigation in the sector of agriculture. The work also refers to the primary economic insufficiencies of wastewater reuse and names the solutions to the concerns. Furthermore, it dwells on the environmental and public health implications, which influence the quality of recycling. Finally, it is concluded that an efficient reuse planning strategy may be developed by the UAE government if it considers the major tendencies of water use in the country.

Works Cited

Dakkak, Amir. Water Management in UAE. 2015. Web.

Dalahmeh, Sahar, and Christian Baresel. Reclaimed Wastewater Use Alternatives and Quality Standards, Sweden: Swedish University of Agriculture, 2014. Print.

Hamilton, Andrew, Vincent Versace and Frank Stagnitti. Balancing Environmental Impacts and Benefits of Wastewater Reuse. School of Life and Environmental Sciences 12.1 (2006): 117-130. Print.

Kim, Yu-Jin and Jae-Hwan Choi. Improvement of Desalination Efficiency in Capacitive Deionization Using a Carbon Electrode Coated with an Ion-Exchange Polymer. Water Research 44.3 (2010): 990-996. Print.

McDonnell, Rachael and Allegra de Silva. Water Reuse as Part of Holistic Water Management in the United Arab Emirates. International Case Studies 21.1 (2012): 116-119. Print.

Nakayama, Fitz and Bucks Daniels. Water Quality in Drip Irrigation: A Review. Irrigation Science 12.4 (2001): 187-192. Print.

Saseendran, Sajlla. Dh6 Billion to Turn Dubai into Green Paradise by 2025. 2014. Web.

Todorova, Vesela. Reusing Water is not a Luxury but a Need, Says Expert. 2014. Web.

Wastewater Reuse in Arab Countries: ACWUA Report 2010. Web.

Water Reuse in the Arab World: From Principle to Practice 2011. Web.

James Hansen has gained global repute for his outstanding work on climate issues. A globally-renowned climatologist, James Hansen was instrumental in helping to create awareness to the public on the issue of anthropogenic climate change. He has also been a stern critic of the liberal-parliamentary process due to its inability to significantly tackle the issue of climate change to date. In an open letter addressed to President Obama, Hansen prevailed on the president to take urgent action and ensure that issues pertaining to climate change were addresses during his first term in office. As such, Hansen is a powerful authority in the area of climate change. His book, Storms of My Grandchildren: The Truth About the Coming Climate Catastrophe and Our Last Chance to Save Humanity, is filled with very rationale claims but nonetheless, it also contains several flaws as well.

In his book, Hansen lays bare the topic of global warming. He argues that the planet is hurtling from the effects of global warming at a faster rate than was previously envisaged. He points to the fact that even as we are fully aware that humans have contributed enormously to climate change, nonetheless, our politicians have resorted to the use of ineffectual solutions tied to special interest, instead of connecting science with climate change policies (Hansen 2009). He recalls his invitation to attend the Vice Presidents Climate task Force on March 29, 2001. He took his invitation to the meeting to mean that the Bush administration was already fulfilling its campaign promises by ensuring that it reduced carbon dioxide. He was therefore optimistic that something good would some out of that meeting. However, on this particular meeting, and some of the other cabinet-level presentations that he would later on attend, the government reneged on its promises and as such these meetings were nothing but a source of disappointment to Hansen. Nonetheless, Hansen applauds the Bush administration for actually taking the right steps in order to reduce methane emissions; nonetheless, the Bush administration dismissed his urgent call to ensure a reduction on carbon dioxide emissions.

Hansen further argues that the earth is faced with an imminent peril because of mans continued action of burning fossil fuels that are also contributing to the change in climate. Consequently, humanity itself, along with millions of others species, are threatened. His choice for the books title, Storms of My Grandchildren, is indicative of the extremely ferocious weather patterns that the next generation is likely to be faced with should be fail to mitigate the use of fossil fuels (Hansen 2009). This is a looming crisis that has seen politician, in Hansens own words, greenwashing, in that their proposals sound good on paper but in terms of implementation, they amount to very little.

Hansen believes that something needs to be done urgently for the sake of the survival of humanity and other species as well. He has dedicated a large part of his book reviewing proof of climate change, and contends that human-induced contributions to climate change have led to a rise in average temperatures. In a bid to sow just how serious the present situation is, Hansen does not hide his disappointment with scientific reticence- positive steps that undercuts the necessity and relevance of applying the defensive rules, in addition to a noticeable unwillingness among those individuals who are fully informed on the prevailing situation, to assume a leading role in helping to address the root cause of the issues. In spite of the gloomy cloud that has enveloped the current situation, Hansen is nonetheless convinced that there is still hope for a brighter future. For example, he reckons that changing from the current 387 ppm atmospheric carbon concentration to 350 ppm, which is the appropriate initial target, can still be attained, albeit just barely (Hansen 2009). Funny enough, Hansen has failed to tackle the issue of the suitable CO2-equivalent concentration- namely, the amount of atmospheric concentrations made up of green house gases besides carbon dioxide, like methane.

Hansen further argues on the need to ensure that coal emissions are phased out as soon as possible in order to ensure a livable planet for the next generation. He argues that gas and oil are also important in this transition period that needs to start immediately. Nonetheless, he notes that we need to eliminate tar sands, oil shale, and coal first. Hansen calls us all to embrace renewable-energy sources and energy-efficiency gains, although he regards it as an extremely irresponsible act to depend wholly on the two strategies as a way of fighting global warming; as an alternative, Hansen writes in favor of nuclear renaissance if we have to rely on this form of energy, he reckons that it we need to develop fourth-generation nuclear power plants (Hansen 2009). This, according to him, is the only viable way through which we can be bale to dramatically lower carbon emissions in the years to come. Besides, both reforestation and forest preservation also have to play a pivotal role in helping to reduce carbon emissions. However, Hansen is quick to add that planting trees alone cannot be used to offset the prevailing carbon emissions.

Scientist are already divided on the issue of global warming and for this reason, policy changes in this area are almost non-existent. A large part of Hansens book is devoted to criticizing the role played by special interests when it comes to policy making. Hansen opines that the short-term special interest that tends to be profit oriented as well (specifically in the fossil fuel industry) collides with the long-term solutions that are necessary in order to tackle the issue of climate change. Hansen was partly driven into the public sphere by the impact of special interests. He notes that a well informed public can supersede the influence of special interests. In addition, Hansen also notes that scientist may also play a vital role by assisting in creating public awareness to the public in an understandable and credible manner. On the face of it, Hansens reasoning is logical and straight-forward but nonetheless, appears somewhat controversial

Although he appears a bit doubtful about the role of geo-engineering schemes in the fight against climate change, nonetheless, he concludes that such an alternative could prove vital in the event that we may decide to carry on with the business-as-usual attitude that is now our mantra for an indefinite period. Accordingly, he is of the opinion that we need to carry out further research on such schemes. Moreover, Hansen abstains from the hegemonically favored cap-and-trade approach and in its place, prefers the fee-and-dividend approach, a framework in which the collection of fees occurs at the port of entry or mine of a certain fossil fuel. Thereafter, it has to be divided equally among the adult residents who are legally recognized. The reasoning behind such an argument is that individuals who run out the carbon emission shares allocated to them needs to be penalized financial. Therefore, they are faced with an incentive to ensure that they reduce their carbon footprints. Hansen argues that such fees are bound to increase in the long-run since individual and households have to take time as they prepare to change their lifestyles accordingly (Hansen 2009). Hansen has also suggested that we need to globalize the fee-and-dividend approach so that we can prevent further carbon-intensive production.

Through this book, Hansen seeks to take us through his journey, starting from laboratory scientist, to public advocate, to government advisor. At the same time, he makes use of science clarify the history, varying hypotheses, and future scenarios options on climate change. If at all we are to tackle the issue of climate change effectively, we must have enough knowledge on the subject matter. Towards this end, Hansen has attempts to present the knowledge that we yearn for in his book. Nonetheless, he is fully aware of just how complex the issue is, but he does not allow this to distract his mission. The later part of the book contains recommendations for advocacy: that is, increased energy efficiency and renewable energy production, use of more nuclear energy, and bringing to an end the use of coal. The realization of these objectives calls for active and widespread public involvement. Hansen has desisted form belittling public office or politicians; instead, he has stressed on the need for citizens to take part in the political process, in the process ensuring that their voices are heard. At its core, Storms of My Grandchildren is a clarion call to knowledgeable action.

Hansens book is full of rich insights into the recent development in the field of physics. For example, he narrates the secret story of the jettisoned fast nuclear reactor that is more efficient and safer in comparison with those that we are currently using. In addition, the book also offers us rich information in the field of the geophysics of climate change. He has managed to successfully explain some of the most complex theories in such a way that even a student taking high school physics can get the concepts. This is the hallmark of modern physics- trying to explain difficult concepts in the simpler terms. His sue of graphs and tutorials enable us to appreciate the fact that global climate change is real. Hansen has masterfully presented his lessons in such a manner as to leave no doubt that he is an authority in the field of climatology. He has combined the observed findings by members of the community with the laws of physics and the ensuing information paints a clear picture of the extent to which we have destroyed the climate.

One of the evident flaws in Storms of My Grandchildren has to be the selective concern by Hansen for the actual and potential victims of climate change, both now and in the future. Hansens concern seems to hinge on his recently born relatives, the pictures of whom can be found in a number of his works chapters. Although his fear that the future of his grandchildren is threatened by our current actions that appears to disregard all efforts to curb climate change is totally legitimate, however, his reaction to examine the issue from the point of view of ones family members only appears somewhat reactionary, if not limiting.

Works Cited

Hansen, James. Storms of My Grandchildren: The Truth About the Coming Climate Catastrophe and Our Last Chance to Save Humanity. New York: Bloomsbury USA, 2009. Print.