Category: Environment

Conceptual Model of a Site which Illustrates the Potential Sources of Contamination, Potential Migration Pathways and Possible Receptors Vulnerable to the Contamination

Conceptual Site Models (or CSMs) constitute an aspect of objective processes which are data-quality based and relevant to site-activities involving the collection of information on the environment (EPA 2006). Based on the fact that the destination of transported contaminant sedimentation is usually complex and reliant on physical or chemical properties of transported materials, the water-body (which may be affluent or influent and directly affected by sediments or deposits) makes it absolutely necessary for ensuring a detail as well as complete CSM.

Naturally, there is a development of two (2) sorts of CSMS when investigating and remediating a site. One of the developments expresses the hydro-geological condition of the investigated areas construct and shows the drift-tendency of the contaminants as well as emphasizes the transportation (this infers a clear illustration of contaminants present position, biological/geochemical changes, as well as the final destination of the contaminants). The information is exceedingly appropriate for generating CSMs which tackle feasible risks from sites on humans as well as on ecosystems. In this regard, it is necessary for the CSM to address ongoing geochemical/biological activities in the sedimentations transitional zone.

A transitional zone is ordinarily an influent water body that constitutes areas dominant of Groundwater, mixed Surface and Groundwater, and then Surface-water (EPA, 2008). It has been noted:

The transition zone is an ecologically active area beneath the sediment/water interface where a variety of important ecological and physicochemical conditions and processes may occur (EPA, 2008).

The encapsulated site history between 1910 and 1953 as illustrated in Figures 3 to 5 from the question provides a glimpse of information that is relevant for tracking the transition zone and for an effective CSM construction. It has been mentioned that the reservoirs in the site could date back to the later years of the 1800s and that they were structured for clean water supply. The present tipped area is the 1940s dated by estimation and while there is no properly defined proof of the existence of any structural buildings on the said site, there is evidence of industrial-based functions on the site from the north which included textile works.

There is also the Drift geology illustrated in Figure 7 (from the question) and the underlying rock, known as the Solid geology, in Figure 8. Map indication regarding the site and the permeability data recognize the closeness of the site to geological boundaries in the rock and the drift. The site is noted to be underlain by a Glacial Drift; characterized by highly unyielding clay which comprises sandy lenses as well as sporadically by cobbles. In any case, it has been stressed that the Glacial Drift could be eroded by River Irk, which has consequently deposited alluvium in the erosion feature.

It is extremely necessary to regard the data from the question in the determination of risks and levels of the cleanup in the CSM. Thus, the Conceptual Site Model has to address complex and uncertain issues in the data regarding the transitional zone. In a related study, it was identified that

a tetrachloroethene (PCE) groundwater plume changed its size, shape, and composition as it passed through the transition zone Conant et al. (2004).

From the study, the occurring biodegradation on the uppermost 5 meters of the considered transitional zone brought about a reduction in the level of concentration of the PCE; however, it brought about the creation of highly concentrated varying transformational products and hence uttered the plumes toxicity. Therefore:

The biodegradation was spatially variable and concentrations in the streambed varied by a factor of 1 to 5000 over distances of less than 4 meters horizontally and 2 meters vertically (EPA 2008).

Illustrated in the following figures is a significant consideration of the certainty of results of contaminations; which encompass presently occurring activities, historic activities  or is a combination of the two; which identify the flowing path of ground-water into apparently consistent sedimentary beds and is made complex due to the geology of underlying aquifers; and then, conclusively the utility of designed remediation of CSM for the identification of possible faults.

Figure 1 presents a number of probable bases for the contamination of the sediments which could be resultant from the following enumerated processes:

• surface run-off from up-land point sources;
• discharging impure groundwater;
• directly discharged non-aqueous phased liquids;
• air contaminant depositions; as well as
• impure sediments conveyed from up-stream point-sources.

It is a usual recognition not to remediate sediments as stated:

&until all sources have been identified and eliminated so that they can no longer contaminate the sediments (McGrath and Loveland, 1992).

Figure 1 illustrates that sources of the contamination could be present ones (such as dynamic contaminated ground-water advection into sediments) and could as well be historical (such as the 1940s discharge of textile products from manufacture processes and from storage-facilities without present emergent discharges from upland  in this instance from River Irk).

In the course of the CSM development, there is the verification of suppositions. As an illustration, taking cognizance of the clean-up of textile-waste contaminated-sediments, emphatic studies on Ashtabula-River where an exacting underlying initial-assumption was presumed about PCBs discharge historically; and it was noted that:

at a time that baseline-samplings were carried-out preceding the start of the dredging process, a dynamic basis a certain portion of the rivers tributaries was noted (Cieniawski, 2008).

Considering that the source referred by Cieniawski (2008) was never revealed and gotten rid of, the costly remediation would have ultimately been botched.

Figure 2 illustrates an anticipated interrelationship between ground-water and surface-water; the knowledge which is essential for conducting successful remedies of the sites. There is then a patterned illustration of the ground-water from and into River Irk with a selected pathway for ground-water to surface-water discharge. Assumptions regarding the possibility of diffusion and uniformity of the discharged contaminated water across the sediment bed could bring about erratic risk estimation or a possible inappropriate designed cap. For producing a correct Conceptual Site Model, it is necessary therefore to have an appropriately defined pathway of flow (EPA 2008 could be consulted for thorough discussions). The study area could constitute influential as well as affluent sections. Perhaps, with no upland sources of contaminated groundwater, studies have stated that:

capping the contaminated sediment could still allow surface water to flow through it, thus contaminating the underlying groundwater (Cieniawski, 2008).

Figure 3 shows a well-defined patterned Conceptual Site Model of preferred site remedy. The flow of the sediment-contaminant source all the way through the surfaces should be noted as it is hindered by shoreline barrier walls. The caps make use of Organoclay in adsorbing NAPLs as well as the contaminating constituent in the ground-water which at the instance is in the aquifer beneath River Irk and would be discharged about the sediment-bed to the caps. The barrier walls should be appropriately deepened in order to prohibit contaminations from under-flowing otherwise there would be an incidental collapse of the cap material. In case barrier walls are made use of for upland containments, the strength of the material should be taken cognizance of. Assuming that a sheet-pile wall is to be used, it should be noted that the material could easily yield under the application of load. In the same way, slurry-wall constitutes non-uniformity placement hence there is a tendency for contaminants to diffuse across slurry material.

A general outlook of a Conceptual Site Model is then presented in Figure 4.

From figure 4, the general outlook of the CSM is presented and segmented into six (6) areas for the disposal of varying wastes- this is necessary in order to mitigate the effect of toxic waste (or to control the general flow of contaminated substances in the site). Toward River Irk, it would be preferable to dispose of waste that may not be affected by the effluent or influent flow of the river. From figure 1, the possible receptors vulnerable to the contamination would include downstream occupants especially at Harphurhey Road, hendham Vale and likely Kingsbridge road- and this would be resultant of the effluent effect of River Irk.

Site Investigation Strategy

The requirement at this instance is to develop a site investigation strategy in order to achieve the following objectives:

• To assess the risk from the waste to the receptors identified in the model;
• To characterize the contamination conditions at all contamination resources;
• To establish background contamination conditions (i.e. contaminant concentrations which would exist in the environment if the waste was not present); and
• To investigate any assumptions included in the Conceptual Site Model, for example, the groundwater depth, the contaminant migration direction, the relationships between the different geological units.

The Quantified Risk Assessment (QRA) would be adopted for the investigation of the CSM under consideration. Even though there is a limitation to applying QRA modeling to POP problems, the method leads more focally to the realization of standard risk assessment making use of Source-Pathway-Receptor circumstances. Individual sites have peculiar instances which are considered in observing the scenario for modeling. In other to assess the CSM appropriately, there is the need for sectionalized construction of the site with consideration to interactive sources including receptors on properly defined linkages as well as exposure pathways.

In the real sense, a CSM is a start-off for assessing the risks because it provides for the determination of the certainty or unacceptability of possible risks which could relate to landed areas. This is justified as follows:

This involves the first qualitative assessment encompassing hazard identification and assessment, where a hazard is any property or situation, in this case, a POP, which under particular circumstances may lead to harm, of human health, ecosystems (McGrath and Loveland, 1992).

For the modeled site here under study, there are handy data that could be made use of in the evaluation of identified hazards. The data constitutes the CSM; which makes it easy to assess the hazards. This, therefore, comprises the totality of the sources, paths and receptor data as well as inter-linkage on-and-off of the investigated modeled site. By induction of the truth, the knowledge offers a better path for the identification of the main likely sources, path-ways as well as receptors with reference to interactional links identified with them. It would give room for risk-assessing a number of propositions from handy raw information. Noted contaminants, in this case, are current-based or historic-based and would be categorized under migration characteristics which may include mobility and would assist in the definition of possible flow-pathways as well as in the analogy of toxicology as it would affect the receptor. A tabular model illustrates the point in Table 1.

There is a downloadable SCEM-Builder4 freeware that is helpful in providing conceptual knowledge of possible site-exposures depending on contaminations source, release-mechanism, discharge pathways as well as receptors. SCEM-Builder makes it possible for graphic representations that could make way for proper strategic data collections.

Table 1 is shown as follows

Table 1: A tabular Data Representation for the CSM.

From the table, there is a representation of possible industrial effects on the site and the river as well as the underlying soil.

Figure 5 shows a simple Source-pathway-receptor linkage for the CSM- which is made use of in the confirmation of environmental risk-assessment regarding point-source contaminations, instead of representing the environmental pollutants.

In a situation whereby the contaminations is based on POP, sources could surely be from:

• a historically contaminated soil source such as an area of soil that has previously been treated with a chlorinated pesticide;
• a contaminated area of ground, downwind of an incinerator;

or

• sediment builds up within the lower reaches of the river.

The exception is to PCBs whereby the contamination consists of point-load oil-filled-plant discharges- especially that from a power substation. The fundamentals of studied CSM, in any case, remain without any regard to the nature of contaminating source- be it primary or secondary, but are patterned on the indicated pathways.

Pollutant Linkages

An appropriate evaluation of the pollutant link-ways is reliant on a number of important issues. These include an identification of linkage of source, pathway, and receptor; and the possibility of linking the sources and receptors. It has been noted that:

At the quantitative risk assessment stage these will require modeling to see if they become potential relevant or significant pollutant linkages as the data indicating a risk is present. The pollutant linkages, whether actual or potential, can be sorted as posing an unacceptable or acceptable risk. This will depend on context and scope, timescales under consideration, plus the site conditions (McGrath and Loveland, 1992).

Generally, there is a reduction in the degree of pollutant-linkage uncertainty with an enhanced availability of raw information since there will be no need for the application of uncertain precautionary principles.

The reason for the decision to class a pollutant linkage as likely/unlikely at the Conceptual Site Model stage, and acceptable/unacceptable at the decision stage, should always be recorded, as data may require returning to as later data is added (Merry et. al., 1983).

Unacceptable Potential Pollutant Linkages

The generalized pollutant linkages guides a user through the development of a Conceptual Site Model and the identification of Significant Pollutant Linkages that may be indicative of Significant Harm or the Significant Pollution of Controlled Waters, and into screening tools to enable the data and site to be assessed in a manageable way. Tier 2 assessments for the receptor groupings (human health, controlled waters, ecological and property) can then be accessed for those sites and data groupings where they fail the screening and thus require further study to assess their status as contaminated land. The pollutant linkages and their overall interaction as the Conceptual Site Model can be used to define the site characterization, sampling, at the next stage of assessment (Wixson and Davies, 1994).

Identifying pollutant linkages as noted by Merry et. al., (1983) is helpful in defining scales and locations of intrusive investigations, samplings as well as analyses. The volume of possible pollutant linkages which would require characterizing additionally would henceforth indicate financial involvements. With the identification of the receptors in the CSM, it is possible then to examine the tendency of an additional assessment. The acquired raw information is then made use of in refining the CSM and related pollutant linkages which are modeled according to additional site-specific-data levels.

A UP-Date of the Conceptual Site Model to Incorporate the Findings of the Site Investigation

The task at this point requires an up-date of the CSM to incorporate the findings of the site investigation utilizing the understanding of the geology and the migration pathways from the findings.

Generally, Conceptual Site Model is updatable through a number of approaches making use of existing knowledge as well as data from history; which could include a geochemical-data review for understanding the fate of contaminants as well as the transport, and then a geophysical-data review could be necessary for building feasibility-study poise and reinstatement of efforts or some biological-data review for assessing the exposure of path-ways as well as receptors. The range of literary information and the historical-data appraisals could be caught up in increasing guild-questions for the review, for assessing the historical data, as well as for presenting upshots that could front a rationalized form of the Conceptual Site Model.

In updating geochemical portions of CSMs, there is needed to make use of a historical-geochemical data-evaluation for addressing essential questions as under listed; studies have noted that:

These geochemical questions build on the work and recommendations developed in the Draft Technical Memorandum: Preliminary Geochemical Evaluation (Malcolm, 2005).

The various questions are preceded by peculiar evaluating tasks which have been fashioned to respond to the following questions:

What additional information is required of the solids transport and fate as regarding River-Irk? Under this, it is relevant to consider the total state of solid deposits in the Irk over the years. It would be obligatory to employ radionuclide-information in the establishment of the rate of confined deposits in the Irk. It would be vital to assess the effect of main flows over the solids progress as well as that of accompanying contaminations. From the information derived, the discontinuity map could be produced. Equally, the estuarine-mixing-process dynamics could be maintained to reflect concentration in a number of benchmark chemicals. And then, sources evaluations, location, loading mechanism, as well as the mechanism of transportation of the several benchmark chemicals could be conducted for the evaluation of conditions that could result in uniform mixtures.

Next, the nature and level of history of contaminates occurring in River-Irk are questioned in order to figure out the level of deposition and non-deposition in the river through the influence of the surrounding. This is achieved by calculating the amount of substance in a unit area regarding the various benchmarked chemicals for the estimation of inventories as well as the identification of concern areas. It has been noted from studies that:

&use of this calculation does not imply that MPA will necessarily be used or recommended as an action criterion in subsequent phases of the project (Merry et. al., 1983).

The evaluation of surrounding water bodies about the study location and their effect is ensured. With the sufficiency of raw information present, the evaluation of the quality of the surface-water could be conducted to enhance analyses. In a similar study, McGrath and Loveland (1992) noted:

Compare the dissolved-phase concentration and corresponding suspended phase concentration versus river mile; plot the ratio of the dissolved-phase to the sum of the dissolved-phase plus suspended phase (McGrath and Loveland 1992).

An establishment of Conceptual Site Model questions would then lend support in the identification of vital raw information which occurs in the history of the data-set and would as well create the avenue for proper guidance of anticipated samples of field efforts. For this study, an update of the Conceptual Site Model is ensured after gathering, evaluating, and validating the field data appropriately. There is a foreseen update to available geophysical survey data, classified sediment-sample, as well as sediment-physical-properties-testing-effort. Thus:

Additional CSM updates will occur with the refinement of the human health and ecological exposure pathways diagram following an upcoming&Risk Assessment Workshop (Lazarus, 2004).

Constituting a component of this Conceptual Site Model update, there is the anticipation for food-webs to be structured by the River Irk enhancing ensuring suitable receptor assignment. Additional Conceptual Site Model iterations would likewise unit the geochemical CSM as well as human-health and ecological-exposure paths for the illustration of a total path-way up to receptors. Illustrations of the feeding of site data on human health as way as the ecology has been noted as follow:

An examination of geochemical data to identify exposure point concentrations in sediment and surface water as well as to forecast temporal trends for contaminants; and an examination of geophysical data to identify transient areas in sediment beds and to identify where exposure is likely to occur (McGrath and Loveland, 1992).

The following general illustration expresses assimilating values of topographical surveys with historical maps.

The Annotated Cross Section of the Cap would be installed over the waste to achieve the remedial objectives

By definition, capping constitutes a procedure made use of in covering contaminated exposed soils for the prevention of pollutant migrations. Capping and reprofiling of the Harpurhey may include installing leachate drainage as well as clay migration (or import) to the site. The migration is directed toward a defined region. For the Harpurhey site in consideration, evidently, migrations could result from activities of rainwater and from the vertical or running movements of water on surfaces. Because caps are produced from varying fiber materials, they are known to meet task stipulations in diverse ways. These may include the prevention of water moments that are vertical over the contaminated soil and which explains the reason why reprofiling and capping of contaminated materials is resolved the most accepted remedial solution which offers the least migration-breaking-pathway cost for the Harpurhey site. The cap is such that it constitutes the following:

• water percolating into the waste;
• future recreational users of the site from coming into contact with the impacted material; and
• any contaminated run-off into the adjacent reservoir.

Generally, Capping provides appropriately-organized surface-water drains from defined sites for the prevention of stagnancy in water. There should be ease of maintenance. There must be damage resistance resulting from soil consolidation as well as from thermal emotions, Ultra-Violet emissions, and so on. The cap would need periodical monitoring to ensure that the overlying soil settles. This monitoring is majorly achieved through groundwater-monitoring wells. Cap-materials that constitute synthetic liners made use of as barriers against outside-liquid flows could last two-decade base on design. Under CLAIREs CoP, an ultimate cap requires inspection consistently in order to monitor erosion and soil settlings. Fundamentally, capping off the Harpurhey is required for minimizing rainwater or surface-water and contaminated soil contacts.

When working on the CLAIRE code, multilayer caps are usually in preference for use. It is emphasized:

This type of cap generally has four layers: vegetation, drainage, water-resistant and foundation. The vegetation layer prevents erosion of the soils of the cap. The drainage layer channels rainwater away from the cap and keeps water from collecting on the water-resistant layer which covers the waste (Lazarus, 2004).

The base layer constitutes soil materials that are able to support weights due to their structure. CLAIRE stipulates that used capping materials should cover the waste up to 6-inches. Structural stability tests are required for running on several increments of the cap for equivalence assurance.

It has been noted that:

The thickness of the water-resistant layer should be at least two feet but should be increased if settling is expected in the underlying contaminated soils. A synthetic liner should be placed and sealed according to the manufacturers specifications. The liner should be at least 20 mils thick (Lazarus, 2004).

However, thick liners could be made use of in situations whereby there is an expectation for more than a few settle-inches.

Conclusively, capping provides an acceptable contaminated-site seal technology and reduces migrations that occur beneath ground-level to improve human-heath protection as well as environmental protection.

From the guidance from CIRIA and the remedial objective of the CSM which have been discussed in earlier tasks, the following cross-sectional view of the installment over the waste for the achievement of remedial objectives is shown as follows:

Reference List

Cieniawski, T., 2008. Effects of tap water lead, water hardness, alcohol, and cigarettes on blood lead concentrations. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 37 17.

Conant, B. Paustenbach, D. Finley, B. and Long, T., 2004. The critical role of house dust in understanding the hazards posed by contaminated soils. International Journal of Toxicology 16 339362.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2006. WildNet, Online database, Fitzroy Basin Wetland Summary information.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2008. WildNet, Online database. Brisbane.

Lazarus, R., 2004. The Making of Environmental Law. University of Chicago Press: Chicago.

Malcolm, P., 2005. Survey of blood lead levels in the population in England. In Recent Blood Lead Surveys, Report R9, Institute of Environment and Health, University of Leicester.

McGrath, P. and Loveland, P., 1992. The Soil Geochemical Atlas of England and Wales. Blackie, London.

Merry, J. Tiller, K. and Alston, A., 1983. Accumulation of copper, lead and arsenic in some Australian orchard soils. Australian Journal of Soil Research, 21 549561.

R&D Technical Report P5-065/TR: BGS/EA., 2000. Some Guidance on the Use of Digital Environmental Data BGS Technical Report WE/99/14, EA NGWCLC Report NC/06/32.

Wixson, B. and Davies, B., 1994. Guidelines for lead in soil. Environmental Science and Technology 28 (1) 26A31A.

The discovery of gas and oil on the shores of the North Sea in late 1960s was the beginning of oil and gas development both onshore and offshore (Evans 2006). Onshore oil and gas development is considered to be a cheaper activity, as well as easier, in opposition to offshore. It should be mentioned that the deposits of these resources onshore decrease and it leads to widespread offshore development. The main purpose of this report is to consider the development and planning of an oil and gas field onshore, licensing of the industry and the characteristics of the operating companies and contractors.

The development and planning of an oil and gas field onshore

The Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines are considered to be the references for technical planning of onshore oil and gas field development. In accordance with these documents, oil and gas field development should be planned within the following guidelines:

1. collection of the information about seismic exploration,
2. research and production drilling,
3. development activities along with production,
4. pipelines and other transportation activities,
5. support operations,
6. decommissioning and
7. other facilities including pump stations, metering stations, pigging stations, compressor stations and storage facilities (Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines for Onshore Oil and Gas Development 2007, p. 1).

Licensing of oil and gas field development onshore

The Petroleum and Submarine Pipe-lines Act 1975 was the first collection of norms and rules devoted to the licensing of the industry. The update version of the model clauses may be considered in another document which regulates the process of gas and oil onshore, The Petroleum (Current Model Clauses) Order (1999). There is a practice of creating adjacent license groups related to fields extent (Harvey 2009, p. 5). The main idea of such groups is the development of friendly relationships between the onshore gas and oil companies located on the same territory onshore. The license should directly correspond to the development plan the company has created. To receive a license, a company should know that any oil and gas development must have the relevant consent(s) from authorities for both construction and operations (Harvey 2009, p. 3).

Operating company and contractors

There are many companies which deal with onshore gas and oil field development. It is important to note that the companies and contractors with small funds usually operate onshore as the equipment is cheaper in opposition to offshore field development. Still, even onshore oil and gas field development is rather risky. Thus, if a company of contractor drills a hole and spends $20 million on it, if the hole appears to be dry, the company loses $20 million. It should be mentioned that the new and exclusive information costs in the industry. Thus, if one company has some remarkable information, it has some priorities in the field development. The information is considered to be the main reason for initiation of exploration. Operating companies and contractors spend much amount of money to have that information (Oil and Natural Gas Exploration 2004).

Thus, it may be concluded that onshore oil and gas field development is the activity that deserves attention. The planning and licensing of the industry should be completed on the basis of the specific laws and guidelines. There are a lot of different companies and contractors which deal with onshore drilling. It should be noted that oil and gas onshore field development is cheaper in comparison with offshore development, but the deposits of onshore resources are much more less that those located offshore.

Reference List

Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines for Onshore Oil and Gas Development, 2007. [Online] International Finance Corporation: World Bank Group. Web.

Evans, et al., 2006. Mineral Planning Factsheet: Onshore Oil and Gas. British Geological Survey: Natural Environment Research Council. Web.

Harvey, T., 2009. Guidance Notes for Onshore Oil and Gas field Development plans. York: Department of Energy and Climate Change.

Oil and Natural Gas Exploration, 2004. Encyclopedia of Energy. Oxford: United Kingdom. Web.

The Petroleum (Current Model Clauses) Order 1999. No. 160. Web.

Introduction

Most governments have always taken principal responsibility in ensuring that the environment is protected and managed well for the safety of the people. Private business sectors have always been encouraged to adopt processes and behaviors that appear friendly to the environment. These are ensured through various rules and regulations, incentives, and sanctions. In many cases, it is the public sector that always suffers the responsibility of preventing environmental damage on behalf of the private sector (Nelson and Trevino).

Extreme use of natural resources has hurt human development and the world as a whole. This has led to global warming and the effects felt in various sectors of development within different economies including biodiversity. Corporate Social Responsibility has helped in the coverage of environmental implications brought about by operations within business companies. These activities include the elimination of wastes and maximization of the use of resources with present and future generations in mind. The analysis focuses on the ethical concerns faced by Virgin Blue Holdings which is one of the major airline companys in Australia, and how the management deals with these issues within the environmental setup (Wagner and Schaltegger 95-108).

Synopsis

Virgin Blue Holdings is one of the largest airlines in Australia; it provides air transport services domestically and internationally to travelers. The company started its operations in the year 2001 and since has offered travelers convenient means of traveling owing to their excellent services from experienced staff (Wagner and Schaltegger 95-108). The company regarded by most passengers as high profile recorded average profits in recent years; through the companys website, the financial performance has not been stable with net profits after tax being as low as 2%. Virgin blue enjoys a well-recognized brand and excellent management, at the same time its financial records show that it operates on low debt hence has high-profit growth annually (Richardson 12).

However, the company is faced with the issue of operating on high costs due to charges imposed by the environmental regulatory authorities on the level of carbon emissions. The company currently operates several flights to various destinations all over the world. The several trips the aircraft make, contribute to a fairly large percentage of greenhouse gas emissions which is considered a potential source of damage to the environment. Virgin Blue has to strategize on how to develop energy-efficient low carbon fuels to concur with the Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme (Virgin Blue Holdings Limited).

Statement of the view

Concerning environmental issues, many business companies have the problem of identifying their responsibility on global environmental issues and the strategies they need to implement to cope with the level of impact caused. The difficulty results from poor objectives derived from values the company stands for, which ultimately affects both the internal and external environment. The reality is that there is a rise in gas emissions brought by an increase in services provided by big companies, this is attributed to a lack of strict laid down principles on environmental safety followed by business companies.

The recent years have recorded an increase in environmental destruction leading to regulations that required limits to be placed on carbon emissions. There is also the issue of employing experienced and skilled staff who understands issues concerning leadership responsibilities geared towards the common good of their surroundings (Richardson 12).

To minimize the impact of the changes in climate and share prices on economic performance, companies should upgrade their services. Each business company that stands for ethical principles and at the same time contributes a considerable percentage of waste to the environment should plan to buy more assets and separate businesses which value higher than their total market value. The increase in asset base provides huge security to shareholders (Wagner and Schaltegger 95-108). Lots of greenhouse gas emissions and wastes come direct from operational activities, these contribute some percentage to global warming. Failure by leadership within companies to mitigate these emissions could lead to a reduction in the Gross domestic product of major countries.

Justification of the argument

The airline industry poses some impact on both social and environmental fields. A good source of leadership will, first of all, consider the impact of the companys activities and the response of the people. Virgin Blue measures the social impact through the market share it commands, currently, its domestic customer base stands at 30%. To cater to the costs of carbon emissions, the business tries to project the impact on costs to consumers by charging fair prices on their services. Restrictions imposed by countries on waste and emissions management, lead to loss of market share by some companies who may be large emitters of carbon gases. These are some of the impacts of poor values, principles, and leadership. However, it is for the benefit of the general environment which needs to be protected from the effects of global warming.

Due to concern on climatic changes, and focus on the efficiency of operational activities employed, companies should give priority to the social and environmental impact of their activities. This calls for the use of alternative sources of energy that are environmentally friendly such as bio-fuels. Various management, need to put in place some environmental responsibilities and initiatives that cater to the impact of their operations on biodiversity. They should have the ability to determine their environmental bottom line by checking on the number of wastes and emissions they contribute to the environment (Virgin Blue Holdings Limited).

Virgin Blue can comply with the governments Carbon Pollution Reduction scheme policy by reducing the level of its greenhouse gas emissions. The company has personal responsibility towards social and environmental set-up. The management could initiate the use of electricity and bio-fuels which are environmentally safe. The management could also look at ways of reducing the weight capacity of their planes. This kind of action reduces the amount of fuel burnt hence reduction in greenhouse gas emissions (Wagner and Schaltegger 95-108).

The rate at which the world climate is changing maybe a big threat to global businesses and companies. It is believed that companies will be affected by weather changes and the policies on climate that are geared towards mitigating emissions. To cater to the costs of wastes and emissions, businesses should try to project the impact of their actions on consumers. The restrictions imposed by some countries lead to loss of market share by some companies who may be large emitters of carbon gases (Wagner and Schaltegger 95-108). The level of emissions and wastes on the environment can be cut down by using more efficient leadership principles (Richardson 12).

In my view, the company may try to research environmentally friendly alternative fuels. This will make the company easily avoid restrictions imposed by the emissions trading scheme policy, hence operating its businesses freely. The other alternative that the company can utilize is to cut down on the level of fuel consumption by reducing the number of flights which will reduce sales. This will ensure that less fuel is used on the ground before take-off. The amount of weight carried should also be minimized to cut down on the fuel burnt in the air hence lowering the level of carbon emissions. For the safety of the shareholders, it should consider investing in other fields to win investors confidence

It is believed that integral human actions are directly linked to his/her relationship with the environment. In an article on conservation of the environment by Pope Benedict If You Want to Cultivate Peace, Protect Creation, the argument is that leaders within business organizations should come to realize the importance of environmental conservation. Peace with the creation through conservation and protection means peace with God.

The article calls for respect for creation amongst all business and non-business entities, all activities should be aimed at protecting and conservation of the environment. Prudent leadership results from following laid down ethics aimed at protecting both human and ecological health. Good business entities focus on rules and values that work for the common good since ecological crises cannot be separated from human development. Harming the environment creates chaos that will never bring peace to humankind; it is like an abuse to the creator whose sole purpose for creating man was to become a good manager of the environment. Moral crisis due to human actions on the environment has been experienced in every part of the world.

In the parable of Sadhu, the article highlights the importance of personal and corporate values as a means of propagating business goals. The parable highlights the consequences as a result of the break up between individual and corporate ethics. Good moral values lead to concern about our fellows hence preventing any form of danger contribution which might negatively affect their lives. Good leaders often assume ultimate responsibility for others who might be in danger of extinction. Taking valuable responsibilities beyond personal convenience are true marks of leadership within a diverse environment. Almost everybody within the trial contributed towards the well-being of the Sadhu ensuring his general safety this shows power in solidarity and corporate ethics (Richardson 118-123).

In an article on ethical leadership enlightened self-interest within businesses, most businesses believe that their role is always to make a profit. This is extensive in the case of corporations where the role of the business serves the interests of the shareholders. However, the concept of the business exists to serve the common good of the people. Business companies lose a lot when they resort to serving their interests. Given ethical leadership, Individual needs should be utilized to serve the need of the community as a whole; this is because benefits to the community are the same as benefits to an individual. In the article on Rethinking the Social Responsibility of Business, the concept of good leadership based on ethics is known for identifying responsibilities and obligations for a business based on the fact that concern for others and the environment means concern for you (Richardson).

Personal experience

One of my personal experiences was at Queensland ranch lands in Australia which bears no responsibility for their actions to the environment. The meat industry forms part of the agricultural sector from which biological production system occurs resulting in greenhouse gas emissions. The beef industry is one of the largest agricultural industries in Australia making it contribute a high percentage of greenhouse gas emissions because of ruminant emissions. These emissions are attributed to fermentation in cattle, clearing of vegetation through burning, and use of fuel energy within the beef farm premises (Meat and Livestock Australia).

The management faces the problem of choosing the grazing system that would not interfere with soil carbon. There is also the problem with the management of operations that would ensure the minimization of greenhouse gas emissions to the atmosphere. The beef industry uses a scientific approach to assess carbon emission, this makes it difficult for the industry to comply with government standards since the approach does not cater to international policies on regulations (Nelson and Trevino).

The variation in climatic conditions causes great changes in the amount of litter biomass. This is dependent on the amount of vegetation cover which is affected by the amount of available rainfall. In drought seasons the industry experiences a high amount of litter relative to forage biomass. The clearing of vegetation to create an avenue for ranch lands provides a potential source of carbon emissions, this is since the vegetation is either burnt or left to decompose.

The industry faces the problem of variation in carbon stock which depends on the condition of climatic changes and the management of grazing fields and the use of fire. Climatic changes make it difficult for re-growth to be experienced in cleared woodlands, this affects the feeding habits of the animals since forage is unavailable. The carbon in all the vegetation cleared is ultimately emitted to the atmosphere and presents a potential source of greenhouse gases (Meat and Livestock Australia).

The beef industry has to strategize on how to develop energy flow-carbon carbon fuels and also reduce the rate of vegetation clearing to concur with the governments Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme (CPRS). This is only possible through reinforcement of good leadership, and putting in place workable sustainability concepts. Less grazing activities can be practiced through the application of zero grazing. The other alternative that the industry can utilize is to cut down on the level of vegetation clearing activities and the use of fuel energy within the ranch lands (Richardson 122).

Conclusion

There is a need for deep understanding concerning the impact of waste emissions on the environment. Every business company should realize the importance of individual and corporate ethics which acts as a good moral base for environmental concern. Business industries should improve their means of managing production processes to minimize emissions. The article has successfully established main ideas giving the basis for business roles and ethics based on basic moral values.

The examples discussed show many shortcomings that always tend to distort the perfect translation from ethical business practices to a successful business. However, when business companies use appropriate ideas and models to govern their decisions concerning social and environmental responsibilities, then they will have no difficulties in engaging their professionals in the processes of making accurate, profitable ethical principles.

Works Cited

Meat and Livestock Australia (MLA). Minimizing the beef industrys impact on Climate Change. Financial review case studies, 2009. Web.

Nelson, Katherine & Linda, Trevino. Managing business ethics: Straight talk about how To do it right. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1999. Print.

Richardson, John. Annual Editions: Business Ethics 10/11. McGraw-Hill/Dushkin, 2010.

Virgin Blue Holdings Limited. Virgin Blue Holdings Limited Annual Report. 2005. Web.

Wagner, Marcus & Stefan, Schaltegger. The Relationship between The Environmental and Economic Performance of Firms. Greener Management International, 34 (2001): 95-108.

Introduction

The world is today faced with many challenges ranging from environmental problems to depletion of key resources that are very vital for the growth of the world economy. The production of fossil fuels has gone down considerably in recent years, and it is likely to be depleted shortly. Many countries are now facing serious economic challenges because of the high cost of fuel prices that have been felt across the world. In light of these challenges, various countries are now using various mechanisms to mitigate the cost of high fuel prices. For example, alternative sources of energy are now being recommended for use. This will probably reduce the high demand for gasoline that has partly led to its high cost.

In the U.S.A, many people have come up with recommendations on how to deal with environmental challenges caused by using cars that consume fossil fuels. For example, some people contend that doubling the cost of fuel prices in the USA will reduce the number of motorists and it will also compel the car manufacturers to make cars that consume less energy and are also environmentally friendly. In my view, increasing fuel prices is not a sustainable mechanism for mitigating environmental degradation caused by the excess use of fossil fuels on cars. This is because of the following reasons.

Effects of increasing Oil prices

First, it would be ironic for the government to charge high fuel prices on the pretext of saving the environment, yet other nations are struggling to keep oil prices as low as possible. High fuel prices will greatly affect the cost of maintaining cars hence people will no longer buy them. This will eventually lead to a decline in the profitability of car manufacturing industries. This is because they will have poor sales. The doubling of fuel prices will have a great impact on the entire economy of the U.S. This is because it will lead to a high cost of manufacturing basic goods. (Sterner, 2011) For example, the production process of many products often involves the use of oil. For instance, the transportation of raw materials is always done through roads and rail transportation systems which largely depend on oil energy. Therefore, the increase in the cost of fuel prices will definitely lead to the high cost of inputs and raw materials. The doubling of oil prices will also stall many factories because they will not manage to meet the high costs of production. Consequently, there will be many job layoffs and this can really affect the People working in the U.S.A.

Many consumers will also be forced to pay high prices for commodities produced using oil products (Weshthoff, 2010). As such, they will have to cut their spending on other items and services. The high prices levied on the oil products will only benefit the few individuals involved in the oil industry, while the rest will really suffer seriously. The purchasing power of most of the citizens will eventually go down and this will impact negatively on the economy of U.S. In addition to these, the economy of U.S was really affected by the recent global economic recess and it has been grappling with the state of the poor economy. Therefore, doubling pump prices will cripple the governments plan to restore economic growth.

Increasing fuel prices will actually reduce the number of motorists on the road, hence, reducing the rate of environmental degradation caused by cars. However, this will have serious effects on transportation services. For example, many transport companies will charge high prices for their services. This will still affect the citizens because they will spend more money on transport. It has also been noted with a lot of concern by environmentalists that the U.S is one of the nations with high rates of environmental pollution caused by carbon dioxide emissions. It is also true that driving cars is one of the ways through which many people pollute the environment. However, this problem can be dealt with through the following mechanisms instead of increasing oil prices in the U.S. A.

Ways of Reducing Pollution caused by Cars

First, the government should advise car manufacturers to come up with more environmentally friendly cars that do not have adverse effects on the environment. In this regard, car manufacturers in the U.S.A should therefore embrace the manufacturing of environmentally friendly cars from their counterparts in other nations like Japan, and Europe (Susmann, 2001). Cars should also be manufactured in a way that they do not consume much fuel. This can be achieved by ensuring that they do not produce toxic gases that pollute the air. The production of hybrid cars should be supported by the government through the provision of incentives to the companies that produce them (The Green Car Club, 2011). For example, they can be charged fewer taxes to enable them to produce more electric cars.

The government should come up with new rules on how the roads should be used in U.S. For example, the use of roads should be treated as a privilege and not a right. This is because when it is treated as a right, many citizens take that advantage to misuse their cars by even driving for leisure activities which also increase the rate of carbon emissions (Schwela, 1998). The roads should also be redesigned to facilitate effective driving of cars. For example, there should be specific lanes for commercial vehicles and lanes for fast cars. This will reduce traffic snarl-ups which also cause high fuel consumption by vehicles, which also results in environmental pollution. The cities should also be designed in a manner that will facilitate walking and riding of bicycles. For example, more paths can be created to make walking and cycling easier. Moreover, the roads should be designed to accommodate electric cars.

Decentralization of services can also be used as a strategy for reducing the rate of commuting. For instance, rezoning of towns and cities can facilitate easy access to services, hence, people will not have to travel long distances in order to get them. This will also make people work close to their residence and they will not have to drive to work (Kidd, 2005). The reorganization of traffic is also important in this process. For example, it should be organized in such a way that heavy commercial tracks can use the roads at night when there is less traffic on the roads. Carpools should also be rewarded and the idea of traveling to work by private cars ought to be discouraged by the government. Carpools involve a situation where people travel over long distances together in the same car (Colls, 2002).

If the public transport services can be improved by making them more comfortable, and convenient, many people can stop driving regularly. For example, electric trains can be developed in many parts of the cities because they can facilitate faster transportation of people (Leedy, 2009). Individuals who drive cars that consume a lot of fuel are supposed to be charged high taxes by ensuring that they pay high charges for their car licenses. The extra money collected from them can be used for controlling environmental problems that arise due to the use of such cars.

The government should also revoke the licenses of those people who have poorly maintained cars that pollute the environment. Besides this, car manufacturers that still produce cars that are not environmentally friendly should be stopped from operating (Evana, 2010). This can force them to produce good vehicles. Advertising expensive vehicles that consume a lot of fuel also lure people to buy them. Hence, such advertisements should also be stopped because they indirectly contribute to environmental pollution.

The cost of environmental damage and reclamation has to be added to the cost of owning and operating a car (Environmed Research Inc, 2010). For example, the cost of buying a vehicle should be raised and the government can stop giving subsidies to car owners. Even though increasing the cost of maintaining cars can be a solution, it should not involve increasing fuel prices. Drivers also need to be advised on how to best maintain their cars so that they do not pollute the environment. For example, they can be advised on various methods of saving fuel consumption in their cars.

It is also important for people to change their shopping habits. In this case, people should try to buy goods within their localities instead of driving to other places to buy them. This can limit environmental pollution. Apart from cars, there are also factories and machines, like generators, which consume fossil fuels. Such machines should also be improved so that they can be environmentally friendly. Companies can invest more in the wind and solar energy instead of relying on fossil fuels as a source of energy.

Conclusion

The environmental effects of using cars in America are likely to spiral out of control shortly if the government does not act immediately. Environmentalists have recommended various methods of mitigating the negative effects of using cars. Those recommendations should not only be adopted by the government itself, but by all U.S citizens. This is because the government cannot manage to maintain the environment without the support of the citizens. From the above discussion, it is also evident that there are better methods that can be used for reducing car pollution. Therefore, increasing fuel prices cannot be a sustainable mechanism for reducing car pollution. This is because people will still find alternative ways of meeting the high cost of fuel prices, and they will continue driving cars that pollute the environment. Environmental campaigns should not be limited to the U.S.A, but they should also be adopted in other parts of the whole world. Apart from maintaining the environment, the government is also keen on sustaining economic growth. In this case, it would be wrong for the government to adopt measures like charging high fuel prices that will hurt the economy of America.

References

Colls, J. (2002). Air Pollution: Measurement, Modelling and Mitigation. New York: Routledge.

Environment Research Inc. (2010). Cars, Trucks, Air Pollution and Health. Web.

Evana, J. (2010). Hazardous Waste Management. Chicago: Waveland.

Kidd, R. (2005). Air Pollution: Problems and Solutions. London: Chelsea House Pub.

Leedy, P. (2009). Practical Research: Planning and Design. Berkley: Prentice Hall.

Schwela, D. (1998). Urban Traffic Pollution. New York: Spon Press.

Sterner, T. (2011). Fuel Taxes and the Poor: The Distributional Effects of Gasoline Taxation and Their Implications for Climate Policy. New York: Earthscan Publications Ltd.

Susmann, G. (2001). American Politics and the Environment. New York: Longman.

The Green Car Club. (2011). A Guide to Sustainable Driving. Web.

Weshthoff, P. (2010). The Economics of Food: How Feeding and Fueling the Planet Affects Food Prices. London: Wiley.

The ecological footprint is a concept established in the past two to three decades by the environmental movement. It is designed to measure the degree of usage of the natural resources by the human beings. This is a universal concept, in the sense that it applies to every human being on the planet. All of us during our daily lives use natural resources for our daily activities and produce waste as a result of this process. As suggested by Schaller, this concept provides a simple yet elegant accounting tool that can help us see the impact of human consumption patterns on the earth (2001, p. 120).

In fact, the ecological footprint concept compares this amount of usage that we do to the natural resources with the ability of these resources to regenerate. This definition of the ecological footprint is agreed upon by all of the researchers and authors of the field. Huber is one of these authors who also agree with the definition. This short essay is a comparison between his views and opinion of the abovementioned author, Schaller. Even though, agreeing on the basis of the definition of the concept, they still have many differences concerning the reasons for the current situation in the world. Another important issue is related to possible ways of changing the situation (Huber, 2001, p. 1).

Schaller and Huber both converge on the idea that for Western societies, the findings and calculations related to the ecological footprint are less than comforting. Presenting the main arguments, Schaller (2001) claims:

The ecologically productive land of the world now totals some 3.6 acres for each of the 5.9 billion people now alive. The average North American lifestyle requires almost 10 acres of ecologically productive lands to supply its resources and absorb its wastes. Thus, the ecological demands of average citizens in wealthy countries exceed global per capita supply of resources by a factor of nearly three (p. 120).

Nevertheless, the author points out that these calculations do not take into consideration the development of new technologies both for resource use efficiency or waste management and elimination. In fact, there have been very interesting advances in these areas though the rate of technological development is lower than that of the increasing use of resources. On the other hand, Huber points out that most of the fault of the situation of the ecological footprint is due to poor countries and undeveloped ones (2001, p. 124). As he states, Despite their small appetites, developing-world countries manage to generate a lot of garbage, smoke and trash. They consume little, but they are wasteful and destructive (Huber, 2001, p. 123). He identifies the lack of capital and know-how of these undeveloped countries as the basis for such a tragic situation.

Huber tries to take the fault away from Western countries and redirects attention toward what we call the third world (2001, p. 123) in terms of development contrasted to the claims by another theoretician on this point, Schaller. Besides, these undeveloped countries are responsible for the current situation of the ecological footprint but it is a way of drawing attention to the role that other societies have in relation to the usage of natural resources. Thus, Huber states that in order to begin changing the footprint that humans leave on the environment, it is better to start with the less developed countries (Huber, 2001, p. 123).

References

Huber, P. (2001). American wealth and consumption patterns enhance the environment. In W. Dudley (Ed.), The Environment: Opposing Viewpoints (pp. 122  125). San Diego: Greenhaven.

Schaller, D. (2001). American wealth and consumption patterns degrade the environment. In W. Dudley (Ed.), The Environment: Opposing Viewpoints (pp. 118  121). San Diego: Greenhaven

Introduction

Wallace Stegner was the author of the book, Beyond the Hundredth Meridian: John Wesley Powell and the Second Opening of the West. This was a book that recounted the accomplishments made by John Wesley Powell and the troubles he went through before being successful. One of the accomplishments that John Wesley Powell is credited for in the book is his successful exploration of the Colorado River. Wesley is recognized as the first man to traverse the Colorado River through the Steep Gorges. He is also acknowledged for foreshadowing the water issues that would befall the West as a result of global warming and climate change (Stegner 216).

The water issue in the West

Stegner found out that most of the wilderness in West America had been explored apart from a few places, the Grand Canyon being one of them. The surveyors of the American government had not managed to explore the Grand Canyon on the Colorado River due to the difficulties that were involved in traversing it. One had to pass through rapids and falls that were capable of smashing boats to pieces. There were also swirling bodies of water, dangerous waterfalls and steep cliffs.

The expedition that Powell launched was meant to pass through to the Indian and other communities downstream where rainfall was rarely experienced. He was familiar with the area thus exploring it would not be a problem. He also was well aware of the fact that people who inhabited the area had a high population density that was ever-increasing. As a result, there was a very high possibility that these communities would experience water shortages in the coming years if the status was not checked. Stegner talked of the Eastern part of America being green and the West being dry. Many people noticed this difference but Powel was the first to ask and wonder what the future of the West held for that nation (Stegner 234).

Many people who had relocated to the West following the weather forecast made by the scientists and records in newspapers believed that the area would have ample rainfall to sustain their farms. They were offered free land by the government but woe unto them because they felt betrayed and cheated when no rain fell on their land. Those people who tried plowing on the land without adopting irrigation were greatly disappointed in the results.

In his book, Stegner explained how Powell intervened in the problem and formulated methods that would enable the landowners to continue settling on these arid areas while avoiding competing for water amongst themselves. He advised the people to tap the water that had resulted from the melting of snow. Due to global warming, the slight increase in atmospheric temperatures has resulted in the melting of ice on the mountains peaks that can be used at their advantage as a source of water. This water can be channeled into their farms and used for irrigation. This would result in an increase in their production hence their farms will be sustainable both in the short run and in the long run. the same method had been implemented successfully in Utah where the natives utilized water from melting ice blocks for irrigation purposes (Stegner 216).

Powell wanted the people to be self-reliant. They should not rely on the government to build for them a dam or a canal that would direct water into their farms but instead, they should use their own money to develop their lands. These visions appeared far-reached for that desperate nation but before Powell died, he watched his dreams come true as the government-funded for the building of a huge dam and canal that would lead water to the area. What followed was a success story since the small homesteads turned into mega-farms and development became rampant.

Conclusion

Stegner believes that Powell was a great influence and that his attempt to rescue the West from a possible dark future was successful as he influenced the people and changed their attitudes. His predictions were a revelation that prevented the west from facing a catastrophe that would have tremendous impacts on the lives of many people. He changed from a situation of lack of water to having too much of it.

Work Cited

Stegner, Wallace. Beyond the Hundredth Meridian: John Wesley Powell and the Second Opening of the West. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1954. Print.

The Canadian Community Health Nursing defines environmental health as such features that influence peoples health for instance the choice of life that significantly depends on factors ranging from physical through chemical to biological, all of which surround them (10). Water being one of the key components of our environment has a significant effect on human health especially as human life cannot be supported without water and neither can health be sustained in the presence of contaminated water. More recently, a report by the UN water development report revealed the case it stands on the ground where water-caused diseases are posing a threat to the lives of people with the majority losing their lives as a result.

Water is crucial for many bodily functions our bodies consist of around 70 percent water nearly all bodily functions such as blood pressure, liver, kidneys, limbs and digestive system need water to function in the best possible way. Taking into consideration the importance of water and its effect it is relatively easy to contaminate clean water or even consume contaminated water without knowing. Water, as an environmental health issue, affects human health, as it can be a carrier of a variety of diseases. The fact that water is interrelated with other environmental aspects such as soil and air qualifies as a transmitter of diseases and viruses that would move from one environmental factor to another in essence the web of Causation (Baibi and Chen 654). The recognition of the effect of the epidemiological triangle is quite crucial, as people ought to realize the interrelationship of the host, environment and agent in the process of spreading diseases and the effect that a change in any of the elements can have in the enhancement of the disease.

People in places where there is poor sanitation or the possibility of water contamination either through chemicals, mining or industrial waste are exposed to water-borne diseases suffer from diseases like diarrhoeal with at least 6,000 deaths cases registered, children taking the highest share of the issue (Nagata 12). However, there exist several recommendations I wish to put in place. Firstly, one should educate himself as well as others. One can access great resource pages to read, print them out and give out different issues relating to water. People should be water conscious. Everything relates to water, as it makes up many of the foodstuffs that they use on a daily basis. In addition, they should make environmentally smart choices in their daily lives in terms of products by eating products that come from agriculture that respects the environment and uses little pesticides, chemicals and less water than intensive agriculture. One should think of mapping his/her local water resources by creating a map with scientific, cultural, historical, wildlife, observations of where there are problems or local stories relating to a river or lake. This is a good tool to not only keep a record of what this water means to his/her community, but to educate others and to see where there are problems, and what needs to be done to ensure the protection of the resource and yourself. With the information and trends, one can monitor disease outbreaks and symptoms keep a record and report to the appropriate medical authorities on health so that they can assist in their decision-making. Further, he/she can monitor the number of patients treated for waterborne diseases such as cholera, typhoid, bacillary dysentery, polio, meningitis, hepatitis A and E and diarrhea, among others. These are diseases caused by dirty water, and most can be prevented by treating water before use.

These recommendations are in line with the Canadian Community Health Nursing Standards of Practice, which is to build individual and community capacity (15). By learning more on environmental and health effects on water and people as well as being on the lookout to the changes in the community and environment, people can be keen observers of the disease and symptom patterns it hence easier to detect an outbreak well before it becomes unmanageable. According to a report by Scientific American in 2009 rural well drinking water was directly linked to Parkinsons disease following research in the U.S.A at Californias s central valley involving over 700 people with indications of groundwater contamination from pesticides.

Works Cited

Baibi, Zuu, and Chen, Hong. The Relationship between the Skeletonema Coastatum and the Red Tide Environmental Factors. Journal of Coastal Research 25.3 (2009): 651-658.

Canadian Community Health Nursing. Standards of Practice. Toronto, Ontario: Eglinton Avenue Street, 2008.

Nagata, Valeggia. Criticisms of Chlorination. Rev Panam Salud Publica 29.1 (2011): 9-16.

Currently, a number of environmental issues, such as climate change, ozone layer depletion, and the loss of biological diversity, confront the whole world more than at any time in recent history. These major and urgent threats affect every country irrespective of who is to blame for the destruction or where the destruction has started. Due to this, every nation in the globe recognizes the need for collaboration in surmounting the threats to the global environment (DeSombre 2005, 7-8). That is why the U.S., as the worlds superpower, is playing an increasing role in aiding the environmental issues of other countries.

The UN Conference on Environment and Development, which took place on June 1992, was a milestone improvement in addressing the world environmental issues. Based on the recommendations of this conference, the UN created the Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD). The United States has been at the forefront in supporting the activities of the CSD as a primary agency for tackling environmental issues throughput the world. Besides this initiative, the U.S. has signed a number of treaties on biodiversity and climate change, which promote international collaboration for sustainable development, especially in Africa. Through these international treaties, the U.S. has been able to support the environmental issues of other countries.

The fact that uncontrolled human activities can lead to the degradation of the environment is a grave global environmental issue, which the U.S. has led the effort in response to this threat. Developed nations, including the U.S., have established specific action plans to reduce the release of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. Consequently, other nations have also adopted this initiative, with the assistance of the industrialized nations.

In September 1994, the United States established the U.S. Climate Change Report that outlines the countrys strategies of tackling the escalating threat of global climate change, and the report includes the United States Initiative on Joint Implementation (USIJI). The USIJI aids projects in other nations that are intended to significantly lower the release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere (U.S. Department of State 1995, para. 8).

To date, the initiative has supported various projects in several countries. The degradation of the ozone layer is an increasing international environmental concern. Beginning with the agreement in 1978 to prohibit the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) as well as other ozone-depleting chemicals in non-essential aerosols, the U.S. has led initiatives to deal with this danger; consequently, the country has insisted on the ratification of the accord to ban the use of these dangerous chemicals in every country in the world.

An essential goal of the United States international environmental policy is the conservation of the worlds natural resources (Harris 2001, 3-5). It pursues this by means of a combination of bilateral and multilateral activities. For example, it is a signatory of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). CITES has been important in the efforts of the U.S. to check and control the species endangered due to illegal international trade. In addition, the United States tackles the issue through other means such as increasing the financial support of forest conservation programs in developing countries. In financing environmental protection in other countries, the U.S. aims to ensure that environmental considerations are taken into account.

Reference List

DeSombre, Elizabeth R. 2005. The Global Environment and World Politics. London: Continuum International Publishing Group Ltd.

Harris, Paul G. 2001. The environment, international relations, and U.S. foreign policy. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.

U.S. Department of State. 1995. Fact Sheet: Global Environmental Issues. Bureau of Public Affairs. Web.

Increasing environmental awareness emphasises numerous situations in engineering where there are possible harmful environmental effects (Geotechnical Engineering n.d.). The techniques and information relating to environmental geotechnics enable engineers and construction planners to choose the appropriate courses of action that offer the best practices from both the engineering and environmental perspectives (Sarsby 2000, p. 12). Currently, there are various ground and geotechnics fundamental principles relating to engineering practices, which go a long way into interacting with the environment. Thus, Environmental Geotechnics combines the current frame of environmental aspects knowledge of ground engineering (Van Impe 1998, p. 163). This includes landfills and polluted land. These are significant areas for engineers dealing within the geotechnics field, the environment, and geology as well as waste and water management (Benson 1999, p.6).

Geotechnical engineering mainly adopts the rock and soil mechanics principles in investigating subsurface materials and conditions (Briaud 2013, p.9). The concept seeks to determine the appropriate chemical and physical/mechanical properties of such materials. The Love Canal in the United States of America is linked with environmental geotechnics (Kahn 2007, p. 17). The Love Canal tragedy is famous as a significant cause of groundwater pollution. This tragedy occurred in Niagara Falls, in the city of New York between 1940 and 1950 (Fowlkes & Miller 1987, p.58). The pollution disaster experienced at Love Canal is significant because it assisted in creating the Superfund, which is a federal program introduced in the 1980s to detect and improve handling of hazardous chemical waste sites in America (Hertz 1996, n.p.). Environmental geotechnics evaluates the artificial soil deposits of such a site to prove if it is safe for construction. There are various risks involved in any constructed sites and here the principles of geotechnics engineering come in handy in assessing the risks posed by the Love Canal. Furthermore, through the environmental geotechnics concepts, it became possible to monitor the conditions of the site as well as its earthwork foundation (Brook, 2006).

Altaner asserts that the Love Canal disaster suggests that the civil engineering products must be in harmony with nature (Altaner 2012). Environmental geotechnics lays emphasis on the engineers work, their work environment, the utilization and reliability of their ground characterization and ground-testing methods, the design and planning process, and lastly the devices that fit with nature in meeting the projects goals (Altaner 2012).

In the analysis of the geological point of view of the Love Canal disaster, it is clear that the site forms an environmental project comprising an open trench, which was later on filled with harmful chlorinated biological wastes (Kahn 2007, p. 17). This resulted from a chemical plant in the Niagara Falls. An elementary school and a residential area were built immediately neighbouring the landfill causing an environmental disaster. Environmental geotechnics application on the site started shortly upon the discovery of chemical wastes in the gardens of homes beside the canal (Briaud 2013, p.9).

The Conestoga-Rovers & Associates (CRA) was employed as the environmental firm charged with the responsibility of investigating the canals chemical presence as well as establishing a plan to look into the disaster (Environmental Site Assessment and Remediation 2012). CRA initiated a investigation of the chemical presence, established a remedial plan, and offered construction supervision for its enactment. The ditch at the site was ignored before it had generated hydroelectric power and remained unused for commercial purposes for several years (Ploughman 1997, p.118). In 1920s, the Niagara Falls started dumping urban waste into the Love Canal. Later on in the 1940s, there was dumping of a nuclear bomb wastes emanating from World War II by the US army. Hooker Chemical obtained the site in 1942 lining it with clay. Later on the company added into the Love Canal close to 21,000 tons of harmful chemical wastes (Jefferson et al. 2007, p. 59). These included dioxin, PCBs and carcinogens covering them with additional clay. The firm later on sold the plot to the school board of Niagara Falls and included a section in the trading contract. This contained a description of the land use which also absolved the company from any future injury claims from the waste under the land (Fletcher 2003, p.6). The school quickly constructed a public school on this site and went ahead to sell the neighbouring land for a housing project along the canal banks. During the process of building, canal walls were breached and a few of the metal butts were destroyed.

Eventually, the toxic chemical waste infiltrated into peoples basements. Gardens and trees began to die (Logue1996, p.12). There were also bizarre smells as well as some substances that were reported by the dwellers. Phosphorus elements seeped to the top surface (Benson, Tamara & John 2009, p.16). Moreover, children in the schools yard experienced toxic waste burns. The Love Canal was one of the worst environmental disasters to happen in the United States.

The authorities were informed, but they did not take any action. The whole disaster narrows down to the government in its legalization of disposing off toxic wastes. Permitting chemical firms to dump off toxins may be cheap and convenient for the government, but the Love Canal incident costed the Americans lands and lives (Gibs 2008). The government ignored the effects of the chemicals of the discarded wastes. It did not forbid firms to dump their waste products. The governments permission shows the little attention it paid to the imminent danger the wastes posed. If the government had closely examined this site in line with its Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, this catastrophe could not have occurred (Love Canal-A Brief History n.d.).

Furthermore, if the local officials took action immediately they had been alerted, the disaster could have been averted. The disaster can also be primarily attributed to the engineers and city planners. Proper application of environmental geotechnics by these engineers would increase environmental awareness to avert the possible harmful environmental effects resulting from the construction (Americas 10 worst man-made environmental disasters 2013).

The Love Canal is the first biggest artificial disaster to affect America as described by some health and environmental related studies. Due to the interests in the grassroots and media attention, the Love Canal disaster offers an impetus for intense interest in modifications to environmental fears globally (Ploughman 1997, p.120).

Conclusively, the love canal tragedy represents an error by different institutions and individuals that are the most powerful in American history. Civil engineering structures have to be in harmony with nature. This essay provides that there are several environmental geotechnics fundamental principles that are rarely associated with engineering practices. These associations interact with the environment. Thus, the Love Canal tragedy signifies the relevance of identification of harmful waste as well as the correct disposal of harmful waste for public health protection.

Bibliography

Altaner, S 2012, Case Study: The Love Canal Disaster, Web.

Americas 10 worst man-made environmental disasters, 2013, Web.

Benson, C 1999, Environmental geotechnics in the new millennium. Keynote lecture. Proceedings of the twelfth regional conference for Africa on soil mechanics and foundation engineering, vol. 1, pp. 9-22.

Benson, M, Tamara, D & John, E 2009, White-collar crime from an opportunity perspective. Springer New York.

Brook, M 2006, The Tragedy of the Love Canal, Web.

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Introduction

Ecology as a scientific discipline comprehensively covers global processes and the study of habits of marines, animals, and plants. It also covers specific adaptations and reactions of these species to their natural surroundings. This paper will try to explore the definitions of ecology and ecological fallacy. (Townsend, et al., 2005).

Detailed definition of ecology and ecological fallacy

Ecology is the study of the relations that living things have with respect to each other and their physical surroundings. An organism in this context is any living thing such as animals, microorganisms, fungus, or plants that responds to environmental change, reproduction, growth, and development. Ecological study is not closely associated with environment, natural history, or environmental science in any form. However, it is in close connection to four basic studies, which are physiological ecology, population ecology, community ecology, and ecosystems ecology. Physiological ecology is a branch of ecology concerned with the response of living organisms to environmental elements such as light and temperature (Berkman & Kawachi, 2000). Population ecology is the study of ecology focusing on the abundance and spread of individual living organisms and the resulting factors that cause this distribution. Community ecology deals with the number of living organisms found within a given area and their interactions. Ecosystems ecology is the study of the structure and the overall set of microbes, animals and plants and their physical environment (Townsend, et al., 2005).

Ecologists seek to address five basic issues namely, life processes and adaptations, the spread and abundance of living organisms and the movement of materials and energy in living things. Other issues addressed are the succession growth of ecosystem and the abundance and spread of biodiversity in the environmental context. From the human science perspective, Human ecology is a branch of ecology that deals with the relationship between individual persons and communities with their respective social environments. This may involve the application of ecology in conservation biology, natural science management, community health, wetland management, city planning and the social interaction of human (Townsend, et al., 2005).

Ecological fallacy is a condition that occurs when a researcher or analyst obtains a claim concerning individual with respect to his/her observation of aggregate data of a group. Fallacy in this context refers to false argument in justification resulting in misconception. It is an anomaly which emerges when someone apply statistical data incorrectly (Changing Minds, 2011). A conclusion made from data collected here depends upon the aggregate data collected for a specific group. A good example of ecological fallacy is, a researcher may closely inspects the group data of a given citys income and realize that the average income of the city residents is $40,000. This information may be true, but ecological fallacy can occur when the researcher re-states that the peoples earning in the area is about $40,000. This may be false and is referred to as ecological fallacy based on the previous statement (Hall, 2010).

Examples of ecological fallacy

Exception fallacy

This usually happens when researchers use statistics concerning an individual to provide conclusion on a group of people. This often occurs when the researcher or analyst happens to be in a hurry when classifying a group of people. The researcher may opt to use the little information he/she have even when sometimes the information is statistically invalid. Example of exception fallacy is when a train passenger in the first-class compartment appears rude and arrogant to his colleague who walks into the same compartment. The colleague then makes a conclusion that all first-class passengers are arrogant (Hall, 2010).

Stereotypes

This is a type of ecological fallacy, which assumes the groups are of the same kind and nature. A stereotype is a generalization concerning a group of population whereby a defined set of features to this group takes an attribute. For example, when diagnosis done to a group of students in a given school is shows the group has lower IQ average compared to the overall student population, it is wrong to assume that all the group members have a lower IQ compared to the whole student population (Hall, 2010).

Conclusion

The study of ecology should not just be taken as a collection of principles and ideas that one learn in class or perhaps read from a book as it may be taken. It is more of a method of scrutinizing at the world with emphasis on the assessment and knowledge of how different species socially match together and how each species influences one another (Hall, 2010).

References

Berkman, F. L., & Kawachi, I. (2000). Social Epidemiology. 1st ed. New York: Oxford University Press.

Changing Minds. (2011). Exception fallacy. changingminds.org. Web.

Hall, C. (2010). Ecological energetic: Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds.Cutler J. Cleveland. eoearth.org. Web.

Townsend, C. R., et al. (2005). Ecology: From individuals to ecosystems. 4^th ed. Wiley-Blackwell.