The concept of entertainment has been evolving together with humanity for thousands of years; it has had different forms and shapes and dramatically changed throughout the history, as the humanity acquired new skills such as speaking, writing, drawing, singing, etc. In this paper, I aim to examine how the concept of entertainment and its types changed in the history of Western civilization, addressing particular timeframe, i.e. from the Neolithic Period to the Middle Ages.
One of the main forms of entertainment that is hard to trace is storytelling. Storytelling had appeared as soon as the humanity learned to talk. In the Neolithic Period, storytelling was not only a type of entertainment but also a tool that helped humans share information and experience. With the help of stories, humans provided each other with knowledge that could be useful to all of them. Nevertheless, not all stories were practical or reflected the experience of the tellers. Some stories that were told often covered such themes as heroism, myths, gods, and other supernatural phenomena and creations. Other forms of entertainment included games, pottery, and drawing.
Storytelling allowed the tribes record their routine and mythology. If some activity was not useful anymore, it could become something that we would call a hobby or sport. This transformation happened to archery and hunting in the Neolithic Period. If these activities were practical at first, later they provided an opportunity to demonstrate skill and talent. Religious rituals were not entertainment but included elements of play and performance. The rituals depicted the struggle between good and evil: something that the humanity would often address later in the entertainment activities as well. As the societies had advanced, new classes appeared and new skills were acquired.
For example, humans did not have to rely on hunting and gathering because they learned to domesticate. As the classes in the society developed, creating soldiers, rulers, artisans, and workers, the upper classes also gained wealth and leisure. Thus, entertainment was something that upper classes could allow. However, it does not mean that workers and peasants did not know how to entertain themselves; their forms of entertainment differed from the upper classes’ leisure.
Babylonia
The empire existed from approximately 2900 B.C. until 330 B.C. Babylonians had different activities that can be regarded as entertainment: boxing, dancing, archery, and even board games. Although board games are also believed to be part of certain rituals, they were also used for entertainment and pleasure. Their advantage was their weight and usability; they could be taken anywhere and were not too big or heavy to carry. These games existed before the invention of chess, and some of them were even played in the pre-Neolithic period. Although board games varied in their techniques and tools, their aim was usually alike: the winner needed to get the pieces off the table or the board.
Israel
Music and dancing were popular in many cultures, and ancient Israelites practiced them as well. Initially, they were part of rituals but were also transformed into leisure activities. Dancing was also used to celebrate triumph. The Old Testament includes various references to dancing; its purpose varies depending on the context. For example, it could be used to praise God: “Let them Praise His name in the dance”. Dancing was not encouraged, however, when it was praising an idol (e.g. the Golden Calf).
Other activities that could also be regarded as sports include wrestling, hunting, and fishing. It seems that most nations had similar types of entertainment that were dictated by social, technological, cultural, and other developments.
Scotland
Some scientists suggest that in the Late Iron Age, the popular forms of entertainment in Scotland were feasts. These feastings took place after successfully finished house constructions: archeologists found pits filled with animal bones in a wheelhouse; these pits are supposed to be the evidence of such feasts. Births, marriages, deaths, and religious festivals were also celebrated in the form of feasts. This activity was widespread among the elite as well, where alcohol and food were consumed in huge amounts. Drunken fights eventually followed these feasts and were some entertainment as well. Although they were entertaining to watch and take part in, the participants could be severely injured or even killed during such fights.
Similar to Babylonians, Scotts also played board games that included a dice made of bone and small figures made of glass. However, unlike the games of “race”, here the entertainment was to gamble on the outcome of these games. The stakes could be quite high too. Other entertainment activities included physical contests between young men who wanted to demonstrate their strength and stamina.
Ancient Greece
From about 500 to 400 B.C., a new era of human development began that transformed entertainment as well. Poetry and music had existed long before this era, but in Ancient Greece, they acquired a new form that was linked to philosophy. Ancient Greeks appreciated strong and attractive bodies; that is why the sport was one of the main leisure activities in Ancient Greece. Wrestling, boxing, ball games, swimming, and even dancing were practiced as forms of sport. The cities included parks and squares where citizens could rest or talk. It is also known that Plato preferred teaching his students in parks and open spaces and did not encourage education in classrooms; thus, he combined education with what was considered as entertainment, allowing the students enjoy the process of learning.
Olympic Games are the best example of massive entertainment; however, it lost its original meaning due to corruption and commercialism.
Ancient Rome
Entertainment in Ancient Rome was directly linked to beliefs and worship of Gods. Roman citizens also participated in various types of sports; the festivals were dedicated to Roman Gods and Goddesses and could include competitions. The towns of Romans also included amphitheaters and theaters, baths, and stadiums. As the Roman society grew, it divided into classes, where the lowest one was colony, i.e. workers, and slaves. The plebs eventually demanded more entertainment and the Roman authorities provided it “with doles of grain and with public games – in other words, bread, and circuses”.
By A.D. 354, almost 200 public holidays were celebrated by the Romans each year. One hundred seventy-five of these days were games. The games were sport competitions at first but soon escalated to violent fights of gladiators with animals. Oftentimes, human and animal participants of the games died. Moreover, Christians were also slaughtered during those games, sometimes by dogs, other times by humans. The entertainment industry in Roman Empire was impaired by corruption and violence; the Empire itself soon fell under the attacks of the northern European tribes.
Middle Ages in Europe
As many Christians were tortured and killed by the Romans, everything that the Roman Empire found entertaining was prohibited: baths, theaters, and games were not encouraged. Christians put emphasis on work and asceticism, but there was entertainment during the Middle Ages. Although the previous, pagan beliefs were banned, new religious festivals and celebrations were set according to the dates that the Romans used for their festivals. Moreover, in their rituals, early Christians also used bells, candles, and singing, although the form of these rituals was different from the Roman one. The society in the Middle Ages was also divided into classes: the nobility, the clergy, and the peasants. The forms of entertainment popular among the knights were hunting and hawking.
Hunting was not only a sport that kept the knights from being idle but also it was a useful skill for war. George Turberville, an English poet that lived in the late Middle Ages, described the hunting “as an exercise that best becommes, their worthy noble name”. However, this form of entertainment was not available to everyone. Gambling, dancing, singing, and even jousting were also common forms of entertainment during the Middle Ages. As the Dark Ages had ended and the life in Europe became more or less stable, allowing individuals travel in safety, commerce began to spread. The jousting and tournaments also became popular among the nobility: while groups of knights took part in tournaments, jousting implied that two individuals fought each other while riding their horses.
Of course, the peasantry was not allowed to take part in such festivals and tournaments. However, village feasts and sports were common among them. Practical joking and cockfighting were popular as well. Some examples of practical jokes during feasts include empty pies that were filled with live birds or with mincemeat and worms made of marzipan. During the feasts, various entertainers could demonstrate their skills, e.g. singers, jugglers, acrobats, clowns, and others. Wrestling was also common, but it often led to serious fights and cruel slaughters. Tomfoolery was also entertainment, but while some people fooled others once or twice a year just to joke, professional fools provided quality services, often for the nobility. Among professional fools, one could find mentally disabled people that were given names, a home, and food. For this, they served as fools in courts. Fools usually were depicted with little to no clothes; they sometimes wore hats or shoes. The court fools were taken care of by patrons and were one of the standard forms of court entertainment in the Middle Ages.
Theater as a form of entertainment in the Middle Ages appeared much later, in the middle of 1550s. Little plays were staged before during the religious festivals or feasts, but dramatic entertainment began to develop in the 1550s. Permanent theaters were not yet established, and plays were performed in buildings or at sites. There were no professional dramatists; that is why the writing of plays and their performance were amateur in those years. The authors of the plays usually had a position (e.g. a teacher, an entertainer) that was their main source of income. However, in the latter years of Elizabeth, acting became more professional, and theater began to develop actively as well.
Bibliography
Bentley, Gerald Eades. Profession of Dramatist in Shakespeare’s Time, 1590-1642. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015.
McIntosh, Jane. Handbook to Life in Prehistoric Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
McLean, Daniel. Kraus’ Recreation and Leisure in Modern Society. Burlington: Jones & Bartlett Publishers, 2014.
Polack, Gillian, and Katrin Kania. The Middle Ages Unlocked: A Guide to Life in Medieval England 1050-1300. Stroud: Amberley Publishing Limited, 2015.
The Bible. Authorized King James Version. Oxford: Oxford World’s Classics, 2008.
The advancement of technologies has affected various aspects of people’s lives, as well as different industries and associated social and economic areas. Thus, at a current stage of the technological development of the world, it is possible to speak about the digital transformation of the entertainment industry (Poniewozik). This process can be observed not only in the United States but also globally. However, the focus on the American context is important to explain basic trends related to this change (Crawford 138).
While speaking about the most significant transformations in the entertainment industry associated with changes in the digital content, as well as changes in technologies of distributing information and gaining revenues, it is important to focus on the recent competition between streaming services and broadcast television networks or systems (Irwin; Poniewozik). The purpose of this paper is to examine the aspects of the current competition between streaming companies and television networks with the focus on observed digital transformations in sharing information and to discuss what further changes can be expected in the entertainment industry with reference to the increased popularity of streaming resources.
Origins of the Competition between Television Networks and Streaming Services
Television networks are viewed today as traditional ways of broadcasting information. Still, the spread of such streaming companies and services as Netflix, Amazon, HBO Now, Hulu, and Showtime has created a new experience for viewers, and their interest in streaming channels can be discussed as constantly increasing (Jenner 258). Therefore, it is important to pay attention to discussing the origins of the developed competition between streaming companies and television networks.
The availability of such digital devices as computers, smartphones, laptops, and tablets, as well as the availability of the Internet, has created resources for developing streaming services in the 2000s (Irwin; Poniewozik; Rodriguez-Gil et al. 6). Thus, “today, viewers can watch football, drama, news and the latest cat video at will, sometimes simultaneously with their tablet or smartphones” (Montpetit). From this point, the shift of viewers’ focus from TV sets to different wireless devices and gadgets as sources to watch shows and programs became a result of a prolonged transformation in the media industry which is associated with the technological progress.
Thus, it is important to draw one’s attention to the fact that researchers identify three eras in the technological development of television in the United States: TVI (1950s-1980s), TVII (1980s-1990s), and TVIII (1990s-present) (Irwin; Jenner 258). The period of TVIII is characterized by the progress of technologies and the spread of digital distribution platforms which influence the development of the entire television market (Poniewozik).
According to Jenner, “One significant marker of TVIII is its move towards multi-platform forms of distribution and storytelling, but it has always kept some (however tenuous) link with the technology, branding and programming strategies, and social connotations television traditionally carries” (259). As a result, the connection between streaming services and television networks can be viewed as a logical consequence of developing innovative information technologies in the field (Irwin; Poniewozik). From this point, the progress of technologies allows for creating new approaches to streaming and sharing videos, without depending on television networks.
Entering and Changing the Television Market and Entertainment Industry
Such streaming companies as Netflix, Amazon, HBO Now, Hulu, and Showtime can be discussed as pioneers and leaders in the newly created market of streaming technologies which should be discussed as a segment of the television market (Jenner 258). In addition to these well-known actors of the streaming market, Apple, Google, and Microsoft are also interested in entering this field while focusing on selling TV services because of a range of opportunities to attract even more users (Nocera).
Furthermore, this sphere attracts even those companies which are not associated directly with developing alternatives to television networks. From this perspective, it is important to note that not only such giants in the sphere of streaming services as Netflix and Amazon can compete with television systems. One more category of competitors includes YouTube and Vimeo among others platforms. These services are traditionally selected by Millennials who pay less attention to television programs which seem to be oriented to the older audience (Doyle 696). As a result, the progress in the digital sphere becomes directly associated with different changes in society.
Still, it is important to focus on the fact that streaming companies are interested in spreading their services not only because of the progress of technologies. According to the researchers, the development of new platforms creates new opportunities for gaining revenues and succeeding in the market (Jenner 259). For instance, Netflix has won about 81 million subscribers during the recent years, and the company’s revenues increased from $1.2 billion in the 2000s to $6.8 billion in 2016 (Nocera).
On the contrary, during the period of 2010-2016, “cable has lost 6.7 million subscribers” (Nocera). From this point, researchers are inclined to provide a lot of evidence in order to state that the number of persons who choose to watch television or cable channels continuously decreases (Doyle 695). As a result, it is possible to state that technological companies and those companies which provide streaming services not only have entered the television market, but they also plan to conquer it while making broadcast television networks choose new digital approaches to sharing information.
As it is observed with reference to the case of Netflix, the important reason for technological companies which provide opportunities for streaming videos to enter the television market is the financial one. Moreover, the streaming services focus not only on subscription fees but also on wide possibilities which are opened for advertising while using advanced technologies and recent innovative resources (Doyle 695). For instance, Amazon and Netflix pay much attention to investing in the development of their original series which can become popular among the public in order to increase the proportion of advertisements shared with the help of these streaming services (Rodriguez-Gil et al. 22; “Streaming on Screens Near You”). As a result, streaming platforms become significant resources of revenues which can be viewed as more advantageous in comparison to such traditional sources of advertisements as television and online user-oriented ads.
Benefits of Using Streaming Services
It is still important to answer the question on why digital transformations in the entertainment industry attract customers, and why broadcast television networks need to adapt to new realities of the media market. Thus, more people choose to watch news programs and shows while using streaming services because of the absence of cable television channels (Doyle 694). Streaming services allow users to watch different shows after providing a comparably low monthly subscription fee. Consumers receive an opportunity to choose the most efficient and innovative options to watch shows and news while setting preferences, using their own convenient devices, and paying attractive fees (Rodriguez-Gil et al. 5). The only limit at this stage can be the Internet access. The absence of dependence on a linear transmission of data and schedules that are typical of television networks also contributes to influencing viewers’ choice (Rodriguez-Gil et al. 5).
From this point, more benefits of streaming services include possibilities for viewers’ control and possibilities for choosing models to follow: linear or advanced ones. Thus, it is possible to pay attention to the fact that digital transformations in delivering data resulted in increasing viewers’ control of their watching shows (Jenner 258; Rodriguez-Gil et al. 5). During the recent years, many people with the free access to the Internet received opportunities to use VCR, DVR, and VOD among other technologies in order to control their choice of programs and shows (Montpetit; Stenovec). As it is stated by the researcher interested in examining these trends, “viewers are in control, creating personal playlists while digital recorders, applications and TV web sites accommodate binge-watching” (Montpetit). All these aspects demonstrate advantages of streaming services in comparison to traditional television networks and their proposed options.
Furthermore, it is necessary to refer to the fact that streaming services are focused on developing different release models in order to address viewers’ needs and expectations. Currently, streaming companies release original series and shows using various models: while providing access to a full season or while releasing episodes weekly (Crawford 138). These approaches often combined with the remote control provide more choices for viewers, and they are discussed as benefits of using streaming services (Rodriguez-Gil et al. 14). In order to address these changes in the sphere of broadcasting information, television companies also focus on using innovative approaches to presenting their programs. As a result, television companies plan to increase the attractiveness of their services with the focus on different target groups and their specific needs (“Streaming on Screens Near You”).
Predicted Changes in the Entertainment Industry while Focusing on Television
From this point, it is possible to state that some further changes can be expected in the entertainment industry as the reaction of television networks and systems to current trends in the field. Thus, “all TV will move to the Internet, and linear TV will cease to be relevant over the next 20 years, like fixed-line telephones” (Nocera). Furthermore, according to the experts in the sphere of media, “it seems as if a new streaming service comes out every few weeks” (Stenovec). From this perspective, it is possible to predict the further development of the market according the latest tendencies in the field. Different television companies will focus on addressing current changes and digitization of the market with the help of using the multi-platform concept (“Streaming on Screens Near You”). More networks will choose to broadcast information using online channels in order to present the audiovisual material in the most appropriate manner for potential viewers who choose using the Internet instead of cables.
The example of the streaming business will potentially attract television companies and make them change their regular models of operations with the focus on adapting the innovative technologies. Therefore, “these streaming services will make it so TV will no longer be limited by geographical boundaries” (Stenovec). The use of HTTP, HTML, and TCP/IP protocols, as well as other approaches to streaming the information, can be viewed as prevalent in five or ten years because of the availability of online technologies which are discussed by many experts as more advantageous than traditional cable networks which are rather limited in terms of location (Rodriguez-Gil et al. 12). Thus, television companies can choose to unite their traditional approaches to sharing data and innovative digital methods of exchanging the content.
Nevertheless, in spite of obvious benefits of streaming services which are accentuated by supporters of this technological progress in the sphere of distributing information, there are also some disadvantages associated with using streaming resources. For instance, “live online streaming services are just not as reliable as cable or satellite,” and moreover, “streaming services can’t compete when it comes to live sports” (Stenovec). In addition, there are also legal and ethical issues related to the topic. The problem is that entertainment and streaming companies are only developing protocols to protect the rights of the providers of information and their subscribers (Crawford 139; “Streaming on Screens Near You”). As a result, risks of copyright violations are high. The number of illegal downloads regularly increases, and this aspect needs to be addressed by streaming companies in order to protect their intellectual property.
One more issue is the absence of standardization in the sphere of streaming technologies in order to provide television companies with resources to develop their online streaming channels (Crawford 138; Rodriguez-Gil et al. 4). Furthermore, it is important to draw one’s attention to the fact that broadcast television companies have not lost their positions regarding ratings associated with releasing episodes (“Streaming on Screens Near You”). However, viewers continue to discuss the levels of their control in relation to TV as limited in contrast to options proposed by online platforms and streaming services. Therefore, in spite of the fact that it is possible to predict significant changes in the sphere of television in five or ten years, it is important to address a range of issues at a current stage.
Conclusion
Today, broadcast television networks seem to compete with new entrants in the entertainment industry, which include such streaming companies and services as Netflix, Amazon, Showtime, Hulu, and HBO Now. However, in spite of the developed competition, it is possible to predict that television networks will also choose the path of streaming services in the near future because of obvious advantages of using the Internet for the data distribution. Furthermore, the digital transformation of the market and industry can also lead to the development of a unique platform which will combine benefits of both television networks and streaming resources in order to address viewers’ needs and provide the high-quality content in the most efficient and attractive manner. In this context, it is possible to expect that television companies will focus on changing their linear models of releasing shows and series in order to respond to the recent changes in the industry. Still, in spite of the observed changes and tendencies, it is possible to expect that the process of shifting from television to more advanced platforms will be rather prolonged because of the impossibility to develop more innovative digital resources for completing this task.
Works Cited
Crawford, John E. “Cutting the Cord—A Marketing Case: An Examination of Changing TV Viewership.” Atlantic Marketing Journal, vol. 5, no. 2, 2016, pp. 137-150.
Doyle, Gillian. “Resistance of Channels: Television Distribution in the Multiplatform Era.” Telematics and Informatics, vol. 33, no. 2, 2016, pp. 693-702.
Rodriguez-Gil, Luis, et al. “Interactive Live-Streaming Technologies and Approaches for Web-Based Applications.” Multimedia Tools and Applications, vol. 2, no. 1, 2017, pp. 1-32.
The article Virtual Advertising and Entertainment is mainly a brief detailing of how advertising has in recent years switched from the traditional media that is, broadcast (radio and television) and print (newspapers and magazines).
Summary
The author generally proposes that with the advent of the internet and developments in computer software the advertising industry has made progressive steps towards securing more audiences which is the primary foundation of businesses in the industry.
The article concludes that the gap between the consumer and the advertiser is constantly widening mainly because the former is getting more and more control over the content he/she views. The author proposes that it is imperative that this gap be narrowed down if the advertising industry is to survive.
Evaluation
From the outset it is easy to see that the length of the article is limiting and this could be the reason why some critical aspects were left out. Since it is presumed that the author was publishing for the general audience, it would have been better for him to take time and conduct a thorough investigation into his topic of study and then presented the findings in such a way that any average reader could easily grasp his message.
As much as the article gives a general overview of virtual advertising, it fails tremendously by not properly defining what virtual and advertising is as well as not giving a critical analysis of what it entails. The author simply delves into fronting his personal opinion regarding the importance of virtual advertising and entertainment.
The ideas presented in the article are not properly substantiated therefore making it even more difficult for the reader to establish the credibility of the author and his work. For instance, when the author categorically concludes that there is a decline in print and television advertising, it would only have been appropriate for him to provide enough statistical data to back his statements.
The article though generally well written does not have a sense of direction. For example, the closing remarks on the widening of the gap between advertisers and consumers would probably have had a better impact if it had come at the start of the article.
That way it would have developed a better link with the aspect of advertisers embracing new media. The grammatical correctness of most of the article is commendable save for the fact that the author at one point claims that advertisers are increasing their podcasting and rich media ‘presents’ when he meant ‘presence.’
Conclusion
In general, the article appears like some form of public relations campaign for virtual advertising. This is mainly because it ignores the fact that a majority of consumers appreciate more advertisements that are presented in the traditional media of print and radio as compared to those delivered through the new media of internet and CD ROM (Smit, 2000). It is almost obvious that an individual will sit through a commercial while watching his favorite sport than insert a compact disk in his computer drive to watch the same commercial.
The same applies to newspaper advertisements, where the consumer has to appreciate the presence of several advertisements even without making the conscious effort to do so. In a way, the traditional media of print and broadcast are bound to be more effective especially because they do not give the consumer the option of choice (Smit, 2000).
Reference
Smit, E. (2000). Mass media advertising: information or wallpaper? Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis
In behavioral economics, economists study how rare or scarce resources are allocated and distributed among individuals and members of society. While standard economics assumes that the decision maker is rational, economists have observed that many individuals deviate from the rational model. Such deviations are called anomalies.
Examples of behavioral anomalies are engaging in charitable giving, participating in punishment of anti-social behavior, exercising little, etc. The study of behavioral economics brings in basic concepts from a variety of fields of studies such as psychology, sociology, and even a little bit of anthropology. Because of this, there is no unifying theory of behavioral economics.
One of the most well-known deviations from the rational decision maker is the sunk cost fallacy. In most well-documented introductory Business and Economics textbooks, the reader is warned against committing what is commonly known as sunk cost fallacy. Sunk cost case examples are plentiful, ranging from the everyday personal stories, to other more profound and general observations of human behavior. In clearer terms, a cost is considered sunk when it is unable to be recovered. Because it is unable to be recovered, traditional economic theory claim that sunk costs have no impact on future payoffs, and should therefore play no role in rational choice.
However, no matter how rational this may seem, people are always affected by sunk costs when making decisions. Once an individual has made some sort of investment, whether it be time, money, effort, or emotion, he/she has a tendency to invest even more in an attempt to keep their investment from being wasted. Typically, it seems that the larger the size of his/her investment, the more the individual desires to continue to invest, even though the returns of the investment may seem no longer sensible.
Let’s take a look at one of the most well-known examples of sunk cost and its effects on decision making studied by Hal R. Arkes and Catherine Blumer in 1985. In their study, they demonstrate the effect of sunk cost on decision making through many different experiments. One of the experiments was a questionnaire, and the experiment assumes that the decision maker has already spent $100 on a ski trip to Michigan, and $50 on a ski trip to Wisconsin, only to realize that neither is refundable, reschedulable, nor resalable.
Believing that the Wisconsin ski trip will be more enjoyable, the decision maker is asked to choose on going to the more expensive trip, or the cheaper trip. Arkes and Blumer’s study revealed that although the money has already been spent, most people would choose to go to the more expensive ski trip, even though the more economic trip would have been more enjoyable. In this case, Arkes and Blumer found that “the larger sunk cost of the Michigan trip is influencing many subjects’ choice” (Arkes and Blumer 1985).
Arkes and Blumer explain sunk cost using prospect theory from Kahneman and Tversky’s research, with regards to a fixed reference point and loss aversion. These are two features of prospect theory that seem crucial to the analysis of the sunk cost effect (1985). The first is the value function of prospect theory, shown in Figure 1 below.
Figure 1. Value function of prospect theory.
This function represents the “relation between objectively defined gains and losses… and the subjective value a person places on such gains and losses” (Arkes and Blumer 1985). Initially, an investor may be at point A, but after a significant loss has been acquired, the investor would be at point B. At this point, the investor would be more likely to risk more in order to obtain possible large gains.
According to Arkes and Blumer, this is consistent with studies by McGlothlin that unlikely victories at the race track are most popular at later times in the day when many of the crowd has suffered significant losses (1985). They are more risk prone than they were before any losses had actually occurred, because they’ve already lost much, another loss would not decrease their value by much. This would seem to show that sunk cost fallacy is highly influential in an individual’s decision.
There seems to be “two distinct psychological mechanisms that might create an irrational regard for sunk costs” (Friedman, Pommerenke, Lukose, Milam and Huberman 2004). The two are self-justification, which convinces people to continue investing in unprofitable activity for the sole purpose of delaying admission of their mistakes, and loss aversion, which might compel people to continue investment if there is a slight hope that the overall investment might be positive.
Baliga and Ely (2011) offer a new theory about the reason sunk cost fallacies exist in their study. They theorize that perhaps due to the cognitive limitations of human beings, individuals often experience sunk cost fallacies as a “substitute for limited memory” (2011). They claim that “as new information arrives, a decision-maker or investor may not remember his initial forecast of the project’s value” (2011). Participants were asked to decide on completing a particular project without the initial information of cost of initiation.
In their study, the experiment showed that students were more likely to complete investments the second round if the sunk cost of completion was lower. Through their study, Baliga and Ely found that memory constraints are “potentially an important source of a variety of behavioral regularities… [and] have shown how sunk cost arises naturally as a strategy for coping with limited memory” (2011).
In recent years, there are also research papers and studies that show that sunk cost fallacy may not be a surrender to irrational decision making. In McAfee and Mialon’s research, analysis of informational content, reputational concerns, and financial and time constraints are completed to show that perhaps reacting to past decisions is often rational.
The first of the three concerns, informational content, shows rationality because the higher the sunk cost (initial investment), the more information obtained, indicating that they are closer to success and completion of any project than not; reputational concerns are also important because impacting one’s reputation may affect future cost; and financial and time constraints are also important because a firm or organization may not have the capabilities of starting a new project with limited time or finances. As stated by McAfee and Mialon, “there is no clear evidence that people react to sunk costs in such situations and some evidence that they do not” (2010).
All in all, the effect of the sunk cost fallacy can be summarized based on the approach of McRaney (2011), who maintains that sunk cost fallacy and loss aversion often come together. The correlation between the two phenomena and the effect they produce on the behaviors of the individuals is simple – human beings are designed to avoid feeling suffering and pain; the loss of something (even if it is not an actual but perceived loss) is associated with pain.
As a result, under the impression that they are about to experience pain, the individuals do everything to avoid it. Using the example of investment in mobile games, the phenomenon of sunk cost fallacy can be explained as an individual’s reaction to the investment made in the past (it could have multiple aspects such as money, effort, or time spent by an individual playing that game). As a result, the correlation goes the following way: the larger the investment – the more difficult it is for a gamer to move on from it. Viewed in that way, the example of a ski trip cost used by Arkes and Blumer (1985) is perfectly applicable as an illustration of the motivation behind the sunk cost fallacy.
Motivational Game Design Patterns of ‘Ville Games
In an effort to further explore sunk cost fallacy and how it affects how certain companies take advantage of this concept in the business world, we turn to Social Networking Games (SNG) and their employment of sunk cost fallacy and loss aversion to maintain high user registration. This paper explores SNG structure and design, and analyzes how sunk cost fallacy, if it exists in this case, is applied towards game design in an effort to effectively engage their audiences.
In July of 2007, Zynga, a social network gaming company, was set up by CEO Mark Pincus. Since its creation, the company has over 246 million players, primarily through their “Ville series”, e.g. Farmville. One of the reasons this is such a shock to most game experts in the gaming industry is that these types of games, SNGs, defy the typical definition of a “good” game. A “good” game is defined by a series of interesting choice, constant learning, and positive stress (Lewis et al. 2012). But experts question whether SNGs really do any of these things. Most SNGs, like Farmville, are simple, easy to understand, contain very little challenge, and rarely induce any stress to the player.
Lewis, Wardrip-Fruim, and Whitehead compiled a study titled “Motivational Game Design Patterns of ‘Ville Games” in 2012. They studied various patterns that developed in SNGs that appeared to motivate players to return to the game even though they did not possess any of the typical “good” game characteristics. In all of the patterns that appear, withering is the most fascinating because of the emotional reaction it causes in a player. Withering, as described by the study, is powerful because this is one of the only characteristics that causes loss in the game. Punishment for not returning to a game has progressed throughout the years, as shown by Figure 2 here (Lewis et al 2012).
Game
Crop
Cost
Harvested Value
Withered Value
Gain from Withered
FarmVille
Black Tulips
50
200
-15
-65
Empires & Allies
Pineapples
576
1500
288
-288
CastleVille
Wheat
100
550
275
175
Figure 2: The cost and losses/gains from withered crops.
This theory can be applied in that the power given to withering crops is due to sunk cost fallacy. Crops are considered sunk costs. Once planted, it cannot be recovered. It can only be recovered through a timed return, and if the player does not return, the crops are lost and can even be punished by the game by having coins or money deducted. Players are therefore motivated to return to the game, whether or not they want to. Watching a movie, or doing something else that would provide more pleasure would be the more rational choice, but because of the game and the withering design, players are compelled to continue playing the game, to harvest their crops before the crops begin to wither.
Tobias Stockinger also further explored leveraging behavioral economics in mobile application design. In his group’s study, they concluded that applying behavioral economics can improve and increase user experience, causing a higher user rating. The Stockinger study further explores gamifications and how adding certain challenges, badges, and achievement acknowledgments can boost intrinsic motivation.
The study also discusses sunk cost and loss aversion as a gamification factor. Loss aversion, as described in this study is the “discrepancy between perceived intensity in gain or loss of things people own” (Stockinger et al.). In simpler terms, what this means is that people tend to have a higher emotional impact when losing things compared to gaining things. In games and mobile applications, this applies when people receive badges, trophies, and achievements as a result of invested time and effort. Once an individual owns a trophy, they are more likely to care about their progress in the game, thinking that until they have acquired all of the badges and trophies, prior time and effort put into the game would be wasted if they did not finish the game.
The approach exercised by McAfee and Mialon (2010) specifies that sunk cost fallacy is a rational reaction based on a logical choice of an individual, and not merely an instinct that is launched to avoid pain. However, regardless of how logical the choice of the individuals to keep playing and investing in a game is – it can be controlled by the game makers. Apart from the FarmVille example, there is another interesting demonstration in a best-seller called SimCity, a city-building mobile game. The game functions based on a mechanism that is designed to trigger the initial investment in order to launch the sunk cost fallacy chain reaction.
Basically, the game has an initial stage that is easy and addictive. This stage is followed by the next stage that causes a player’s frustration by generating multiple challenges at the same time. The easiest way to resolve the frustration is to invest a relatively insignificant sum of money and buy buildings and address the problems in the city. The first investments pave the gamer’s way towards more in-game purchases, which in turn lead to the growing cost of the playing process in terms of time, effort, and money. Finally, the gamer becomes attached to the game. This player involvement mechanism differs from one game to another, but the ultimate objective is the same – the encouragement of the client to make purchases and create an emotional attachment to the game.
Implications – Cow Clicker
Since the growth of mobile phone technology, mobile phone game applications have also grown significantly. Many new technology companies are beginning to focus more and more on mobile application development. It seems as though a technology company is not really legitimate until they have developed a mobile phone application that is user friendly and available on all mobile phone platforms (mainly iOS, android, and windows).
In this section, we hope to answer the question, why mobile phone games, particularly ones that lack the typical “good” game requirements continue to attract and acquire large numbers of users. We will do this by discussing a game, Cow Clicker, a parody of the ‘Ville games and its success. Because of the simplicity of Cow Clicker, behavioral economics can further be analyzed and easily distinguishable.
Cow Clicker was created by Ian Bogost, which gained more than 50 thousand players. Its game objective, is to click your own cow more than anyone else. However, throughout the game’s history, Bogost attempted to intentionally sabotage his game through a variety of methods, such as switching the default cow to another direction, or even charging $20 for the game. When neither of the methods worked, Bogost removed all of the cows, finally leading to complaints that the game without cows was not a very fun game.
Through this study, we were able to identify specific game design patterns that seem to encourage and motivate a group of people to return to a game that “is at best tedious, and at worst abusive” (Lewis et al 2012). Bogost himself even wrote a blog about the creation of this game, meant to be a parody of the social networking games that made Zynga a multi-million dollar valued company within such a short time frame.
He claims that Cow Clicker is a game created to make fun of the ‘Ville games that gained so much popularity, and even continues to argue four points against social networking games. Bogost argues that SNGs, such as ‘Ville games, and his own Cow Clicker game defy the typical game stereotype. He claims that compulsion, optionalism, and destroyed time are reasons that make the mobile game unattractive and devalues the game industry. The first reason, compulsion, refers to the idea that SNG companies are exploiting human psychology to make money. This is where sunk cost fallacy and loss aversion really come into play.
Cow Clicker utilizes sunk cost fallacy to attract and motivate game players to return to the game. At its peak, there were 48,542 clickers, with approximately 2.2 million clicks. It combines this aspect with the endowment effect as well as an altruistic attitude in the game. This pattern exists in Cow Clicker when a player can collect different cows, place it in his/her neighbor’s pasture, where every click on a player’s cow results in a click on his or her own pasture.
Players begin to form strong bonds as they are compelled to work together, cooperating with each other to help each other’s pastures grow and rise in rankings and accomplishments. After seeing the neighbor’s accomplishments and achievements, players are often motivated to continue playing so that they can surpass their friends. Not doing so, and quitting in the middle of the game is not fathomable – players feel like they’ve lost the game, and wasted so much time doing so if they are unable to surpass at least some of their neighbors and friends.
Such data seems to be consistent with the theory of sunk cost fallacy. With such a basic game design framework, where Bogost’s (the creator of Cow Clicker) main goal was to satire the simplicity and lack of design in a game, Cow Clicker should not have been a popular game. But the fact that it became such a popular game so quickly seems to point out that behavioral economic theories are more important than ever in attracting users.
Time inconsistency – When discussing behavioral economics, the differentselfs of a decision maker can have different preferences over current and future choices. Time inconsistency, is therefore, related to this particular concept.
Time inconsistency is actually quite standard in human preferences in decision making. For example, if we had to choose between getting one day off tomorrow or getting one and a half days off one month from now, most people would choose to get one day off tomorrow. However, if we were to make that decision ten years ago, the decision would be different. This shows that people’s preferences change throughout different points in time, and shows that humans have a preference for immediate pleasure.
Mobile phone games can take up a lot of time, and often times, at the most inconvenient of times. However, people often display a consistent bias that they will always have more time in the future than they have today. That is why, for many mobile phone game players, investing time in games today is often worthwhile, because they often feel that in the future, they will have more time to play the game, and therefore, feel less inclined to stop playing the game today.
When intertwined with sunk cost fallacy, most mobile phone game players find themselves incapable of keeping themselves off of the game. Generally, the utility an individual gains in playing mobile phone games generally does not change between now and later. Even with time discounted utility, a player who plays a game now, would not gain much in utility in the far future. When meshed with sunk cost fallacy, the player would find it rather difficult to refrain from investing time into that particular game.
There may be times when playing this game would provide the player with some substantial tangible utility and value. It is these times, that the player has to make a decision. He must decide whether or not it is worth playing now, and whether or not he will have time to continue with the game. Because discontinuing the game in the future would be a waste of time (sunk cost fallacy). He would much rather continue a game, than start a new one. Embedded in this decision is the whether or not he will have enough time in the future to play this game, and whether or not its worth it. Because of time inconsistency, and the bias that he will always have more time in the future, the player often misjudges whether or not he will have enough time to play the game.
In general, the sunk cost fallacy is driven by human emotions creating an illusion of a loss associated with an individual’s decision to stop a certain behavioral pattern. In that way, initially, the costs invested in a game are recognized as the effort and the results (or the purchases) as the achievements. Consequently, it becomes more difficult for one to neglect all this “effort” and stop playing the game. As a result, the continuation of the pattern is justified as the pursuit of satisfaction, pleasure, and entertainment, while, in reality, it is just the avoidance of negative emotions. This behavior could be compared to a drug addiction, in which the dependent individual continues to purchase and abuse substances, not to feel good but to stop feeling bad.
Conclusion
In conclusion, SNGs are games that take advantage of the human psychology. Its popularity provides evidence that sunk cost fallacy and loss aversion stands true. SNGs are games that provide little value or entertainment for its players. Other than a means to absorb and destroy the value of time while users are away from the game, SNGs hold little value as a “good” game.
It is clear that sunk cost fallacy is heavily exploited as a means to motivate and encourage gamers to return to the game, even if that time on the game could be better spent elsewhere and doing more productive things. Although some research has shown that perhaps sunk cost fallacies do not really matter when considering investment projects, they definitely do apply when companies such as Zynga think about how to increase user ratings and number of users.
Reference
Arkes, Hal R, and Catherine Blumer. “The Psychology of Sunk Cost.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes: 124-40. Print.
Baliga, Sandeep, and Jeffrey C Ely. “Mnemonomics: The Sunk Cost Fallacy as a Memory Kludge.” American Economic Journal: Microeconomics: 35-67. Print.
Garland, Howard, and Stephanie Newport. “Effects of Absolute and Relative Sunk Costs on the Decision to Persist with a Course of Action.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes: 55-69. Print.
Lewis, Chris, Noah Wardrip-Fruin, and Jim Whitehead. “Motivational Game Design Patterns of ‘ville Games.” Proceedings of the International Conference on the Foundations of Digital Games – FDG ’12. Print.
Mcafee, R. Preston, Hugo M. Mialon, and Sue H. Mialon. “Do Sunk Costs Matter?” Economic Inquiry: 323-36. Print.
McRaney, David. “You Are Not So Smart.” New York, New York: Avery, 2011. Print.
Stockinger, Tobias, Marion Koelle, Patrick Lindemann, Matthias Kranz, Stefan Diewald, Andreas Möller, and Luis Roalter. “Towards Leveraging Behavioral Economics in Mobile Application Design.” Gamification in Education and Business (2014): 105-31. Print.
Since the coining of this quote, it appears that the journalism profession has continued to evolve more in line with this observation that Frank Herbert made many years earlier. Indeed, if the current trend in the journalism profession is anything to go by, the present state of things in this industry indicates a profession that has increasingly focused on the entertainment business vis a vis other roles that journalism ought to play in society. But this is for good reasons if the concept of journalism is viewed as a whole; in this section, I wish to show that entertainment is a central feature in journalism, which cannot be omitted if this industry is to be successful.
It is common knowledge that the real intention of journalism is to sell information that really matters, but not just any kind of information. But in order to sell that albeit small section of information that the industry is interested in passing to its audience and thereby generate income requires this profession to focus more on entertainment.
This makes sense considering that the major income-generating activities in the larger media industry are from the sale of information, usually through various forms of advertisement, which entertainment actually happens to be one of them. So to go around this hurdle, the journalism profession has to increase focus on what sells most, that which interests its audience most, and that which attracts the audience in the first place; this is almost always any form of entertainment.
Indeed, historically the role of journalism has always mainly been entertainment and events coverage; unfortunately, these noble functions have overtime been overtaken by the unique needs of this modern society, 21st-century challenges, and the concept of the capitalist system that is in place in today world over as we shall see in the following section. So from this perspective, it is clear that journalism must focus on entertainment as its business for it to succeed.
Argument against this claim
But at the same time, journalism has really nothing to do with entertainment as its actual mandate goes beyond the mere need to entertain its audience, or in that case, keep them informed. Here I claim that the journalism profession is really not about entertainment per se, given that the real intention is to reach the same audience and sell it information that is valuable. In fact, I wish to postulate that modern journalism is almost solely interested in shaping audience preferences through advertisement than it is committed to its core business, which should be events coverage and entertainment. This is because advertisement is now a thriving multi-billion industry that is very much at the center of every component of the media industry, which includes the journalism profession.
Again this would make sense from another perspective when you consider that the journalism profession is very capital intensive and requires a lot of money to finance and even sustain, and because this profession is profit-generating oriented, then it means that it must have a stable source of income. Unfortunately, entertainment by itself, including event coverage, does not really generate any funds for media companies or journalist professionals.
In fact, sometimes, unless event organizers wish to have journalists cover their activities for purposes of the advertisement so as to expose it to potential clients, then covering such events is very costly. This means that if the journalism profession was really just about entertainment, hardly will journalists or most media companies be generating any income and would instead be losing money if this profession was entirely about entertainment. So I rest my case, and in retrospect, I have to say that Herbert was only partly accurate in claiming that journalism was about entertainment.
Just like in other parts of the world, visual entertainment reshapes the culture and values of Americans in a number of ways. In fact, entertainment influences the mode of communication among Americans. The television is the most influential entertainment tool. Since its invention in 1950, it has influenced the behavior of many Americans.
Television programs set the agenda for Newspaper writers, magazine editors, scholars, and content designers. The television reports various events around the globe, which influence the culture of various American communities. For instance, the television reports events related to war, sports, and movies, which help Americans in evaluating their own society. In particular, the reports presented by journalists help Americans in formulating or supporting certain polices (Valenti, Brown, & Trotta, 2000).
Restoration of democracy in various parts of the world could not have succeeded were it not for the television. Every Tuesday, Americans watch the favorite program referred to as the Super Bowl. The program is very important because a young talent in music is always introduced to the public. In various media stations, politicians are interrogated over certain issues affecting the population.
The president relies on the television to pass critical information to the people. In the financial market, people are able to get updates from various stock markets without necessarily having to travel to various cities. For young people, the television runs a show that advertises fashion wear.
The visual entertainment influences the behavior of Americans in many ways. However, the impacts are mostly negative because children who are addicted to the television cannot perform well in class. Moreover, children are affected in terms of health because they are unable to interact in games and plays. Individuals who are addicted to visual entertainment are antisocial because they lack time to acquire social skills.
Many visual entertainment programs influence children sexually because they introduce pornography, violence, and drug abuse to children. For adults, they are also influenced negatively because many people dress and eat according to television adverts. For others, the television influences their leisure activities.
Some are forced to spend heavily on things that do not matter. Hollywood movies have affected the behavior of people in terms of treating others. In the Hollywood movies, people are encouraged to treat others ruthlessly. Generally, the visual media has affected the moral standards of Americans (Ivory, 2012).
Even though the visual media is accused of propagating evils, it has also introduced some cultural practices that are constructive. Many individuals have been able to express their feelings through music.
The videos show the level of commitment and seriousness of a singer. In fact, the singer is able to express his or her feelings in a way that could not be expressed in any other form. Psychologists claim that music could be used to relieve pain. Through music, Americans have had a chance of socializing, meeting new people, learning new values, and appreciating cultural diversity.
It can be concluded that American culture could not be the way it is currently were it not for visual entertainment. The American culture is perceived to be diverse mainly because of the media. The media has always criticized biases that arise from ethnocentrism. Lack of cultural diversity in many societies is attributed to ethnocentrism. The media has eliminated this aspect in the American society. In the US, people co-exit freely because they do not allow their traditional origins to affect their performance and socialization.
References
Ivory, K. (2012). The blurring of lines between online and digital storefronts. BNP Group, 9(21), 1-5.
Valenti, F. M., Brown, L., & Trotta, L. (2000). More than a movie: Ethics in entertainment. Boulder, CO: West view Press.
Entertainment plays a highly important role in today’s world, as it is intertwined with various aspects of modern live, such as work, education, and upbringing. It can also be argued that younger generations are particularly influenced by the entertainment industry, since they use various media sources more often and are more susceptible to the information they receive from them (Orben, 2020). Teenage pregnancy is currently one of the social and health issues often reflected in entertainment media, and this essay will discuss how entertainment impacts teenagers in relation.
First, it should be stated that the impact of entertainment on teenagers depends on the type of entertainment media as well as teenagers’ mental, cognitive, and behavioral state. Overall, however, the majority of them are easily influenced by it, since this is the age when they are searching for the examples to follow (Moyer-Gusé et al., 2019). Celebrities, singers, actors and actresses can act as role models, since many teenagers are struggling with self-identification. This search, openness, and curiosity can make them indiscriminate when they choose the behaviors and trends to follow, which can lead to serious mistakes. For example, if they see a character on the screen lead an unhealthy and improper lifestyle and if this character’s plot line does not involve any negative consequences, they may start doing the same. Similarly, if they see positive scenarios glorifying early pregnancy, they may think that there are no damaging outcomes to it.
It can be concluded that entertainment does have a strong impact on teenagers, as their cognitive development is still in progress, and they are easily susceptible to the information they receive from the media. Since it is impossible to shield children and teenagers from all potential threats, media creators can be recommended to pay close attention to the content they produce. The impact this content may have on teenagers needs to be taken into account.
Culture and media are two aspects in the society that have influence each other in one way or another. In most cases media has been used in the society to mode the culture practiced in the society, the reason behind this is that media in its self is very powerful and it influences the thoughts of people and the culture that is believed in is easily influenced by the media. (BN 2000)
Mass media has a great impact on the perception of the people in the society and plays a great role of changing people’s thoughts on certain thing, it means that mass media changes the mass culture believed in by many of the people in the society as evidenced in American politics (BN, 2000).
The project is aimed at analyzing the mass culture and the influence of mass media on culture. In order to show a clear relationship between the two and how each one of them influences the other an analysis of the film a face in the crowd and different readings on the aspect will be analyzed. Together with this an analysis of the current United States of America elections will be done in order to see its application and influence even in today’s world.
Theoretical context
The mass culture theory believes that “through atomization individuals can only relate to each other like atoms in a chemical compound.” Based on this believe it is clear that mass culture can be changed or developed within a short time when there is effect of atomization. In this case atomization is caused by use of mass media in the society; mass media in real sense has great impact on what the society believes in and changes the perception of society greatly. Mass culture then can be defined as “the popular culture produced by mass production industrial techniques and is marketed for a profit to a mass public of consumers.” It means that through use of mass media techniques many of the public consumers of the media are easily influenced and their perceptions changed towards certain direction in the society (Deborah, 1996).
Mass culture is usually determined by the profit that is gained by the mass media from production and marketing of a certain aspect to the potential mass market. This is what is used by many politicians during politics whereby they invest a lot in mass media in order to gain advantage of the mass population reached by mass media. Television is one of the tools of mass media that is highly utilized to get attention of the mass population and to change their perception towards certain mass culture in the society (Dominic, 2008).
Mass culture has been criticized for a long period of time, the criticism is usually based on the impact it has in the society based on the different author’s views. The mass culture does not result to greater cultural uniformity in the society; there are those who use it to achieve high heights in the society than most of the other people. In most cases the mass culture theory is seen to favor the rich people in the society than the less well up. The reason is that the rich people are able to pay huge amounts of money to the mass media to promote their ideas, because mass media is always after maximizing profits. This is seen as an American myth and it is interpreted differently by different people hence bringing in critics on its applicability (Dominic, 2008).
The other critic of the theory is that consumers are assumed to be very much passive such that they make decisions without much knowledge. This is not true since many of the consumers take time to analyze the message passed and they have the opportunity of making decision on what to believe in (Dominic, 2008).
Historical content
The influence of mass culture and media is evidenced in the film a face in the crowd media and especially television has been used in the political arena to promote politics by then in America. The film a face in the crowd is basically “focused on the duplicitous megalomaniacal Rhodes who is viewed as the source o the evil media manipulation.” Television media by Lonesome Rhodes who was a singer used his television popularity to promote presidential campaign of Senator Fuller. Through television popularity he was in a position of changing perceptions of many of the people in the society to support the senator. This shows how media can have great influence of what mass population believes in (Thomas, 2004).
Mass media uses certain products of mass culture that are passed to the audience in a manner that is passive such that the audience thoughts and perceptions are manipulated and changed without knowledge by mass media to desired direction. This is what is illustrated by the film that “Rhodes manipulated perceptions of people towards supporting the senator passively.” Because of his successful manipulation he thought that the battle was over before it was and he altered words that showed how easily he manipulated the mass and brought challenges for his campaigns and support. This is because they were made public through media (Scott & Jeff, 2008).
There are certain elements that are associated with the mass culture theory and that are mostly used to promote it in the society. The first element is advertising; advertising has been popularly used in the society through use of mass media. Television is the tools of mass media that are popularly used in advertising. Television reaches many people in the society and it provides both audio and visual elements of an advert. Hence provision of these two elements plays a great role in influencing thinking and perceptions of people towards certain direction (Mick, 2005).
Based on the study television as a mass media tool has been greatly used to influence mass culture in the society. For instance in the film a face in a crowd mass media was used to change perceptions of Americans towards supporting a black person who is viewed as the face in the crowd. He was the only black person and Americans did not believe in black people hence media was greatly used to change the mass culture of Americans in supporting the black person. This was done by a singer Rhodes through pop music that made him popular in the American society and instead he used that popularity to support and change the mass culture of Americans to support a black person. Though this was not what Americans believed in mass media played great role in changing the mass culture of the entire society. Also television in the film is associated with the achievement of power or instance in the film “Rhodes is all too aware of his power over his audience, and becomes a monster, hungry or political power and contemptuous o his followers.” This is one of the elements o television and mass culture that is evidenced from the film (Brian, 2008).
The other element is use of pop art to promote mass culture in the society through use of mass media. Pop art is associated with singing whereby singers come up with songs that support certain aspects in the society, though the aspect may not be popular through the music the perception of the aspect is changed and people start viewing it as important in the society. This is what was used in the film and through various songs in praise of the candidate and popularity in the mass media the perception of the person was changed and people supported him (Brian, 2008).
Contemporary Relevance
Music and its popularity in the media play great role in building a mass culture in the society. This has been evidenced in the past United States election conducted recently, elect president Barrack Obama capitalized on mass media and through this he managed to change the mass culture and believe in United States of America. This is because through the mass media he changed the perception of Americans of black Americans and made them believe in his policies and ideas and through the support of mass media he gained enough support from the Americans against his opponent senator McCain (Bill, 2008).
The critic that consumers are passive is not true and it is evident in the current United States elections whereby the Americans made their decisions not through passive contributions but through charisma and mass media he managed to go through. The success of Obama can not be based on passive decision making by the Americans but it is through the personality Obama established, through his well defined policies and the support of mass media that showed confidence in Obama. Because of the combination of these characteristics, Obama managed to sail through the political arena to become the 44th president of United States of America (Dominic, 2008).
It is assumed that mass culture is used as a defense mechanism by the people in the upper class and middle classes but based on the 2008 presidential elections this is not true since the Obama is a black American and for along time black Americans have not been as confident enough to lead whites meaning that Obama was among the low-class people but he managed to sail through to the top. This shows that mass culture is not used by the upper class to press the lower class (Dominic, 2008).
In conclusion personality or charisma of a person, celebrity and commercial television are used to build mass culture. In the case of presidential elections in the United States Obama used his personality through the policy of change we believe in to build his celebrity and personality with the support of the media and today it has become the mass culture in the entire continent (Bill, 2008).
Works cited
Bill, Presidential election results maps, 2008 vs 2004
BN, Theoretical Approaches to the mass media, 2000
Brian Koller’s, Review Face in the Crowd.
Deborah Cook, Adorno on mass culture; cook [rev]. 1996
Television entertainment has become one of the most popular sources of entertainment in world over the last five decades because of the ever increasing size of television audience across the world. Researchers have found out that the young people and women form the majority of the audience and in the process making the most probable candidates to be affected either positively or negatively by television entertainment (Bushnell 67).
Television episodes and series highlight and portray different societal values and beliefs that can either be positive or negative. These values and beliefs propagated by television have a great potential of shaping the value and belief system of the society because the young people who are the majority television viewers form the present and the future society.
It is therefore important for television channels to air programs that can promote positive values and beliefs in the society. This paper will discuss how the themes highlighted in the Sex and the City television series and how the series contributes in shaping social values and beliefs.
The television genre of a television program helps the audience to try and understand the cultural and historical conditions under which the program was produced and its subsequent consumption (Bushnell 118). It is therefore very important in television entertainment because of its ability to meet the expectations of the audience.
The generic form of a television program or series how attractive the program becomes to the audience. Most television programs and series like Sex and City have a programming format and genre that is hybridized.
Sex and the City is credited for mixing generic styles and feminine identities as a way of understanding gendered politics (Bushnell 118). Sex and the City can be regarded as a post-feminist joke narrative with a format that highlights the current ideological struggle. This series reflects a romantic comedy genre that focuses on the life of single girls in the city.
The series transforms the past generic codes with generic elements that entirely represent feminism, gender identities. All the themes represented in the series represent gendered cultural performances in a woman’s fantasies. The sex and the City series combines different generic forms such as romantic comedy, s9tcom comedy together with fairytale narratives to highlight the uneasy relationship of a heroine, the pursuit of a perfect body and the fairy-tale romance with a happy ending.
The narrative structure of Sex and the City is very unique in the sense that it highlights the complex issues commonly faced by single women in the society (Douglass 56). The central theme in each episode is brought out by a single character and this helps the characters a great deal in identifying themselves with the audience.
The series has got a voiceover narration coupled with a well developed spectatorship which helps in highlighting how women relate with technology as well as constructing multiple meanings. Carrie Bradshaw, who is the main character in the series, is often used to pose the central theme of each episode.
She poses the main theme in form of a question and this often forms the basis of her topic in her Weekly newspaper column. This series has over 11 million viewers across the world and is among the first programs to present sexually explicit discussions and scenes (Douglas 56).
The four characters in the Sex and the City series are presented as single women who are independent with each having one of them having a success career. Despite being single, their relationships are highlighted in different states such as marriage, divorce, cohabiting and committed relationships (Bushnell 95). This show has a clear format and structure that highlights single lifestyle and multiple personality.
Sex and the City emphasizes on sexual objectification of women which appeal to women viewers in multiple ways. The four women characters in the Sex and the City have successful careers that make them receive a lot of admiration from women viewers (Bushnell 81). Apart from enjoying success in the irrespective careers, these characters have relationship troubles that many women can identify with. The varied use of different locations in New York City brings a sense of realism to the series.
The use of the voice is a very important feature in this series because it gives the show a feminine identity. Sex and the City highlight post feminist attributes as it explores the political issues of race and activism. The show also highlights how women relate with technology, men and fashion (Bushnell 83). The voiceover narration depicts internal struggles with no definite solutions to the dilemma.
The main characters namely Miranda Hobbes, Carrie Bradshaw, Charlotte York and Samantha Jones have got unique perspectives about life a thing that helps in conveying multiple meanings. These characters have different perspectives on sex and in the basis forming four different stereotypes on sex. The show uses irony, humor and complex relationships in order to present multiple meanings (Bushnell 83).
The central question of each episode in the Sex and the City series is often based on the problematic nature of power, sexuality and gender. Each character deals with the issue of gender ambiguity in a different way. In the episode titled “Boy, Girl, Boy Girl” in season three highlights the gender issues with the major question being whether the opposed sex has become obsolete (Bushnell 98).
The variety of storylines presented in this series depicts quite a number of social themes that different groups of people in the society can relate to. The themes are depicted in a more direct manner and do not require any form of interpretation (Bushnell 24).
The theme of sexual immorality is one of the highly depicted themed in this series. The four characters explicitly represent women as sex object and in process portray unsafe sex as being glamorous without paying any attention to the negative effects associated with it such as sexually transmitted diseases and unplanned pregnancy.
This show has increased the likelihood of teenage pregnancies because the scenes presented in the show tend to influence the young people giving them the urge to practice what they watch in the show (Bushnell 103). Some of the characters practice lesbianism which is still a contentious issue in the society. Gay relationships are depicted in many episodes and this has the potential of changing the perspective of viewers about gay relationships and encourages some of them to start practicing lesbianism and homosexuality.
Feminism is one of the most popular cultures in recent times and is profoundly depicted in the Sex and the city show (Bushnell 103). The feminist voice in the Sex and the City has a great influence on the behavior and life of women viewers. The Sex and the City series depict first-wave feminism. Miranda and Charlotte are drunkards who openly portray the hatred they have for their children. The series celebrates women and their struggle to live liberated lives.
The four female characters put their friendships as the first priority and honestly engage in honest discussions about sex with each giving their independent views (Bushnell 156). Their conversations are female centered and are full of humor with many people labeling the show as a feminist television show.
Sex and the City downplay the issue of marriage and motherhood. The characters appear not to be very enthusiastic on facing the challenges in the institution of marriage and motherhood. The show does not seem to support the people with intentions of getting married and becoming mothers.
The Sex and the City series celebrate wealth and portray the experiences and ideas of women in a particular class in the society. The different conversations on gender highlight the emphasis on gender issues on the show. The show clearly depicts the changing women roles in the society (Bushnell 156).
The characters have varies conversations concerning men and women. Traditional gender roles are completely broken by the characters in this series. Miranda is an established lawyer who is able to take care of her self without having to depend on men. She becomes a shareholder in a law firm and even goes ahead to by her own apartment (Turkle 109).
The men in the show are only meant to satisfy the sexual desires of men. The series represents the fact that the society is no longer dominated by women but women are slowly starting to find their place (Turkle 109). The Sex and the City series tend to be sexist and racist in the fact that it tackles issues related to white women.
The women are also involved in a power struggle with men and are eager stamp their authority in relationships and places of work. The feminist movement in the sex and the city tends to promote gender equality and in the process give more power to women. The female characters in the show are empowered and completely refuse to be under the authority of men (Gurley-Brown 98).
The setting of the sex and the city is New York City and this plays a major role in depict the way of life in the city. New York is one of the largest cities in the world and represents all the elements of city life in a perfect manner. The series is captured in different scenes within the city and highlights the liberal nature of a city woman.
The city is depicted as the epicenter of all economic and social movements (Turkle 78). The city represents civilization but at the same is portrayed as center of moral degradation. The four women characters put on expensive shoes and clothing to highlight how the modern woman is financially independent and can afford expensive things just like men.
The show has actually transformed many women in both positive and negative ways. Women are now able to share their experiences honestly and in the process their friendships have experienced significant improvement. The show has removed the timidity in some women and has given then the courage to confront the challenges facing women in the society (Turkle 78).
The other positive thing about the Sex and the city series is the fact that women can now celebrate ageing. An example of this is when Samantha admits that she is forty five years old and proud of it. The series is however very racist by the fact that it emphasizes on being thin, white and beautiful as a recipe for becoming successful as a woman.
The characters in the series represent extremes and therefore make it easy for women with different preferences to associate with them. The series has a large influence on many women on various issues concerning and is therefore a very perfect example on how television entertainment affect social values and beliefs (Gurley-Brown 34).
In conclusion, it is important to note that television entertainment will continue to shape social values and beliefs of the current and future generations. Sex and the City is a television series that enjoys a large following around the world especially from women and young people.
The characters in the series depict various themes that affect the society such as immorality, feminism, gender, power, city life and women empowerment. The show portrays both positive and negative influences to women and the society in general and therefore one can not afford to downplay the effect it has on the general values and beliefs in the society. Television entertainment therefore has the ability to make or break a society depending on the type of information passed to the audience.
Works Cited
Bushnell, Candace. Sex and the City, New York: Warner Books, 1996. Print.
Douglas, Susan. Where the Girls Are. New York: Three Rivers Press, 1994. Print.
Gurley-Brown, Helen. Sex and the Single Girl. New York: Bernard Geis Associates, 1962. Print.
Turkle, Sherry. Life on the Screen. New York: Touchstone, 1995. Print.
Media is mainly a collective term referring to a wide collection of communication avenues or information storage facilities or in some cases both. Of concern however in this topic is the communication part of media which involves televisions, newspapers, and radio. It is important to realize that these are set up as businesses around the world. However, there are exceptions such as government-owned media stations. Having realized that most of the media around the world is profit-minded then it is to assume that most of what they publish must at least be profit geared to realize the intentions of the owners. (Yadav pp. 45). This essay is thus written based on the view that popular media is exaggerated for entertainment and profit.
Media profits
Most popular media around the world just as may have been highlighted in the first part of this essay is profit geared with the individuals behind the media hoses or any of these establishments seeking to generate some earnings at the end of the day. Thus to market them they first have to make them presentable and offer something exciting to the public. This excitement we should all agree is not triggered by a representation of facts as these are never as interesting. It is for this reason that the content has to be manipulated in a way that appeals to the general populace.
In the actual sense, it is entertainment that helps the media realize profits as most people are in pursuit of happiness, and are willing to take that extra mile even if it will require them to flex their financial muscle. It is this bit that the media owners and personnel have come to realize and taken advantage of moving away from the traditional role of media which was mainly to avail information as it is to the general public. This is the reason why images are being used to represents individuals, this is not only entertaining but helps excite individuals as they acknowledge the level of creativity that these individuals have achieved. (Perkins et al pp. 68). This helps the media not only entertain but realize profits as these individuals seek more entertainment.
Newspapers
On display media which is mainly newspapers, we saw an increase in the number of pages dedicated to fictional writing and analytical articles. These in most cases represent the ideas of individual writers and not necessarily the popular thought. These are more exciting and help these newspapers sell at a much faster rate; this higher sale helps achieve higher profits. A derivation from individuals’ habits also illustrates that a greater population will read or watch articles or programs with entertainment aspects as opposed to a factual article or program. (Yadav pp. 29)An individual will under normal circumstances watch a Cosby show other than watch a program detailing recession. It is this realization that has prompted popular media to divert from presenting popular ideas to presenting entertaining articles or programs which help generate profits as compared to the latter.
Conclusion
In conclusion, most media practitioners with exception of state-run publications have centered their efforts on profit generation as opposed to representing popular opinion or factual information whose sell-out is low. This in turn has transformed media around the world into entertainment spots; this has consequently led to soaring earnings for these institutions which all go to meet the founder’s ambitions and goals.
Works Cited
Perkins, George and Barbara Perkins. The American Tradition in Literature. 12th ed. Vol. 2.New York: McGraw Hill. 2009. Print
Yadav, R P. Journalism & Mass Media in 21st Century. New Delhi: Omega Publications. 2006. Print
