Shale gas production has a list of economic and practical advantages. For this reason, the mining companies were able to quickly establish the production of shale gas throughout the US, offering monetary compensation to the residents of the regions where the production was carried out. At the same time, the process of extracting gas from the bowels of the earth is associated with environmental pollution. For example, in Dimock, Pennsylvania, after Cabot began producing shale gas, many residents faced the problem of air, light, and water pollution with harmful chemicals.
The water in some local wells began to contain such a significant amount of gas that one well exploded from a spark produced by pumping equipment. It is noteworthy that after the Cabot company agreed with the residents on the extraction of shale gas, the government provided the company with benefits and advantages. In Pennsylvania, policymakers encouraged fracking by removing many regulatory constraints (Withgott and Laposata 160). In particular, fracking was exempted from seven major federal environmental laws, including the National Environmental Policy Act and the Safe Drinking Water, allowing industrial companies to avoid ecological reporting.
Companies no longer had to report the level of pollution they produced and the inventory of chemicals in local water, soil, and air. However, after local activists and the press organized a campaign to condemn the action, the EPA stepped in and conducted a series of water tests in the wells. Although violations were identified, the EPA stated that Cabot is addressing these issues. Another example was lifting a ban on shale gas production in Denton, Texas when the government ignored a public request to stop production within the city limits (Withgott and Laposata 168). Therefore, even though public and government regulation of environmental protection issues is the most effective method of combating industrial companies irresponsibility, the state does not always make decisions to protect public interests.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was created in 1970 during Nixons presidency. Its primary purpose is conducting and evaluating research, monitoring environmental quality, setting and enforcing standards for pollution levels, and assisting the states in meeting the standards. EPA work also suggests enforcing governmental ecological laws, including the Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, TSCA, RCRA, and others ( Laws and Regulations ). One of the challenges the EPA faced in 2015 while preparing the report on fracking hazards for drinking water was companies reluctance to share information about the pollution generated. As a result, the report contained only a small amount of data, which was not enough to impact companies.
If I had the opportunity to speak directly with the current leader of the EPA, Andrew Wheeler, I would suggest that the EPA adhere to its research rather than rely on companies data. Besides, it seems that the EPA could also focus on drawing up alternative plans for the economic development of regions where industrial enterprises will be stopped due to high pollution levels. Then, since most EPA decisions are made by politically appointed administrators advised by EPA devoted scientists, I would suggest bringing up the issue of responsibility for decision making. It seems dangerous that the decisions of the most trusted organization, which is a part of the executive branch, depend on a particular presidents preferences and moods. Therefore, I would suggest giving more power to ordinary members of the EPA who have no personal, political, or economic interests and could make more responsible decisions.
Works Cited
Laws and Regulations. EPA, n.d. Web.
Withgott, Jay, and Matthew Laposata. Essential Environment: The Science behind the Stories. 6th ed., Pearson, 2019.
The environment that the contemporary society lives in constantly suffers from various human activities. For instance, the city population growth requires local authorities to build new houses and apartment complexes. What is more, people move to capitals and big towns and, while having a desire to provide themselves and their families with good life, they develop their businesses by building offices, shops, and restaurants. All these practices require the use of specific construction materials that have a direct influence on the environment. The traditional ingredients prove to be detrimental for the soil and air, meaning that they deplete resources for future generations (Balogh). A personal experience of working in the construction industry for 20 years, has also showed what influence the building process has on the environment and encouraged to look for more sustainable resources.
If people continue using materials and engage in building practices that have a negative effect on the world, the environment will continue to suffer and cause problems for millions of individuals all around the world. Environmental challenges will not only lead to significant issues for the soil, air, and wildlife but also contribute to the appearance of various health conditions for human beings. As it was already mentioned, this project is motivated by the personal experience of working in the industry and witnessing the detrimental impact of traditional materials on the environment. Moreover, this issue should be important for the general public because everyone is interested in leading a healthy life and living in appropriate environmental conditions.
Recommendation
Considering all the discussed problems and adverse consequences for the environment, the purpose of the proposed project is to encourage construction organizations and agencies to use concrete made from environmentally friendly materials. In the contemporary world, where individuals are slowly trying to move towards sustainable living, information about the strength, durability, and indestructible nature of concrete as a resourceful building material is emerging (Balogh). This ingredient is considered to be a friend of the environment throughout its production and implementation procedure, which makes it a perfect choice for sustainable construction (Balogh). Therefore, of this material is used largely in the industry, it will bring many benefits to the environment and citizens of the world.
Companies are not educated enough about the concrete produced form sustainable materials; thus, while being encouraged to use it in their operations, they have to be provided with information about it. When most individuals think of concrete, they refer to cement, water, and sand; however, they have no idea that these elements can be recycled to produce a better and sustainable concrete (Day). The green concrete does not overuse the essential natural resources and is a perfect way to build an environmentally friendly house which will also be strong and aesthetically pleasing (Day). Hence, while having enough knowledge about the advantages of concrete, construction associations will be encouraged to use it in their operations.
Personal Qualifications, Knowledge, and Interest
As mentioned earlier in the paper, my interest of promoting the environmentally friendly concrete is based on the personal experience of working in the construction industry for 20 years. Throughout my career, I was able to work with various materials and notice their influence on the building process, the environment, and the outcomes. Instead of just doing my job, I always tried to look for better ways to organize the procedure and produce positive results. In addition, I am highly interested in the topics of sustainability and environmentalism. I have a significant amount of knowledge about problems that exist in the contemporary world and constantly try to make a contribution to promoting positive change by using environmentally friendly materials in the construction process. For this reason, I would love to encourage other organizations and companies to educate themselves about the sustainable concrete and use it in their projects in order to make the world a better place to live in.
Plan for Getting Started: Work Accomplished, Preliminary Findings, Materials
While conducting preliminary research, I mainly focused on finding credible information available online. I started my search by using such key words as concrete, sustainability, environment and then, after collecting some basic information, I continued with using more descriptive words and phrases. This method gave me a possibility to look at a variety of internet sources and carefully analyze their content by taking into account my professional knowledge and experience. I located a big number of articles and interviews and excluded those that did not match the main idea of my project or provided misleading information. Currently, I have three useful and, most importantly, credible internet sources, such as websites NBC News and The Concrete Network, and a blog Everything About Concrete by Mike Day. With their help, I was able to find out that the environmentally friendly concrete is four times more resistant to water infiltration which means that buildings made of it stand firmer and better (Baggaley). Consequently, by using a specific research strategy, I identified a few informative sources that will be essential for my future analysis and topic discussion.
When working on my final formal recommendation report, I will focus on locating more information in academic journals. In order to provide the general public with appropriate information, it is required to conduct extensive research in such databases as EDSCOhost, JSTOR, ERIC, Elsevier, and Google Scholar. Therefore, more time will be spent on finding and analyzing up-to-date and informative articles about sustainable concrete and its positive influence on the environment.
Plans for Completion, Work Remaining
Since I currently use only three sources that I found online, I will have to conduct more secondary research on the topic of my interest. I will mainly focus on locating books, research articles, and studies in the EBSCOhost database which has proved to be a credible source of information on a variety of issues. Even though I do not plan on organizing any interviews as a way to collect raw data and conduct primary research, I will largely use my professional knowledge by applying it to evidence found in published articles and researches.
There is a significant amount of work that has to be done in order to complete the final version of the report. It is essential to organize the work properly and create a written schedule of all the tasks that have to be completed. For instance, I currently possess four additional sources about the advantages of sustainable concrete that I am planning to use in my project; thus, they have to be read and analyzed carefully. In addition, I have to implement various ideas that I have regarding the way of transforming a short report into a longer one. These practices include extending the most important points, adding evidence from the sources, and proving personal insights and ideas.
The list of tasks is the following:
10.30 Finish the proposal and submit it
11.03 Finish reading the articles and books that I found
11.05 Go through my notes and analyze the data
11.07 Start writing the short report
11.10 Finish my short report and start transforming it to a longer one
11.20 Finish my draft of the final report
11.25 Talk to the instructor and ask questions
11.30 Make corrections according to suggestions given by the instructor
12.05 Finish editing and producing the final report
Overall, using concrete made of sustainable materials will have a positive influence on everyone involved in the situation directly and indirectly. By following the recommendation of the project, construction companies can advance their operations by building environmentally friendly homes that will be of the highest quality. Moreover, the general public will also benefit from the use of green concrete because it will not only have an opportunity to live in innovative houses but also receive positive influence on its physical well-being in the long-term perspective.
Nevertheless, the main agent that will benefit from the sustainable concrete is the environment. It is suggested that this material is more elastic than ordinary concrete, meaning it might be a better choice for construction projects in areas prone to earthquakes (Baggaley). In addition, walls from the environmentally friendly concrete can be used as batteries to store energy that comes from solar panels (Baggaley). Thus, the environment will receive a number of advantages from concrete made of sustainable materials.
Works Cited
Baggaley, Kate. Green Concrete Can Be Game-Changer for Construction Industry. , NBC News, 2018, Web.
Balogh, Anne. Concrete Sustainability. The Concrete Network, 2020. Web.
Day, Mike. Building Green with Concrete. Everything About Concrete, 2020. Web.
Energy is one of the driving forces behind economic development and the implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. It plays a significant role in mitigating climate change, and its recognition in society is critical. However, there is a serious disconnect between agreed energy and climate targets and the currently used approaches. This conflict suggests the need for a solution that would satisfy both sides, and the consideration of the problem in various aspects will contribute to revealing possible ways to find a compromise. Since environmental concerns and economic benefits go hand in hand, it is vital to address all spheres of their mutual influence. Hence, the development of a national strategy, the use of alternative energy, and participation in the innovative industry will help to decrease harm to the environment and lessen the United States dependence on fossil fuels.
Significance of the Problem
The escalation of the problem with fossil fuels started several years ago with the political decisions of the United States and China, and their actions highlight the importance of the issue. These two largest economies with the most significant global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions announced their accession to the Paris Agreement (Geri & McNabb, 2017). Naturally, the U.S. withdrawal announced by President Trump on June 1, 2017, attracted close attention to the U.S. energy policy, which is in dire need of reducing dependence on fossil fuels (Geri & McNabb, 2017). Their decisions received much resonance in the world and worsened the situation from the perspective of environmentalists.
Another factor that increased the concerns about the production of fossil fuels is climate change as one of the principal challenges of the present-day world. Since it is one of the imperatives of sustainable development agenda, the emphasis is on preventing complications in this area. If these trends continue, with the current share of fossil fuels remaining and electricity demand nearly doubling by 2050. In that case, emissions will exceed the carbon limit allowed by limiting global warming to 2 degrees Celsius (Schirone & Pellitteri, 2017). In this way, the level of emissions would be disastrous for the planet (Ladislaw & Barnett, 2019). This consideration adds to the necessity to re-orientate the countrys policies regarding environmental protection.
The situation with oil is especially critical in the United States since the country is one of the leaders in the field. Domestic production provides about half of the crude oil required, including conventional oil, various condensates, and shale oil (Geri & McNabb, 2017). Over the past ten years, the country has consistently ranked among the top three world oil producers, periodically occupying first place in these three. Moreover, crude oil production in the United States has significantly grown due to increased efficiency from the use of horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing technologies (Geri & McNabb, 2017). This circumstance defines a predominant influence of the country on the global environment.
However, oil production in the United States is not the only sphere that poses a threat to the world, and it is complemented by the production of shale natural gas. Due to the shale revolution, the country has become its largest producer in the world. This situation consequently led to a drop in prices for this energy carrier and its availability. The result of the shale revolution is the fact that the share of shale gas in the total national natural gas production in the United States has reached 40% (Ladislaw & Barnett, 2019). The advantage of shale gas production, in contrast to the largest conventional fields, is its proximity to consumption centers. Thus, it indicates even a greater likelihood of its development compared to oil production and, therefore, a bigger threat.
Solution to the Problem
Since the principal factor contributing to the worsening of the environmental conditions is the support of gas and oil production by the government, the solution to the problem should start with the change in policies. The withdrawal from the Paris Agreement showed that the U.S. Presidents administration deliberately undermines global efforts to save humanity from global climate change and discourages the formation of balanced national energy policy (Ladislaw & Barnett, 2019). The rise to power of President Trump has fundamentally changed the face of Washingtons energy policy. He placed political goals above the needs of the worlds population, and this fact triggered the conflict. Hence, to compensate for the shift, they should consider developing a comprehensive national strategy for the environment.
At present, there are many opportunities to reduce emissions in the energy sector. The most significant among them are reducing energy consumption and the industrys carbon intensity by using other sources of energy and controlling CO2 emissions (Schirone & Pellitteri, 2017). Specific steps in this direction are already being taken in the leading countries, in particular, in the USA. Over the past 10-15 years, the latters energy policy has undergone significant changes since structural shifts have been outlined in many energy sectors. Improving energy efficiency has helped curb rising energy consumption in the United States. However, oil continues to be a key source of energy, and transition to other energy sources is needed.
The presidential administration cannot resist the rapid development of new technologies. Nevertheless, it is still oriented on domestic reserves of fossil fuels. The achievement of energy independence from oil and gas through the focus on renewable resources seems to be the optimal solution, but the government is still hindering it. Their current measures for improving energy efficiency in the United States do not reflect the needs of the time. Thus, in April 2019, the USAs total installed renewable energy capacity exceeded the capacity of coal-fired power plants for the first time (Motyka, 2019). Hence, the protection of the countrys sovereignty and national security should be performed considering the world trends rather than the old ways.
Another measure that will allow solving the problem of oil and gas production in the country and the dependence on it is the shift from coal-fired power plants to alternative power plants. It is gradually happening, but the support of the government is needed to promote renewable energy use. Since 2018, no new coal-fired power plants have been built in the United States, and this is despite the position of Donald Trump, who called for the revival of coal energy (Motyka, 2019). This fact leads to the conclusion that state governments should ignore federal directives and foster the development of alternative energies on their own. Therefore, the solution to the problem would be becoming part of an emerging innovative industry.
Conclusion
The use of alternative energy sources and the construction of renewable energy plants all over the world determine the trends of countries further economic development. However, the United States policies contradict the world trends thereby undermining the efforts of governments to establish the balance between environment and profits and hindering their own progress. In order to solve this problem, the country should consider the creation of a national strategy once it does not support the Paris Agreement, perform the transition to alternative energy and promote its use on a state level. In this way, the United States will ensure national security and independence from other governments in the long run and comply with the needs of the world.
References
Geri, L., & McNabb, D. (2017). Energy policy in the U.S.: Politics, challenges, and prospects for change. Routledge.
Ladislaw, S., & Barnett, J. (2019). The changing role of energy in the U.S. economy. CSIS.
Motyka, M. (2019). 2019 renewable energy industry outlook. Deloitte.
Schirone, L., & Pellitteri, F. (2017). Energy policies and sustainable management of energy sources. Sustainability, 9, 1-13. Web.
Nothing is as confusing as telephone calls that warn people of imminent destruction from explosions and other forms of attacks. This is because there is the likelihood that the person would be playing with the organization or the individuals concerned. It is also possible that there is the alleged danger and any time-wasting is a sure way of sending lives and property down the drain. The space between the two possibilities creates confusion. In this essay, I will explain what I will do in my capacity as the harbormaster after receiving a phone call informing me of the presence of a bomb in the quay, which is the ship landing area at the port. I choose to have a separate Port Facility Security Officer (PFSO) for this essay. The essay will end with a brief conclusion.
Body
To begin with, there is an extreme need for clear thought and discipline especially in times of emergencies (Finlay & Drewitt 25). I will therefore try to be as composed as possible to ensure that I am aware of every action that I will be doing since in the long run, it will have a huge implication on not only the port facility but the lives of the employees and other people attached to the port facility. Figuring out how to use the available security resources to minimize damage is the main focus of any security actions that I will take. The major considerations in my thinking will be the employees who will be reporting to work without knowing of the imminent blast or the security scare; if it turns out to be a hoax.
The three ships that are ready to get to the harbor with one carrying gas and the other two carrying methanol, all of which are inflammable materials will also have to be dealt with to protect both the crew members as well as the ships and the contents. With all these in mind, the single available human resource other than me is the Port Facility Security Officer (PFSO) and this means that efficiency and speed will make a difference.
The Port Facility Security Officer (PFSO) will be given a quick briefing regarding the message from the anonymous caller. This will be followed by quick access to the communication resources in the office such as telephones to make the required communication to the relevant agencies (Finlay & Drewitt 23). The immediate concern is to treat the threat as a real one with the possibility of not only destroying the port facility but also killing several people and destroying ships as well. The first call will be to the bomb squad. A quick explanation of the case will be made and the significance of observing time will be stressed.
Meanwhile, all the people within the port will be given messages using the ports communication equipment such as the intercom or loudspeakers to move out of the facility immediately. The alarm system will be switched on to ensure that the attention of all the people at the port is not missed. The Port Facility Security Officer (PFSO) will handle this segment of evacuation as I handle outreach or calling for outside intervention. After setting the alarm and the intercom, we will leave the port facility with all the portable communication equipment to continue with the evacuation. This is necessary to avoid being killed in case an explosion occurs at any point.
As the bomb squad personnel prepare to come, the police, emergency services, the security agencies of the government, the ships enforcement agency, security and intelligence services, local and national resilience forums, and customs will be informed (Finlay & Drewitt 23).
The security and intelligence services will particularly focus on tracking the origin of the call that was made to my office and the possibility of finding not only the caller but his credibility. The police will be called upon to stop the entry of both vehicles and people to the port facility. They will also clear the way for the evacuation of all the people and other crucial items that can be moved from the port facility if this can assist reduce any danger to people and property.
The notification of the agencies and organizations mentioned above will help not only handle the chaos that will arise if there is an explosion but also deals with those who will be affected by the trauma caused by a scare if the call is discovered to be false. The extra help from the agencies will also give the space for dealing with the ships that are on their way to the port. The best way that I will use in handling the ship that is on its way to the port will be the utilization of the Automatic Identification System to know the identity of the ships and their location.
Since they are nearly arriving at the port, communicating directly to the captains and the other crew members to inform them of the situation and advising them to make a diversion or a turnabout will be my focus. Therefore I will contact the crew and inform the pilot who is about to be picked by the cutter not to come out of the ship but instead steer it in a different direction as the situation at the port gets a thorough security check. The same communication will be done to the two other ships that are carrying methanol. What if the communication systems of the port have been compromised by the attackers? Is this possible?
Interference with the port communication systems by the attackers is a possibility. If they were able to sneak an explosive to the quay, only the phone system may be functional probably spared so that they would communicate to the office regarding the bomb. If the communication system through which the other ships can be reached is disabled or not functioning, the smaller boats or ships that are at the port will be made use of. This will take extra waiting as the plots to these vessels will have to be allowed into the facility after being called from either their homes or wherever location they may be during the emergency.
These vessels will be directed to the directions of the incoming ships to ensure that the message regarding the chaotic nature of the port is delivered and the ships are redirected to other routes. This is however an option that is possible if the pilots for the light vessels are easily accessible. In case the captains are far away and they have to walk through the port to access the vessels, this is a potential risk in that they can be killed in case the explosion occurs. In this scenario, other means of communication such as the use of helicopters or vessels launched from different safe areas will be used to reach out to the approaching ships and guide them to safe areas.
Leaving the above aside, it is good to assume that by this time the bomb squad has arrived at the port and everyone has been evacuated from the facility. If the explosion will not have occurred, a roll call for the personnel who take care of the port and who may have been at the facility as well as the other employees will be taken at their point of assembly. This is necessary to ensure that no individual is trapped at any location in the port. It is also a way of trying to establish if there may have been any involvements of the people attached to the port in the security breach.
In addition to the above, security personnel who will have arrived in general and the bomb experts, in particular, will be consulted to give guidance on where the other parties will be positioned so that in case of an explosion, help to those in danger will be offered as efficiently as possible. The reason for this is that if some of the agencies such as the emergency services situate their camp close to the port facility; their personnel may be killed by the explosion; in case it occurs. Therefore the bomb experts will help calculate the worst-case scenario assuming the heaviest bomb explodes and use this calculation to decide the safest distance to have each of these agencies camps. The police force, the armed services, and the other law enforcement agencies will help in enforcing these instructions. What then happens from here?
At this point, there are two directions that my actions will take as the harbormaster. The first direction will be determined by whether the explosion will have occurred while the other will be dictated by the absence of an explosion. The absence of an explosion can be due to the disarming of another bomb by the bomb squad or the confirmation of the possibility that the call was not made by a genuine person and therefore there was no bomb.
If the bomb will have exploded by this time, the emergency services at the port will be guided to all areas of the port to deal with all the facets of an explosion. The firefighters will be shown around the port and shown any helpful items that may not have been destroyed by the explosion. But this will be after the bomb experts have declared the port safe to handle. The people who may have gotten injured by the explosion will also be attended to by the on-sight medical team who I will have informed even before the explosion but after the anonymous call.
The other angle is the direction of my actions if there happens to be no bomb or the bomb squad manages to disarm the bomb safely. In this case, my responsibility will be to ensure that the port returns to normal operations but with serious security measures. A thorough check of the entire port will be the first thing to authorize. The aim for this will be to establish the areas of vulnerability and what might have been compromised for the attackers to deliver the explosive to the quay. The work of the Port Facility Security Officer will come in handy as he will be required to assemble his security team and check the entire port area.
I will also order check and control systems for both vehicles and people entering the port and this will be done to the maximum instead of the usual 20% check on human traffic. The intensity of security actions will also differ depending on whether there was a bomb that the bomb squad disabled or the call was not credible and therefore there was no bomb. How will the actions differ?
Disarming the bomb and avoiding an explosion still means that the port is vulnerable and the security system has been seriously compromised. Therefore I will order that thorough checks are carried out and the compromised areas are identified and appropriate action is taken immediately. Liaison with intelligence services as well as other security and emergency agencies will be at maximum levels in case their help is needed. On the other hand, if the call turns out to be a hoax, chances are that no compromise may have been done to the security of the port. My actions will therefore focus mainly on restoring calm and normal operations while security concerns are given a thorough assessment by the Port Facility Security Officer.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the evacuation of the port will be a priority as a way of avoiding losing human life. Involving the relevant government agencies such as the security and intelligence services and the emergency services will also be prioritized to ensure that the help needed to stop the approaching ships from sailing to danger is availed. The coordination of operations in dealing with emergencies if the explosion occurs will be also of importance as will be the restoration of normal operations if an explosion does not occur.
Work Cited
Finlay, Alexe & Drewitt, Jerry. Port Security and the ISPS Code. London:IIR Limited, 2010. Print.
Neither Los Angeles nor San Francisco urban forests have generated much scholarly interest and, thus, there are not too many scholarly works that pertain to the state of these forests specifically. Still, it is possible to find some studies that note merely list quantitative data provided by the United States Forest Service or Urban Forestry division or the corresponding municipalities but also analyze this data. Authors explore and identify different tendencies related to the development and state of the urban forests in some of Californias largest cities.
Main body
One common point that the scholars agree on is that Californias natural landscape consists mostly of treeless prairies, resulting in a tiny natural percentage of the tree canopy. For example, Pataki et al. (2013) point out that, in Los Angeles, trees have been introduced to a city that was dominated by grasslands and shrublands prior to urbanization (p. 17). The same applies to San Francisco: Simpson and MacPherson (2007) note that there are few natural forests in the San Francisco Bay region, and these are mostly concentrated along the western side of the bay. Hence, the researchers agree that the overwhelming majority of trees in the urban forests of Los Angeles and San Francisco are planted. It means that the biodiversity and the actual number of trees are almost entirely dependent on municipal policies.
Another point easily deducible for the literature is that the swift urbanization of California leaves the regions tree canopy behind. For example, Simpson and MacPherson (2007) demonstrate that an increase in impervious services in San Francisco tends to be 1.7 times greater than the increase in tree canopy 10 percent against 17 percent. This fact highlights the necessity of urban forest protection and expansion policies.
To summarize, the literature points out that the growth of urban forests lags behind the growth of urban areas in both Los Angeles and San Francisco and also notes the utmost importance of human activities in correcting that.
Research Question
The natural composition of Californian vegetation noted in the literature review makes the state a suitable region for the study of urban forest protection and expansion policies. In a mostly treeless area, the human effort becomes the foremost factor in planting and saving trees and, thus, its effects should be visible more clearly. Additionally, the disparity in city growth and tree canopy growth makes the preservation of urban forests an acute issue of current interest in both Los Angeles and California. These factors analyze tree protection policies in both cities a worthwhile research topic. Considering them, the research question for this proposal is:
Did Los Angeles and San Francisco tree protection policies of the early 21st century have an effect on the number of trees (both citywide and street trees specifically) as well as the tree canopy and, if so, what was the effect?
Data Collection Plan
The research question formulated above imposes its limitation on data collection due to the nature of the information necessary for the study. Since the research aims at evaluating the effects (or lack thereof) of urban tree protection and expansion policies in Los Angeles and San Francisco on the number of trees and tree canopy, it excludes a number of potential data gathering methods. Surveys, interviews, and focus groups are unlikely to be of any use in this scenario, as they would characterize the subjective perception of the situation by the respondents rather than the objective numbers. Observations could be of limited use, especially in estimating the number of street trees. However, due to the geographic and financial constraints as well as the vast size of both cities, observations could only yield small samples that would not be representative enough for the study. As a result, the primary methods of data collection for this research proposal should be the work with the existing databases that account for the state of the urban forests, archival, and secondary research.
The technical impossibility of an independent evaluation of the number of trees in Los Angeles and San Francisco for this research makes the use of the existing databases a necessity. This research should first and foremost concentrate on the information provided by the Forest Service of the US Department of Agriculture ( US Forest Service, 2020). As the federal agency responsible for sustaining the nations forests, including the urban ones, it is the natural first pick for a project like that.
Apart from that, archival research will also play a prominent role in gathering data for this project. As with the databases, the first choice is the publication archive of the Forest Service that contains numerous reports and scholarly articles from 1902 onward ( Treesearch, 2020). Another useful source is the archive of the annual Urban Forest Reports prepared by the San Francisco Department of Environment ( Annual urban forest reports, 2020). It covers the state of the urban forest from the first report made in 2008 to the current last one for 2019.
Finally, secondary research is also a necessary component of this study, since the information of the specific tree protection policies enacted in either city is best found not in archives or databases but, rather, in other open sources. For Los Angeles, it would be the website of the Urban Forestry Division of the citys Bureau of Street Services ( Urban Forestry Division, 2020). For San Francisco, it would be the website of the citys Department of Public Works, mostly with regards to the street trees ( Street trees and plants, n.d.). Apart from the information on tree protection policies, these sources will also supplement the database and archival research with the current data on tree numbers.
The information this research project will look for in databases, as well as the archival and other open sources, is stated in the research question itself. First of all, it is necessary to establish the tree protection policies enacted in both Los Angeles and San Francisco to evaluate their effects for lack thereof. The first and most essential criterion to estimate said effects is the overall number of trees several years before the enactment of the problem, on the date the program was enacted, and several years after. Apart from that, the number of street trees is also an important variable to consider for two reasons at once. First of all, street trees, while only combining a small percentage, are the ones denizens are most likely to encounter in their everyday lives and, thus, the ones influencing their lives most directly. Secondly, the San Francisco Department of Public Works focuses explicitly on public trees as opposed to trees in general, which is why including this variable is suitable to characterize the citys policies ( Street Trees and Plants, n.d.) Finally, the tree canopy should also be taken into consideration as a variable.
As this research intends to evaluate the tree protection policies in Los Angeles and San Francisco based on numerical criteria, it is quantitative by its very design. The simple research question does not call for any advanced analysis techniques, as it merely requires evaluating the dynamic changes in tree numbers and, ideally, tree canopy, before and after the enactment of certain policies. Simple descriptive statistics would suffice for this purpose.
The results of the research would be best represented as graphs demonstrating the changes in the main variables listed in the previous paragraph. One graph should illustrate the overall number of trees seven years prior to the enactment of the tree protection policies, at the year of their enactment, and seven years after. Another graph will do the same for the number of street trees specifically, and the third one will demonstrate the changes in the tree canopy. Such an analysis will allow estimating whether the tree protection policies had any effect on the dynamic of change in these three variables. The study period is 2004-2018 for Los Angeles and 2003-2017 for San Francisco, with the dates of the enactment of policies being 2011 and 2010, respectively.
Timeframe for the Study
The estimated timeframe for this study is four weeks. Since all the sources listed above are easily accessible as websites, data collection should not be either too difficult or time-consuming. However, the tree protection policies of Los Angeles and San Francisco focus on different aspects characterizing the well-being of their respective urban forests. These are the number of trees in general and tree canopy for Los Angeles, and the number of street trees for San Francisco. These priorities are reflected in the documentation illustrating the state of urban forests in both cities, meaning that the information on some variables for one of the cities may be hard to find or even inaccessible. For this reason, the estimated data collection time is two weeks.
Data analysis time will depend on the type and volume of the information gathered. As mentioned above, the information of some variables for one or another city may prove too limited to draw meaningful comparisons due to the different focus of the policies. It is feasible to assume that the research will have to be limited to the general tree number and tree canopy for Los Angeles and street tree numbers for San Francisco. Considering this possibility, the estimated data analysis time is two weeks.
Implications for Planning Practice
The implications of this research for planning practice are inherent in its very design. The purpose of the research is to evaluate the effectiveness or lack thereof of the tree protection policies enacted in Los Angeles and San Francisco. The results of the research will demonstrate whether the approach taken in any of these cities is efficient in terms of increasing the overall number of trees, the number of street trees, and the tree canopy. More importantly still, they will demonstrate whether these policies have any impact on the dynamics of change in any of these three variables. Therefore, this research will inform urban ecological planners whether the tree protection policies of Los Angeles and San Francisco are efficient, whether they require improvements or merit implementation in other contexts.
Interdisciplinary Implications
Apart from its implication for urban ecological planning, this research may also be of use in other disciplines. For instance, it may prove valuable from a historical perspective. As mentioned above, research design requires tracing the development dynamics of the cities urban forests throughout fourteen years. Still, a fourteen-year period is relatively small when compared to the entire history of Los Angeles and San Francisco. The ecological focus in urban planning may be a relatively recent development, but its chronological span also transcends the period studied in this project. Therefore, the findings of this research illustrate a specific period in the history of urban ecological planning as applied in Los Angeles and San Francisco. Therefore, one may use it to supplement the information on other periods and create a comprehensive history of urban ecological planning in either of these cities. This is how the results of this research may have implications in the field of history.
Conclusion
Apart from that, the findings may also be of interest for political scientists. This project studies the efficiency or lack thereof of tree protection policies, which, by itself, demonstrates that tree protection is recognized as a political priority. It is worth mentioning that the period studied is situated well within the 21st century a time when human-induced climate change and global warming have become widely recognized issues that require political intervention. Consequently, one may use the finding of this research to illustrate the emergence of tree protection policies. This approach would allow demonstrating how the emergence of global warming as a political issue has influenced municipal politics in some of Californias largest cities.
Pataki, D. E., McCarthy, H. R., Gillespie, T., Generette, G. D., & Pincetl, S. (2013). A trait-based ecology of the Los Angeles urban forest. Ecosphere, 4(6), 1-20.
Simpson, J. R., & McPherson, E. G. (2007). San Francisco Bay area state of the urban forest final report. Center for Urban Forest Research.
US Department of Agriculture. (2020). Treesearch. Web.
US Department of Agriculture. (2020). US Forest Service. Web.
Thesis Statement: The works of Wangari Maathai and Norman Ernest Borlaug deal with distinctive topics, but they are united by the idea of improving life in view of the modern difficulties associated with interacting with the environment.
Introduction
The issues of the environment and the interaction of humans with nature are the topics of different humanitarians works. The assessment of natural resources available to humans takes place in conditions complicated by high anthropogenic activities. The works of Wangari Maathai and Norman Ernest Borlaug are considered, in particular, their speeches at large-scale global meetings. Wangari Maathai draws attention to environmental problems in Africa and mainly focuses on the challenges caused by high anthropogenic activities. Norman Ernest Borlaug studies the characteristics of modern agriculture and selection as industries that can potentially help people overcome the issue of hunger and establish sustainable agriculture. The works of Wangari Maathai and Norman Ernest Borlaug deal with distinctive topics, but they are united by the idea of improving life in view of the modern difficulties associated with interacting with the environment.
Body
Maathais work is a speech to the members of the United Nations and includes a discourse on the African environment and the difficulties that people in certain regions face (Maathai, 2011). Wars over natural resources are a frequent phenomenon on the continent. Individual ecosystems are destroyed due to deforestation and poor vegetation. Ruling elites dispose of natural resources at their own discretion, which creates scarcity for ordinary citizens.
Borlaugs work is less critical and more focused on innovation rather than calling attention to pressing issues (Borlaug, 2002). Borlaug addresses his speech to the members of the Nobel Committee and provides an overview of the agricultural complex from a global perspective. The history of the formation of agriculture is described, and the main difficulties and achievements in this area are listed. The consumption of natural resources is analyzed in the context of the impact on the productivity of land and human well-being.
The similarity of the two works under consideration lies in the involvement of the topic of natural resources and their role in peoples lives. Peoples poverty is the result of poor environmental control and the misallocation of available resources (Maathai, 2011). Governments efforts to help provide all those in need with the necessary food resources are complicated by poor selection and crop management practices (Borlaug, 2002). Both humanitarians emphasize the importance of effective resource management and the implementation of appropriate control practices.
The main differences lie in the discussion of the prospects and the subsequent development of the situation regarding natural resources. Maathai (2011) expresses concern about the fate of Africa and notes the negative aspects of human development due to ineffective leadership. Borlaug (2002) draws attention to positive developments in resource control and mentions innovations in the agricultural sector. The humanitarians approaches differ in the degree of optimism about the future.
Conclusion
The works of the humanitarians discussed differ in the direction of their research and the degree of optimism, but they both focus on the problems of natural resource scarcity. Maathais (2011) work proposes to assess the current challenges in Africa and draws attention to the issue of the inequitable distribution of natural resources. Borlaug (2002) reviews advances in the agricultural industry and offers unique methods to increase yields and optimize selection practices.
References
Borlaug, N. E. (2002). The green revolution revisited and the road ahead. Nobelprize.org. Web.
The 20th century was characterized by rapid economic growth, which widely used natural and energy resources. This was the main reason for the increasing environmental pollution and depletion of valuable natural resources. Green engineering aims at the design and manufacture of products to preserve natural resources in terms of sustainable development. These principles are intended to provide a basis for the activities of scientists and engineers participating in the development of new materials, products, processes, and systems that are safe for human health and the environment (Ruiz-Mercado et al. 6212). Green engineering involves construction, chemical industry, production of cars, consumer goods and devices, etc.
Paul Anastas and Julie Zimmerman introduced 12 principles of green engineering. According to one of the principles, green engineers should strive to ensure that all the materials and energy expended and allocated are as safe as possible. It is better to prevent the formation of waste than to recycle or dispose of it. Another principle states that the implementation of separation and purification procedures should be developed to minimize the use of materials and energy consumption (Mitsch 10). It is noted that products, processes, and systems are to be designed in such a way that maximizes mass, energy, space, and efficiency over time. The planned sustainability, but not immortality should be the engineering goal. It is desirable that the products are well-manufactured and stable during their exploitation period, but they should not be persistent, leading to environmental problems. Among other principles, there are such points as renewing rather than depleting, integrating material and energy flows, minimizing material diversity, meeting a need and minimizing excess, output-pulled versus input-pushed, conserving complexity, and designing for separation.
Speaking of the benefits of green engineering, one may note its key characters such as a holistic approach to the environment. There is also a great business opportunity for profit based on green products: beginning with using less oil and ending with a high demand for monitoring and cleaning products. One of the specific engineering solutions is environmental monitoring in the Costa Rican Rain Forest. The use of wireless technology developed by engineers allows measuring the environmental indicators without any harm. Another vivid example is Enginuity that improved the efficiency of large internal combustion (IC) engines. Their innovation allows reducing the level of emissions such as nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide. Other large industrial companies are also using green engineering in their products to be able to utilize them after minor repairs or recycling (IBM, General Electric, Procter & Gamble, etc.).
As for constraints, one may note the insufficient readiness to pay for environmental enhancement that is a significant financial factor limiting the innovation in the given field. Some companies prefer to purchase monitoring products rather than spend on green engineering. The lack of awareness of the benefits this new engineering offers is another constraint. The global economic competition of recent decades has caused new technological achievements in the production of a wide variety of customer goods. However, new technologies are primarily aimed at meeting the greater part of human consumption needs and social aspirations rather than at the environmental improvement. In this connection, it is necessary to review the problems of sustainability, renewable raw materials, new sources of energy, and strategies to meet the customers needs, while, at the same time, protecting the environment.
Works Cited
Mitsch, William J. What is Ecological Engineering?. Ecological Engineering, vol. 45, no. 2, 2012, pp. 5-12.
Ruiz-Mercado, Gerardo J., Ana Carvalho, and Heriberto Cabezas. Using Green Chemistry and Engineering Principles To Design, Assess, and Retrofit Chemical Processes for Sustainability. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, vol. 4, no. 11, 2016, pp. 6208-6221.
Researchers in the United States have found that in northern America occurrences of kidney stones might become common with climatic changes. Incidences of kidney stones are higher in areas having warmer climates. (Trinchieri 2000) The main reason for this has been presumed to be that with the rise in the temperature, loss of fluid takes place in the warmer areas causing kidney stones. Researchers have also found that by the year 2050 kidney stone incidences all over the United States may even go up by more than 30% in the warmer areas thus, leading to an additional 1.5 million to 2.1 million cases of kidney stone. (Canadell 2007) This is a direct result of global warming that has been increasingly causing serious medical consequences in human beings.
Kidney stone and its relation between climate change
Kidney stone is a common disease in humans and they are solid crystals that are generated when minerals get dissolved in our urine. Kidney stone is normally caused due to metabolic or environmental problems in cases where the risk of stone formation is directly increased with lower volumes of urine since there is an increase in the concentration of the mineral salts that form the stone. This normally occurs when our body does not receive enough fluids daily or when the body starts to lose fluids very fast, eventually leading to dehydration. Most of these solid crystals or stones formed are small almost like a grain of sand, and thus easily pass through our kidneys. (Lotan 2002) But sometimes the larger crystals get trapped in our ureter, which is a tube between our bladder and kidney, thus blocking the normal flow of our urine. Thus, it is often recommended by urologists that to stop the creation of kidney stones, one must drink a lot of water so that all the minerals in our body get flushed out. When a kidney stone passes through our body we feel unbearable pain along with vomiting, blood in our urine, and nausea. As the temperature increases, the body receives lesser fluids due to which the urine levels get low, due to dehydration, directly increasing the risk of the creation of kidney stones. (Chen 2000)
Kidney stone which is a general human affliction has a lifetime prevalence of 7% in women and 12 % in men of the United States. The southeastern parts of the United States have been found to have a 50% greater prevalence rate of the formation of kidney stones than the northwestern parts. The mean annual temperature or MAT of an area has been found to greatly influence our bodys urine volume and fluid status and accounts for more than 70% of this changeability, while the rest is due to sunlight index, race, age, diuretic use, and gender. (Lotan 2007)The MAT in the southeastern regions of the United States is 8°C more than in the northwestern regions. Also in the United States, there has been a 3.6% to 5.2% increase in the occurrence of kidney stones between the periods of 1976 to 1980 and 1988 to 1994. (Robertson et. al. 2001) Between these 2 given periods, the MAT in the United States had increased by almost 0.5°C. Thus this, although it doesnt completely prove the fact, suggests a potential relationship between an increase in the occurrence of kidney stones and temperature changes. (Mandel 2001)
Kidney stone belt and effect of climatic change on it
Transient variations in the occurrence of kidney stones as seen in seasonal periodicity are also one of the reasons causing temperature changes. Our bodys psychological response time for the changes in the climate is very rapid and thus, in arid and hot climatic areas kidney stones can develop almost within 90 days. Researchers have predicted that global warming will take place in this century thus, significantly increasing the MAT as well in the United States. (National Climatic Data Center 2006) Currently, the kidney stone belt primarily comprises the warmer southeastern areas of Alabama, Tennessee, Arkansas, South Carolina, Florida, Mississippi, Georgia, North Carolina, and Louisiana, but as the temperature rises there will be more occurrences of kidney stones and the belt will expand towards the northern and western areas as a direct result of global warming. (Elliott et. al. 2001) Due to this, the largest increase in the occurrences of kidney stones may be found in Florida, Texas, and California. But this will happen if the temperature increases linearly. If a threshold takes place then the occurrences of kidney stones will increase drastically resulting in the formation of a new kidney stone belt which will stretch right from Kansas to Northern California and Kentucky. (Cramer 2006) It has been predicted that the percentage of people in the United States that live in high-risk zones of occurrences of kidney stones will increase from almost 40% in 2000 to 70% in 2095 and 56% in 2050. (Pearle 2001)
Rise in cost for treating kidney stone
By using the climate models of intermediary severity warming, researchers have predicted that a rise in the temperature will increase the occurrences of kidney stones due to which the associated increase in the costs for treating kidney stones will also increase by almost $1 billion to $1.13 million every year. This is almost a 25% increase over the current expenditure that is being currently spent in the United States for treating kidney stones. (Bateson 2003)
Results
(Dirks et. al. 2006)
The projected warming is given in the above figure by the histograms and the top lines represent 2 temperature response models distinctly indicating the increased risk of kidney stones. From the above, we can see that the distribution of the occurrences of kidney stones that are related to climatic changes depends strongly on the pattern of the given temperature dependence model. Since, in the given linear model the increased risk of kidney stone reckons upon the rise in the temperature and baseline risk, the increased risk is focused more in the western areas and towards the mid-continent. (IPCC4 2007) The non-linear risk model displays sharp temperature dependence. According to this model, a steep rate of increase in the occurrences of kidney stones will be experienced between the temperatures of 10°C and 15°C, (Chen 2008) that is the threshold value with a smaller risk of kidney stone occurrences above these temperatures. As a result, according to this model, there will be little change in the occurrences of kidney stones that has been predicted in the areas with a 13.4°C temperature rise in 2050. (Evans 2005) This area has been represented by the red area in the figure given below and it trails the movement of threshold isotherm towards the north. Although the overall effect as predicted by this non-linear model is quite similar to that of the linear model since according to both the present high-risk zone of the kidney stone belt in the southeastern region of the United States will probably expand northward including the states from Kansas to North Carolina and Virginia, the increase in the occurrences of kidney stone will be sharply concentrated in the areas that are immediately situated south of threshold isotherm. (Pearle 2005)
(Brikowski & Lotan 2007)
Conclusion
From the above two models, we have enough evidence to sketch out a possible relation between the increased occurrence of kidney stones with the temperature rise, taking the example of the United States. However, from the above-given pieces of evidence, the specific relationships among these 2 factors have not been precisely elucidated. One of the possible reasons for this could be that the occurrence of kidney stones increases with a temperature rise may be suddenly at the threshold value till a point is encountered where the occurrences either plateaus out or even decrease, as given by the non-linear model. (Saigal 2005) Then again occurrences of kidney stones may continually increase with the temperature rise, as given by the linear model. Also increased occurrences of climate-related formation of kidney stones and their impact on the population of the United States will be more or less non-uniformly distributed. According to the linear model, the impact will be concentrated on the southern parts of the United States while the non-linear model predicts concentration in the upper mid-western parts. Researchers have also predicted that kidney stone belts all over the world will be affected similarly, although the impact of the occurrences will be much greater in the developing countries adding a new challenge to the demanding task of conforming to the climatic changes of this century. (Tanser 2003)
Bibliography
Bateson EM. (2003) Renal tract calculi and climate, Med J Aust, vol. 2, pp. 111113.
Brikowski T, Lotan Y. ( 2007) A Painful Truth: Climate Change Will Increase Kidney Stone Disease, Denver, CO: Geol Soc America.
Canadell, JG. (2007) Contributions to accelerating atmospheric CO2 growth from economic activity, carbon intensity, and efficiency of natural sinks, Proc Nat Acad Sci USA, vol. 3, no. 7, pp. 98-104.
Chen Y-K, Roseman JM, DeVivo MJ, Huang C-T. (2000) Geographic variation and environmental risk factors for the incidence of initial kidney stones in patients with spinal cord injury J Urol, vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 2126.
Chen Y-K, Lin H-C, Chen C-S, Yeh S-D. (2008) Seasonal variations in urinary calculi attacks and their association with climate: A population-based study, J Urol, vol. 17, no. 9, pp. 564569.
Cramer JS, Forrest K. (2006) Renal lithiasis: Addressing the risks of austere desert deployments, Aviation Space Environ Med, vol. 77, no. 3, pp. 649653.
Dirks J, Remuzzi G, Horton S, Schieppati A, Rizvi S. (2006) Diseases of the Kidney and the Urinary System. 2nd Ed. New York: Oxford Univ Press.
Elliott JP, Jr, Gordon JO, Evans JW, Platt L. (2001) A stone season: A 10-year retrospective study of 768 surgical stone cases with respect to seasonal variation, J Urol. Vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 574577.
Evans K, Costabile RA. (2005) Time to development of symptomatic urinary calculi in a high-risk environment, J Urol, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 858861.
IPCC4. (2007) Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis, Summary for Policymakers, Fourth Climate Assessment Report, Geneva: UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Lotan, Y. (2002) Management of ureteral calculi: A cost comparison and decision making analysis, J Urol, vol. 164, pp. 16211629.
Lotan, Y. (2007) Cost-effectiveness of medical management strategies for nephrolithiasis Proc Nat Acad Sci USA, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 22752281.
Mandel, GS. (2001) Urinary-tract stone disease in the United States veteran population. Geographical frequency of occurrence, J Urol, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 15131515.
National Climatic Data Center. (2006) US Heat Stress Index Data: Technical Report, Asheville, NC: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
Pearle MS, Calhoun EA, Curhan GC. (2005) Urologic Diseases in America project: Urolithiasis, J Urol, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 848857.
Pearle, MS. (2001) Meta-analysis of randomized trials for medical prevention of calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis, J Endourol, Vol. 13, pp. 679685.
Robertson WG, Peacock M, Marshall RW, Speed R, Nordin BE. (2001) Seasonal variations in the composition of urine in relation to calcium stone-formation, Clin Sci Mol Med, vol. 4, no. 9, pp. 597602.
Saigal CS, Joyce G, Timilsina AR. (2005) Urologic Diseases in America Project. Direct and indirect costs of nephrolithiasis in an employed population: Opportunity for disease management? Kidney Int,; vol. 6, no. 8, pp. 18081814.
Trinchieri A. (2000) Increase in the prevalence of symptomatic upper urinary tract stones during the past 10 years, Eur Urol. Vol. 3, no. 7, pp. 2325.
Tanser FC, Sharp B, le Seur D. (2003) Potential effect of climate change on malaria transmission in Africa, Lancet, vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 17921798.
Due to the catastrophic pollution of the planet, the balance in nature has been considerably distorted. Many food chains were also broken thus causing the extinction of one species and the abundance of another. The same problem undergoes the Redwood forest in Northern California that is suffering from the invasion of two poisonous plants tansy ragwort (Seneco Jecobaea) and gorse (Ulex europaeus). Therefore, there exist numerous programs directed at the elimination of those plants; they also on the California Exotic Pest Councils list of Exotic Pest Plants (Noss et al. 2000).
The first plant, tansy ragwort, also known as senecio jacobaea, was firstly described by Carolus Linnaeus. This species derives from the genus of sunflower family that embraces 21000 species all over the world. The most part of the senecios are ecologically important plants but many of them are weeds that quickly occupy pastures and leaving no for food for animals. This term ragwort is explain by the ragged form of the leaves; the term itself originates from English language (Mitich 1995). Tansy ragwort is a biennial, perennial plant being widely spread in the climatic regions of Northern California, western Washington, western Oregon and all maritime regions of the Pacific Northwest (Sharrow 1982).The plant can develop rootstock that branches into other fleshy roots reaching 30 cm depth (Mitich 1995). The great level of tenacity is predetermined by its capability to multiply by two different ways: vegetative and by means of pollination. Tansy ragwort usually germinates in autumn or spring and further forms a rosette and a flowering stem. After the flowers appear, it dies thus closing the monographic life cycle. The highest level of mortality occurs at the rosette stage but, in the course of growing, the plant becomes hardly vulnerable (Myers et al p. 93).
Tansy ragwort was first distributed to America from the British Isles being introduced as a medicinal herb in 1950 (British Columbia n. d.). However, it was further found that the plant comprised pyrrolizidine alkaloids, which were extremely poisonous for grazing animals, especially goats, horses and cattle (Mittich1995). The deadliest effect is imposed on the liver so that after its digestion it is converted into pyrroles that cause dysfunction and death. The invasion of tansy ragwort on the pasture has also deprived the animals of the forage thus encompassing vast areas (British Columbia n. d.). Therefore, the Redwoods of California have been much damaged by this weed.
Considering another dangerous plant gorse (Ulex europaeus) it should be stressed that this plant also fosters forest deterioration. This species has also become problematic for the Californian regions (Ornduff 1974, p. 125). Gorse is considered as on the most evident fire conductors, as it burns very quickly thus introducing a considerable level of fire hazard.
Gorse is an evergreen shrub that predominantly appears in the Mediterranean region. In the end of seventeenth century, it was introduced to the West Coast of Northern American. This infested weed belongs to the pea family and produces a lot of seeds containing and average plant of 0.5 inch long. The seeds of gorse are extremely tenacious, as they can be kept in the soil up to 30 years. This plant can also be reproduced by a vegetative method so that if it is cut, it can revive very quickly (Oregon State University 2008). Apparently, gorse was originated from Western Europe and North Africa; its variety, gorse weevil, was also presented in the United States in 1953 for controlling the rapid expansion of gorse (Bovey 2001, p. 52). However, this plant does not decrease the number of the existed plants but hampers its further proliferation. Despite the fact that gorse adapts relatively infertile soil and stand soil acidity than other legumes, it can still appear in the regions with more fertile soils (Price. 2003, P. 51).Gorse has also rather piceous and can destroy vast grazing areas. In California, this weed can invade disturbed sites and even sands and overgrazes pastures. Apart from the biological control of gorse mentioned earlier, another method of gorse growing prevention can lie is the mechanical method, namely a mere pulling of the weeds with a full removal of the root system. Unlike tansy ragwort, gorse can be easily consumed by the grazing animals without any harm for them. This method is the cheapest one, and one of the most efficient approach of gross elimination. The chemical approach is rarely used in Californian, as it is dangerous for other plants so there used the safest but the most effective types of herbicides (Bossard et al. 2000, p. 321).
As it can be viewed, both weeds are extremely dangerous the Redwood forest in California, as it distorts the balance of flora and fauna in this region. However, tansy ragwort causes more destruction effect on the grazing animals living in the redwoods, as it contains some poisonous substances doing harm to them. This plant also deteriorates the pastures and hampers the growing of other species of plants. Common gorse is less harmful, but still, it is necessary to take certain measures for its elimination.
Reference List
Bossard, C.C., Randall, J. M., and Hoshovsky, M. C. (2000). Invasive plants of Californias wildlands. US: University of California Press.
Bovey, R. (2001). Woody plants and woody plant management: ecology, safety, and environmental impact. CRC Press.
Invasive Weeds in Forest Land.(2008). Oregon State University. Web.
Mitich, L. (1995). Tansy Ragwort. Weed Technology. 9(2) 402-404.
Myers, J. H., and Bazely, D. (2003). Ecology and control of introduced plants. US: Cambridge University Press.
Noss, Reed, and Save-the-Redwoods League. (2000). The redwood forest: history, ecology, and conservation of the coast redwoods. US: Island Press.
Ornduff, R. (1974). An introduction to California plant life. US: University of California Press.
Price, E. A. C. (2003). Lowland grassland and heathland habitants. NY: Routledge.
Sharrow, S. H. Sheep as a Biological Control Agent for Tansy Ragwort. Journal of Range Management. 35(4) 480-482.
Tansy Ragwort in British Columbia. The B. C. Ministry of Agriculture and Food. Web.
In her book, Soil Not Oil: Environmental justice in an age of climate crisis, the author, Vandana Shiva, offers a comprehensive nexus between commercial agriculture and climate change. Shiva envisions a world that can thrive without fossil fuel dependency. She highlights industrial agriculture as primarily responsible for economic and ecological disasters and vouches for the small, autonomous farms. Shiva argues that such farms offer greater productivity and an expanded social justice potential since they empower the poor with more resources. The farms are also cultivated using traditional farming practices that are characteristic of small-scale agriculture. She continues to argue that the world must now rethink its agricultural approaches, especially in the face of the prevailing climate change, whose devastating effects include widespread famine.
Today, the world needs farms that are not only biologically diverse but also sustainable as well. Biological diversity helps farms to resist drought, floods, and diseases (Shiva, 2008). Shiva maintains that both the problems of climate change and poverty have the same solutions. The book outlines the socially and environmentally sound principles that are vital for nourishing the planet. She escalates this to the broad issues of climate change and globalization, arguing that a just world and a healthy environment are as Siamese twins. Indeed, the Soil Not Oil is a truly visionary book that the author unwaveringly proposes a host of solutions bordering on sustainability, community, and self-organization instead of profits and corporate power.
Outline of the Chapter Contents
Introduction
In this section, Shiva introduces the topic by first providing a historical overview of climate change. Human survival is threatened by climate change, energy crisis, and food insecurity. She highlights three problematic areas associated with the climate change crisis. She argues that the climate change crisis poses a significant threat to the survival of the human species. Second, she asserts that this challenge is of global scope, implying that every corner of the world is affected. Third, different human activities are responsible for causing climate change. Climate change is caused by how people move, eat, shop, and live. Therefore, the solutions to these problems are found in all sectors of the economy and human lives.
Chapter three
In this chapter, Shiva advances a strong argument against the use of biofuels for cars instead of addressing food insecurity. Biofuels are fuels sourced from biomass, traditionally associated with the poor. However, in recent times, there have been intensified campaigns on the uptake of biofuels as alternative sources of energy. The increased promotion of biofuels as green energy is nonetheless leading to a promotion of monocultures, which in turn destroy biodiversity. Incidentally, as the rich continue to enjoy the luxury of using biofuels, the poor are being deprived of their basic sources of food.
Chapter four
In this chapter, Shiva questions the rationality of prioritizing globalized food systems and industrialized agriculture as sources of abundant and cheap food when it is evident that food is no longer cheap. Times are long gone when people used to speak of cheap food and oil. Using India as a case study, Shiva vividly elaborates how the prices of basic food commodities have been on an upward trajectory over the years. She partially attributes this to globalization that has created an atmosphere of import dependency.
Book Review
Shiva begins by declaring that climate change is a global crisis that threatens the survival of the human species. The problem of climate change is being reflected in the increased incidences of droughts, cyclones, and floods that have become everyday news pieces today. If nothing substantial is done to reverse the situation, then the world is at the risk of witnessing worse events. Other than climate change, humanity is facing another global problem of oil peak. The world seems to have reached its highest possible oil production level. This implies that the supply of oil to drive the global economy is on a rapid decline. Therefore, it is imperative that people change the way they live, move, and eat.
The convergence of climate change chaos and peak oil gives rise to a food crisis, which is a by-product of globalization and industrialization of agriculture. Incidentally, globalization promised people uninterrupted availability of cheap food. However, this is not the case as it continues to push the prices of food beyond the reach of many. All over the world, food prices have been on a steady increase causing some 33 countries to witness food riots (Shiva, 2008, p. 2). Thus, it is apparent that globalization has failed to deliver what it promised but instead drove up food prices for the poor.
The industrialization of agriculture is viewed in some quarters as a form of development caused by globalization. However, according to Shiva, the drastic impacts of this form of industrialization are worse than traditional modes of farming. Not only do the fossil fuel-powered machines used in agriculture massively contribute to global warming, but they also lead to the creation of disposable or redundant people. Farms that were traditionally worked on by hundreds of people only require one machine operator today. The farmhands who have been displaced as a result of this are now left idle, a situation that can easily cause political and social instability and violence in a country. Shiva summarizes the crises facing the world today into three: climate, energy, and food. Incidentally, these problems thrive and inflict more miseries on the people because of the concepts of globalization and development.
The food crisis is the worst of the three problems because it significantly threatens the survival of the worlds poor. Interestingly, the food crisis problem is a result of processes that revolve around globalization and development, namely the industrialization of agriculture and displacement of indigenous and smallholder farmers. Globalization effects and liberalization of agricultural trade on food sovereignty and food security is the most recent problem that is affecting many people. The food crisis around the world is further exacerbated by climate changes effects on agricultural production. According to Shiva, this is compounded by deceptive solutions that have been prescribed for climate change. The use of biofuels as a solution to climate change is counterproductive. This is because it leads to the diversion of food and land from the peasant farmers to energy needs that are unsustainable and only benefit the rich. Shiva hence maintains that in as much as climate change is a crisis that should be urgently addressed, some of the solutions prescribed only end up harming the poor.
The concepts of globalization and development in the Soil Not Oil book can be seen in the rapid rise in the adoption of biofuel products. Massive ethanol industries have been established in Brazil, the United States, and the European Union. Many governments around the world are running massive campaigns to encourage their citizens to adopt the production of biofuels. There seems to be an aggressive push to create a biofuels market around the world to satisfy the worlds insatiable appetite for oil. However, this comes at heavy prices, and food prices, particularly soybean and corn, have been forced to rise by up to 75% (Shiva, 2008, p. 85). Additionally, the prices of feedstock have also shot up as a result of biofuel.
Personal Perception Discussion
The book, Soil Not Oil, could not have been published at a better time. In 2008 when the book was published, the world was going through a global economic recession that caused an upsurge in the prices of most commodities. I like the fact that Shiva traces all these repercussions to poor decision-making approaches as solutions to climate change. At a time when the world is facing this biting crisis of climate change, many people will come up with all manner of solutions to abet the situation. However, not all these proposed solutions are productive and can solve the problem amicably. Shiva has proven through this book that it is always imperative to scrutinize these proposed solutions to establish their efficacies and viabilities. I like the fact that Shiva has pricked our conscience to rethink some of these solutions that we have all along been persuaded to believe are sound.
Conclusion
Considering the frequency of natural disasters such as droughts, floods, and cyclones that visit us quite often, it is evident that climate change is here with us. Since it is mainly caused by human activities, there are genuine fears that things will only get worse in the future. Therefore, urgent and drastic actions need to be made to reverse the looming destructive and deadly effects of climate change. However, when selecting the best alternatives to the current practices, care must be taken to ensure that only those alternatives that are sustainable are selected.
Reference
Shiva, V. (2008). Soil Not Oil: Environmental justice in a time of climate crisis. South End Press.
