Category: Enlightenment

Introduction

The development of enlightenment thought in the late 18th and early 19th centuries was characterized by distinctive trends in different world regions. The tasks that educators set for students concerned not only the acquisition of new knowledge but also the consolidation of the necessary skills, allowing them to acquire qualifications in the relevant areas. Regarding the Atlantic Enlightenment in the international context, the doctrines and approaches to education were focused on the formation of practical skills and focused more on applied than on liberal arts. When comparing European and American concepts, one may notice that Western approaches to education had a greater focus on the exact sciences. Therefore, in the international context, education in the Atlantic Enlightenment was associated with disciplines that were rather aimed at learning the new than repeating the old.

Discussion

The ideas of the Atlantic Enlightenment are largely described by Thomas Jefferson, who is justly considered one of the founders of American statehood and an outstanding reformer. In his discussions, he drew attention to the differences between American and European approaches to teaching, focusing on specific disciplines. For instance, when speaking of European educational concepts, Jefferson argued that philosophy, ethics, foreign languages, and other humanities were not objective sciences for which American students should have traveled to Europe. This is largely due to the great focus of the Atlantic Enlightenment on the exact and applied disciplines, such as law or physics, which allowed scholars to move forward and transform outdated views of the world. While adhering to this idea, Jefferson noted that after graduating from educational institutions, young people had the right to count on profitable and sought-after places in the labor market. Classical European education, in turn, did not allow them to do this. Thus, in speaking of the Atlantic Enlightenment, attention to narrow disciplines and the desire to move forward were characteristic features that reflected this doctrine in the international context.

One of the characteristics of Atlantic Education was its focus on accessibility as a way to attract as many talented students as possible. For instance, according to Rothschild, the European education of that period cost even wealthy families much money, and often, only a select few could afford to study at the universities of France or Great Britain. From this perspective, the Atlantic Enlightenment can be seen as a movement to provide relatively equal access to education, which was driven by both cultural and social needs. Colonial states, such as Great Britain, set themselves the task of bringing traditional values ​​to as many regions as possible, including America (173). Under pressure from the British Crown, American representatives were forced to adopt appropriate strategies and doctrines in education. However, even in such conditions, the focus on applied sciences remained in the local academic environment. The unwillingness to accept the colonial policies of other countries motivated the American elites to promote distinctive forms of education because, as Jefferson argued, European education did not expand but rather narrowed students’ knowledge. As a result, attempts to separate local educational practices characterized the Atlantic Enlightenment.

Although the Atlantic Enlightenment was held back by the colonial interests of Europe, characteristic trends laid the foundation for further teaching strategies. In his letter to David Williams, Jefferson noted that college-educated young people were welcome in their homelands, where their experience and knowledge could be useful to the country. European approaches, in turn, did not set the task of cultivating knowledge in the local context. The leaders of this region had larger geopolitical tasks to deal with, for instance, international trade, colonization, and other activities designed to strengthen foreign rather than domestic policy. This, in many ways, distinguished European educational doctrines from those in the Atlantic Enlightenment. The American nation was ready to build an independent society, which, unlike the Eastern, African, and other countries under the yoke of the British crown, saw the potential to preserve the intellectual base within the state. Moreover, the development of teaching strategies and practices contributed to this, which gave rise to the era of enlightenment thought. Therefore, while speaking of local approaches to education, in the international context, the Atlantic agenda assumed a focus on internal rather than external resources.

Conclusion

Given the above arguments and justifications, from the international perspective, the Atlantic Enlightenment can be seen as a movement designed to captivate students with new and practical sciences. Compared to traditional European approaches to teaching, the focus on precise and in-demand disciplines was clearer among American educators, as both primary sources and historical contexts suggest. Being under the yoke of the British crown, American society did not stop striving for independence and building an educational system that would strengthen the internal potential of statehood. Great Britain and other colonial European countries, in turn, put external geopolitical tasks higher. As a result, the Atlantic Enlightenment can be characterized by more progressive and practical educational strategies designed to expand the knowledge of students to enhance their development potential and form a stable intellectual base.

Works Cited

Jefferson, Thomas. “From Thomas Jefferson to John Banister, Jr., Web.

Jefferson, Thomas. “Thomas Jefferson to David Williams, 14 November 1803.”National Archives, Web.

Rothschild, Emma. The Inner Life of Empires: An Eighteenth-Century History. Princeton University Press, 2011.

Introduction

Ancient Chinese poetry, history, and philosophies capture the cultural values of the Asian people. In the first millennium, the ancient Chinese people experienced ruthless and extended periods of war¹. However, ancient Asian cultural productions indicate that these periods enabled the Chinese to realize many technological and socioeconomic developments.

Intellectual debates thrived in relation to some aspects, such as economics, socio-economics, new knowledge of the natural order, peace, and development of human society in both Korea and China. Among these aspects, the human experiences of love and enlightenment were key features². It is vital to note that all the early civilizations were typified by high levels of love and enlightenment. This paper discusses the aspects of enlightenment and love in two of the three major regions of East Asia, i.e., China and Korea.

Ancient China’s experiences of enlightenment and love

It is evident that from a very long time ago, the Chinese people appeared to have unique love and respect for historical events. In fact, even the earliest dynasties were said to have their independent historians who were instrumental in fostering love and enlightenment. The very first ancient Chinese literature was the Shinjing, also referred to as the Book of Song. Later, the ancient philosopher, Confucius, produced a masterpiece named the Chuci. The Confucian production, also referred to as the Songs of the South introduced the love for poetry among the Chinese people. In fact, people felt that they could express their feelings using poems.

It is important to note that it was the ancient poet Qu Yuan, who introduced the shamanistic roots and enabled them to be entrenched into Chinese poetry. The poet developed the writings of Huanzi, and is considered as the first person to individually rise to prowess as a poet. This introduced enlightenment during that particular period through the establishment of the Daoism philosophy. Qu Yuan was one of the founding fathers of this ancient Chinese philosophy.

Daoism philosophy is considered as one of the first ways through which poetry introduced an age of enlightenment in ancient Chinese cultural aspects. Daoism, also referred to as Taoism, is a much-respected indigenous enlightenment period, which was important in improving human experiences at the time³. The Daoija school of thought, philosophers, and philosophical manuscripts prepared by Zhuangi and Laozi were instrumental in this enlightenment period.

During this age of enlightenment, human experiences were focused on philosophical as well as religious inclinations. Daoism brought about new kinds of human experiences, such as the importance of living relatively long lives, proper diet, ethics in leadership, morals in life, and regulation of the conscious mind. The Daoism philosophy focused on the core concerns and ideas that were effortless actions, self-realization, and how to reach the Dao, which was the mysterious aspect of the philosophy.

The Zhuangzi is innately connected to other poetic works, such as the Guanzi and the Chuci. The connection involves an individual’s attempt toward attaining a human experience referred to as Neiye or inner cultivation. However, the Zhuangzi provides poetic prose that allows growth toward sagehood. This is the final part of the Taoism philosophy and teachings. It is important to contend that, upon reaching this stage, all other human experiences were adopted. They aimed at attaining sagehood, changing physical bodies, and pacifying the mind. Lastly, there was a mastery of the control and focus on qi, the body’s internal energy. The entire practice was considered to have three distinct parts, which were holding to the One, keeping the One, and obtaining the One⁴.

It is vital to state that some leaders were against human enlightenment. For example, the villainous acts of the first emperor of Qin, where he ordered books to be burnt and scholars to be executed, were aimed at achieving thought control. It is indicated that all literature was destroyed, but for the Classic of Changes and books on technical subjects, for example, forestry and medicine. In total, 460 scholars were executed during the period of the heinous acts. Scholars in different fields were believed to influence a significant number of citizens to adopt certain political thoughts, which were opposed by the leadership.

That notwithstanding, the masses were able to rise against those in leadership and agitate for changes in society, which helped to promote love and relatively high levels of enlightenment. Although the Qin did not last long in China, it had profound impacts on the course of the nation’s history. The rulers during the period forced people to adopt systems that unified, standardized, and centralized ways of doing things. The new systems led to the destruction of the old approaches and gave rise to relatively high levels of unity and identity among the Chinese people, implying that new levels of love and enlightenment were established.

The old feudal states were destroyed, and the population was exemplified by many shifts. Furthermore, wars and uprisings were evident in the country, which resulted in the downfall of the Zhou aristocracy⁵. A new system of leadership gave several families and leaders a chance to demonstrate their leadership abilities. However, the Legalists failed to suppress new schools of thought, which were typified by relatively high levels of criticism. It was argued that later regimes could utilize the policies proposed by the Legalists.

So far, it can be noted that none of the later regimes openly hated the philosophical ideas of the Qin, yet the emperor and his advisers were regarded as symbols of evil and oppression in China. When the Zhou dynasty was disintegrating, relatives were alienated from each other. In fact, they started attacking and killing each other as if they were long-term enemies. At the end of the day, feudal lords initiated wars, but the king could not do anything to salvage the situation. Thus, it became clear that the dynasty was disintegrating, and people wanted to express high levels of love and enlightenment⁶.

The aspect of the Lotus, as demonstrated by Zhiyi, was founded on the Buddhist teachings. The teachings of the Buddha could be grouped into five major periods during which different developments of enlightenment and love were achieved. However, the five periods emphasized the adoption of truth and honesty.

Ancient Korea’s experiences of enlightenment and love

The Memoirs of Lady Hyegyong is a book that was written by a prominent woman who was a princess, as well as a mother and a grandmother to some kings of the 18^th century. Lady Hyegyong was famous for writing the works published in the 18th century⁷. The works were meticulously written during a period of about ten years, documenting her life in marriage to the prince. They include public memoirs as well as private memoirs.

The memoirs expose tales of tragedy in Korean courts as a result of the dearly adhered to historical education rules. The high point of the Korean literature is the murder of Sado, the prince, by his paternal father under unclear circumstances. It focuses on human experiences with regard to upholding age-old traditions and tragedy.

This story exposes an ancient Korean society where men, as the heads of families, looked down upon women. However, the extent to which the entire political and economic systems were changed is also narrated. The author seeks to progressively investigate how the family she held, so dear, was involved in several tragedies.

King Yongjo killed Sado for failing to follow the rituals of some traditions with regard to education, resulting in a father who loathed his son. The son had been separated at birth from the family, and the visits were quite formal. It reached a point where the prince digressed from his ritualized tradition. Unfortunately, he stammered in the king’s presence. In fact, the fear of his father led to the young man’s trembling in the king’s presence.

As time progressed, the king’s opinion about Sado suddenly began to make him adopt different views. For example, the king accused the son of drinking alcohol, which was not true⁸. On one occasion, the son requested to be offered alcohol publicly, leading to a high level of anger from the king. He was also blamed for occurrences of natural disasters. This shows that the perceptions of the Korean king in relation to considering human experiences of love to his son were not positively impacting society.

The prince succumbed to cases of insanity as well as poor physical health. The frustrations in his life motivated him to commit suicide on several occasions, but he did not succeed. As his level of insanity increased, the King began fearing his son’s presence. He tricked his son into entering a rice storage place. It was later sealed, and after eight days, the young prince died. The skillful writer presents the tragedies in the memoirs, proving that education was treasured by aristocratic families. That notwithstanding, it is evident that love and enlightenment were not considered to help Korean families to prosper. In fact, it is indicated that a father could hate his own child for fearing that he could threaten him in relation to leadership in society.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it has been demonstrated that Chinese culture was characterized by different philosophies that helped society to achieve significant levels of development. For example, it has been shown that Confucius was instrumental in emphasizing the expression of feelings using poems, which were adopted by a significant number of citizens. Taoism was a period exemplified by enlightening people with regard to the positive impacts of the unique experiences of love. In fact, it was a critical period during which many developments were achieved.

In addition, some key persons in the history of China, such as Zhuangi and Laozi, were instrumental in proposing some philosophical views. The Korean culture borrowed heavily from the much older Chinese culture. The ancient Chinese culture enabled enlightenment and love among citizens but suffered from external interferences that led to subsequent collapse. However, the relatively high levels of love and enlightenment enabled the neighboring Korean culture to grow in a similar manner, but much later.

Bibliography

de Bary, Theodore, ed. Sources of East Asia Tradition. Vol. 1. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008.

Ebley, Patricia and Anne Walthall, ed. Pre-Modern East Asia to 1800: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Ohio: Wadsworth, 2013.

Haboush, JaHyun, ed. The Memoirs of Lady Hyegyong: The Autobiographical Writings of a Crown Princess of Eighteenth-Century Korea. California: Univ of California Press, 2013.

Owen, Stephen. An anthology of Chinese literature: beginnings to 1911. New York: W. W. Norton, 1996.

Shirane, Haruo, ed. Traditional Japanese literature: an anthology, beginnings to 1600. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008.

Footnotes

1. Theodore de Bary, ed. Sources of East Asia Tradition. Vol. 1. (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), 620-660.
2. Patricia Ebley, and Anne Walthall, ed. Pre-Modern East Asia to 1800: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. (Ohio: Wadsworth, 2013), 202-247.
3. Patricia Ebley, and Anne Walthall, ed. Pre-Modern East Asia to 1800: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. (Ohio: Wadsworth, 2013), 202-247.
4. Stephen Owen. An anthology of Chinese literature: beginnings to 1911. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1996), 360-411.
5. Stephen Owen. An anthology of Chinese literature: beginnings to 1911. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1996), 360-411.
6. Haruo Shirane, ed. Traditional Japanese literature: an anthology, beginnings to 1600. (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), 449-455.
7. JaHyun Haboush, ed. The Memoirs of Lady Hyegyong: The Autobiographical Writings of a Crown Princess of Eighteenth-Century Korea. (California: Univ of California Press, 2013), 170.
8. JaHyun Haboush, ed. The Memoirs of Lady Hyegyong: The Autobiographical Writings of a Crown Princess of Eighteenth-Century Korea. (California: Univ of California Press, 2013), 170.

Introduction

In 2006 Jean-Pierre Gauthier, a talented Canadian artist who won numerous prestigious art awards, created one of the most significant artworks of the beginning of the 21^st century (Jean-Pierre Gauthier 2008). He also won one of the most significant art awards, Sobey Art Award (Juliusson 2004). He called his work Battements et Papillons (Beats and Butterflies).

This installation is a great illustration of digital art since it is created with the help of technology and at the same time bears prominent artistic value. It inspires and evokes ideas about some personal things. Every viewer perceives this work of art in his/her own way (Jean-Pierre Art Gallery of Nova Scotia 2009). Beats and Butterflies is not just another installation which includes some musical instrument creating some sort of noise.

Gauthier’s art work represents a divine device which creates beautiful melody with no human interference. In one of his interviews the artist stated: “The motion, the sound, all the dimensions and the references too – I try to bring them to another level” (Landry 2009). He manages to do so. His unique to reveal new facets of motion and sound make his installation Beats and Butterflies one of the most explicit manifestations of liberation aesthetics.

The artists does not resort to conventional rules of form, he rather tries to reveal his own emotions, what he feels “from the work” (Landry 2009). Gauthier’s installation Beats and Butterflies is liberated from any conventions and laws. There is only one person to dictate his will in his art work – Jean-Pierre Gauthier himself. The installation also illustrates the four principles of the art of Enlightenment which make the work that important and valuable.

The principle of autonomy is explicitly revealed in the work

The artwork, Beats and Butterflies, is unique representative of kinetic art. Gauthier is regarded as not only an artist, but as “inventor and musician” as well (Jean-Pierre Gauthier: Machines at Play 2009). He does not follow some fashionable trends or conventional rules. Gauthier’s installation Beats and Butterflies differs from the rest of artworks.

The artist is absolutely autonomous. The installation reveals individuality of the talented kinetic artist who controls motion and sound. It is also important to point out that the artist utilizes “everyday instruments” and ordinary objects “creating a hazy environment from easy pieces” (Orlov 2003, 103).

This is one of his peculiarities which made some people call him a “virtuoso of everyday reality, an artisan of contemporary art, an entomologist of sound” (Musée d’art contemporain de Montréal 2007). Gauthier’s uniqueness lies in his absolutely inexplicable ability to transform “everyday objects” (MOCCA 2005).

Moreover, this very installation also reveals the idea of autonomy. There is no human to play the piano. The sounds are created by some external invisible power. It is possible to see and feel the motion which creates the beautiful melodies: there are some cables moving and keys are also in motion. Nevertheless, there is no definite creator of the music.

The work’s Agency description

The second principle of the art of Enlightenment is also explicitly revealed in the work. The installation, Beats and Butterflies, can be characterized by the relationship between the principal and his agent which is absolutely unique. Gauthier’s works of art cannot be regarded as “art that just hangs quietly on the wall” (Clair 2008).

Gauthier’s Beats and Butterflies is constantly in motion. Though the work has been created by the artist it has the life of its own. There is certain power of Providence in the installation since it seems that some divine powers play the instrument. When listening to the music it is possible to feel that it is not about physical rules of kinetics or rather that kinetics is not about Physics, it is something about magic.

Viewers can see “piano, bench, aluminum tape, motion detectors, microcontrollers, solenoids, relays, metal tension cables, motor” and other physical objects (DOCAM n.d.). Nevertheless, it is impossible to perceive this work of art as a physical object. The instrument is ordinary piano, but the artist made it look like a magic cornucopia which produces divine sounds instead of divine food.

At this point it is necessary to add that this very installation has been presented at numerous exhibitions not only in Canada, United States or Europe, it was popular in countries of the East (Garcia 2007). There is even a documentary devoted to the artist’s works (Akron Art Museum n.d.). Nowadays his works can be also viewed online (Vimeo n.d.). Thus, seemingly distant from its creator the installation reveals his vision and his feelings worldwide.

The work’s Criticality description

Every art work of Gauthier bears important message. His installations can touch upon absolutely different topics. For instance, he tied motion and sport in his installations (Arena: The Art of Hockey 2008). His artwork, Beats and Butterflies, draws links between music and motion.

It goes without saying that this installation evokes curiosity and like all his works makes viewers try to figure out how it all works (Johnson 2003). Some find it easy to teach acoustics and kinetics using Gauthier’s art (Jean Pierre Gauthier: Machines at Play n.d.). Nevertheless, the idea of his works is much more important than evoking curiosity or teaching some laws of Physics. Gauthier stipulates:

…I try to create brief moments of elation that activate the ear so it is no longer an organ waiting to be stuffed like a goose. At those moments, the ears are mouth and eye at once; they observe carefully, stealthily, and greedily imbibe the sound. (Jean-Pierre Gauthier’s Official Website)

Thus, the artist creates a whole new world, the fourth dimension where sounds can be perceived in some other way. Gauthier’s Beats and Butterfly carry out his intention perfectly. The dark space and the piano creating magnificent sounds do transform the ideas of motion, sound, music and art.

The work’s Universality description

It goes without saying that the work which appeals to the bottoms of viewers’ hearts, evokes various thoughts and ideas, and simply inspires, is universal. Of course, everyone perceives it in some specific way, but no one remains indifferent. For instance, people pertaining to the world of art regard Gauthier’s works “transforming an environment in a way that gives the viewer a new experience of the familiar” as unique and significant (Rudolph 2010).

Children also appreciated this installation and their astonished faces became an evidence that the work reached their hearts (Police Community Response 2010). Some say that Gauthier’s works “have a strange effect on viewers” and it is really so (Machines at Play 2010). This peculiarity of his works makes them universal.

Conclusion

On balance, it is possible to state that Beats and Butterflies is the work of art which is the perfect illustration of the art of Enlightenment realizing the four principles: Universality, Criticality, Principles of Agency and Autonomy. This installation is a unique artwork which makes people see and feel new dimensions and worlds.

Reference List

Akron Art Museum. Jean-Pierre Gauthier: Machines at Play. Western Reserve Public Media. Web.

Arena: The Art of Hockey. 2008. Canadian Art. Web.

Art Gallery of Nova Scotia. Jean-Pierre Gauthier Makes a Generous Gift to AGNS. Art Gallery of Nova Scotia. Web.

Clair, Jeff St. 2008. Jean-Pierre Gauthier: Machines at Play at the Akron Art Museum. WKSU. Web.

DOCAM. Jean-Pierre Gauthier, Battements et Papillons, 2006. Documentation and Conservation of the Media Arts Heritage. Web.

Garcia, Cathy Rose A. 2007. Listen to Beauty of Sound Art in Seoul. The Korea Times. Web.

Jean Pierre Gauthier: Machines at Play. 2009. Akron Art Museum. Web.

Jean Pierre Gauthier: Machines at Play. Western Reserve Public Media. Web.

Jean-Pierre Gauthier: Machines at Play to Open at the Art Gallery of Hamilton. Web.

Jean-Pierre Gauthier’s Official Website. Web.

Johnson, Ken. 2003. ART IN REVIEW; Jean-Pierre Gauthier – ‘Sporadic Exchange’. The New York Times. Web.

Juliusson, Svava. 2004. Jean-Pierre Gauthier Wins Sobey Art Award. E-Flux. Web.

Landry, Mike. 2009. Jean-Pierre Gauthier’s Noise Control. The Coast. Web.

Machines at Play. 2009/10. Art Gallery of Nova Scotia Winter Journal, 34: 21.

MOCCA. Toronto International Art Fair. Museum of Contemporary Canadian Art. Web.

Musée d’art Contemporain de Montréal. Jean-Pierre Gauthier Exhibition: February 10 to April 22, 2007. Musée d’art Contemporain de Montréal. Web.

Orlov, Piotr. 2003. Chelsea Version. The Village Voice, July 9: 103-117.

Police Community Response. 2010. Spotlight on Public Safety, 2, no. 4: 3.

Rudolph, Ellen. 2010. What Is Kinetic Sound Installation? An Interpretive Guide to the Exhibition… The Prairie Art Gallery, January. Vimeo. Web.

The Time of Enlightenment

The Enlightenment age took shape in the 18^th century. This was an intellectual movement that revolutionalized Western thought and cultures from the traditional political and social orders. Enlightenment ideas that followed espoused ideals which stressed human freedom and equality for all (Dupré 20). This Enlightenment started with the scientific revolution that had begun with the scientific intellectual movement. Thinkers, artists, and writers resident in London and Paris felt more enlightened and, thus, needed to enlighten their colleagues elsewhere on the “rights of man” and “the goals of society “(Israel 75). That advanced the idea of an ideal society.

The Enlightenment age was driven by an enthusiasm to find ways of restoring human dignity as well as value. Thus, most enlightenment age thinkers saw human reason as the only means to fight ignorance, superstition, and any other tyranny in which most societies found themselves entangled. Personal independence as well as individual freedoms were issues that concerned many thinkers. The mental attitudes of many people needed re-invigoration.

The Enlightenment Age saw popular ideas, beliefs, and even artistic styles take shape. Issues to do with religion, especially the grip of the Catholic church on society, formed the basis of the French Enlightenment thinkers. The church was seen as having reduced people to puppets who could not reason and have a rational judgment on issues that they faced. Enlightenment thinkers equally targeted the aristocracy. They felt that such domination of society by a privileged few was not good. Thus, the 18^th century Enlightenment movement felt that the human race was to be celebrated. This is in line with what “humanist” philosophers thought between the 14^th and 15^th centuries. Theist philosophers in this period believed that God created human beings to be thinkers. More and more Renaissance humanists challenged the church authority. For instance, Martin Luther started asking critical questions about the church in the sixteenth century. He did this by starting a Protestant wing of the Church. Francois Rabelais, a French Monk, and physician, viewed most religious doctrines as a mere absurdity.

Impact of Humanistic Thinking

Due to more emphasis on reason over superstition, the arts started getting cultivated. Also, learning, art, and music were encouraged. Other areas included philosophy, literature, and natural science. Public concerts became popular as musicians greatly relied on their support. Great composers’ fame rose. For instance, Mozart and Handel became know all over the world. This was in line with the Enlightenment ideals.

Ideas were now being disseminated like never before as many venues opened up. Schools and universities sprung up in Germany and Scotland. In France, a medical school at Montpellier got established. Thus, the book industry grew as more people wanted reading material. There was a reading revolution (Kramnick 36).

Coffee houses got opened. These houses proved to be informal places where people could meet and discuss issues freely. The coffee houses developed into “penny universities.” Debating societies also sprung up. The public could meet and debate issues.

Painting

Theobald von Oer’s painting below clearly demonstrates the expression of the spirit of that age. The painting shows Weimarer’s Courtyard of the muses. German Enlightenment had expanded in music, science as well as literature. In the painting, one can see Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744 -1832) and Friedrich Schiller (1759 -1805), a poet and historian, and an enthusiastic audience listening to the speaker. This is typical of the enthusiasm that characterized the age.

Works Cited

Dupré, Louis. The Enlightenment and the Intellectual Foundations of Modern Culture. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004. Print

Israel, Jonathan. Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy and the Making of Modernity 1650–1750. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. Print

Kramnick, Isaac. The Portable Enlightenment Reader. New York: Penguin Press Penguin Press, 1995. Print

Theobald, Oer. Schiller Liest in Tiefurt Wei. Houston: Halliburton, 1860. Print

Despite the fact that Bertolucci’s movie has a number of flaws, historical inaccuracies and a rather jumbled plot, it can still be considered a rather impressive and memorable interpretation of Siddhartha and the Four Noble Truths. The first noble truth, i.e., the truth of dukkha, or suffering and anxiety, is shown in Siddhartha’s battle with Mara, i.e., the demon representing the ego.

In the process, Jesse practically defeats himself; thus, through the denial of his self, he learns the nature of non-self, which leads him to the Enlightenment. The Second Truth, i.e., the origin of dukkha, is represented by Jesse’s parents, whose ignorance prevents them from letting Jesse join the ranks of the Buddhist monks.

The representation of the Third Truth i.e., the cessation of dukkha, can be traced in Jesse’s way from a Buddhist to a Buddha. Eventually, the movie unwraps the secret of the Fourth Truth, which is the path to the cessation of dukkha, as the leading character fights his personal demons to become the Enlightened One.

The movie follows the source material very closely, representing each part of The Dhammapada in a unique and original way.

Pairs:

Hatred is never appeased by hatred in this world.

By non-hatred alone is hatred appeased.

This is a law eternal (The Dhammapada).

In the scene with the serpent, the latter embodies hatred.

Just as rain does not break through a well-thatched house,

so passion never penetrates a well-developed mind (The Dhammapada).

The given concept is shown through Siddhartha’s fight with the serpent.

Heedfulness:

Heedlessness is the path to death (The Dhammapada).

Ever grows the glory of him who is energetic

mindful and pure in conduct,

discerning and self-controlled,

righteous and heedful (The Dhammapada).

As Siddhartha acquires new skills and learns new ideas, he fights his heedlessness.

The mind:

As a fish when pulled out of water

and cast on land throbs and quivers,

even so is this mind agitated.

Hence should one abandon the realm of Mara (The Dhammapada).

Whatever harm an enemy may do to an enemy,

or a hater to a hater,

an ill-directed mind

inflicts on oneself a greater harm (The Dhammapada).

Again, the scene with the snake represents the pitfall of hatred.

Flowers:

As a mighty flood sweeps away the sleeping village,

so death carries away the person of distracted mind

who only plucks the flowers (of pleasure) (The Dhammapada).

Upon a heap of rubbish in the road-side ditch

blooms a lotus,

fragrant and pleasing (The Dhammapada).

With lotuses representing pleasures, the movie portrays the dangers of indulging into pleasures well enough.

The fool:

A fool who knows his foolishness

is wise at least to that extent,

but a fool who thinks himself wise

is a fool indeed (The Dhammapada).

Fools of little wit

are enemies unto themselves (The Dhammapada)

The concept of a fool is introduced by Siddhartha’s parents, who are at first unwilling to let their son become Sidhartha.

The wise:

On hearing the Teachings,

the wise become perfectly purified,

like a lake deep, clear and still (The Dhammapada).

Those whose minds have reached full excellence

in the factors of enlightenment,

who, having renounced acquisitiveness,

rejoice in not clinging to things —

rid of cankers, glowing with wisdom,

they have attained Nibbana in this very life (The Dhammapada).

Wisdom, on the contrary, is introduced in the scenes with the monks.

The arahant:

The fever of passion

exists not for him who has completed the journey (The Dhammapada)

Inspiring, indeed,

is that place where Arahants dwell,

be it a village, a forest, a vale, or a hill (The Dhammapada)

In the scene when the lead becomes Siddhartha, the latter is shown as a person who yet has much to learn.

The thousands:

Better than a thousand useless words

is one useful word (The Dhammapada)

Better it is to live one day strenuous and resolute

than to live a hundred years sluggish and dissipated (The Dhammapada).

The scene in which Siddhartha turns thousands of flaming arrows into flowers can be considered an allusion for Thousands.

Evil:

Hasten to do good;

restrain your mind from evil.

He who is slow in doing good,

his mind delights in evil. (The Dhammapada)

The snake in the movie represents evil.

Some are born in the womb;

the wicked are born in hell;

the devout go to heaven;

the stainless pass into Nibbana. (The Dhammapada)

Siddhartha’s path to wisdom represents a progression from evil to stainless.

Violence:

Putting oneself in the place of another,

one should not kill

nor cause another to kill. (The Dhammapada)

Speak not harshly to anyone,

for those thus spoken to might retort. (The Dhammapada)

In the movie, Siddhartha is intrinsically kind.

Old Age:

The man of little learning

grows old like a bull.

He grows only in bulk,

but, his wisdom does not grow. (The Dhammapada)

Those who in youth have not led the holy life,

or have failed to acquire wealth,

languish like old cranes in the pond without fish. (The Dhammapada)

The silly monks in the movie show that there are few links between age and wisdom.

The self:

One should first establish oneself

in what is proper;

then only should one instruct others.

Thus the wise man will not be reproached. (The Dhammapada)

By oneself is evil done;

by oneself is one defiled. (The Dhammapada)

By defeating his self, Siddhartha reaches his dhamma in the movie.

The world:

Lead a righteous life;

lead not a base life. (The Dhammapada)

Blind is the world;

here only a few possess insight.

Only a few,

like birds escaping from the net,

go to realms of bliss. (The Dhammapada)

The world is depicted as a very secular place in the movie.

The Buddha:

Hard is it to be born a man;

hard is the life of mortals. (The Dhammapada)

Enduring patience is the highest austerity.

“Nibbana is supreme,” say the Buddhas.

He is not a true monk who harms another,

nor a true renunciate who oppresses others. (The Dhammapada)

As the movie explains, “the gods often betray the wishes of mortal men” (Bertolucci).

Happiness:

Happy indeed we live,

we who possess nothing.

Feeders on joy we shall be,

like the Radiant Gods. (The Dhammapada)

There is no fire like lust

and no crime like hatred (The Dhammapada).

The movie declares that the happiness is an unattainable goal, which is still worth striving for: “In the end, happiness to us all, My Lord” (Bertolucci).

Affection:

From affection springs grief,

from affection springs fear. (The Dhammapada)

From craving springs grief,

from craving springs fear. (The Dhammapada)

Siddhartha is taught to take control of his passions in the movie.

Anger:

Overcome the angry by non-anger (The Dhammapada).

Let a man guard himself

against irritability in speech;

let him be controlled in speech. (The Dhammapada)

The training that the leading character undergoes represent the process of fighting anger.

Impurity:

Make an island unto yourself!

Strive hard and become wise! (The Dhammapada)

Unchastity is the taint in a woman;

niggardliness is the taint in a giver. (The Dhammapada)

The concept of purity is expressed through using the pronoun “he” when talking about the female llama: “Llama Dorje wasn’t a woman. He was the abbessof a convent” (Bertolucci).

The just:

Not by mere eloquence nor by beauty of form

does a man become accomplished,

if he is jealous, selfish and deceitful. (The Dhammapada)

The sage (thus) rejecting the evil,

is truly a sage. (The Dhammapada)

The movie shows that being just is the ultimate path to Enlightenment.

The path:

Of all the paths

the Eightfold Path is the best;

of all the truths

the Four Noble Truths are the best;

of all things

passionlessness is the best:

of men the Seeing One

(the Buddha) is the best. (The Dhammapada)

The eight folds of the oath are shown through the stages of Siddhartha’s enlightenment.

“All conditioned things are unsatisfactory” (The Dhammapada)

Miscellaneous:

If by renouncing a lesser happiness

one may realize a greater happiness,

let the wise man renounce the lesser,

having regard for the greater. (The Dhammapada)

Therefore, be not an aimless wanderer,

be not a pursuer of suffering. (The Dhammapada)

Suffering is mentioned several times in the movie as both the path to dhamma and something to free the world from: “I have been born to reach Enlightenment… and free all creatures from suffering” (Bertolucci).

Hell:

There are many evil characters

and uncontrolled men

wearing the saffron robe. (The Dhammapada)

Any loose act,

any corrupt observance,

any life of questionable celibacy —

none of these bear much fruit. (The Dhammapada)

Weirdly enough, the idea of hell does not occur in the movie.

The elephant:

Best among men

is the subdued one who endures abuse. (The Dhammapada)

Better it is to live alone;

there is no fellowship with a fool. (The Dhammapada)

By being able to withstand the arrogance of the rest of the world, he is able to reach dhamma.

Craving:

Whoever is overcome

by this wretched and sticky craving,

his sorrows grow

like grass after the rains. (The Dhammapada)

Beset by craving, people run about

like an entrapped hare. (The Dhammapada)

Siddhartha’s enemies are displayed in the movie as the people with wretched cravings.

The monk:

The monk who abides in the Dhamma,

delights in the Dhamma,

meditates on the Dhamma,

and bears the Dhamma well in mind —

he does not fall away

from the sublime Dhamma. (The Dhammapada)

Empty this boat, O monk!

Emptied, it will sail lightly.

Rid of lust and hatred,

you shall reach Nibbana. (The Dhammapada)

The final scene in the movie shows Siddhartha reaching Dhamma.

The holy man:

He who is free of cares and is unfettered —

him do I call a holy man. (The Dhammapada)

Because he has discarded evil,

he is called a holy man. (The Dhammapada)

Both verses can be referred to Siddhartha’s path of becoming a holy man.

Two scenes stand out especially in the movie. To start with, Siddhartha’s first encounter with his demons is worth mentioning. Another impressive scene comes at the very end of the movie, when the sand mandala, which must have been representing the passage from the secular life to the Enlightenment.

The given scenes represent the key Dhammapada postulates, i.e., the pursuit of wisdom and the completeness of the Path. Finally, the showdown between Mara and Siddhartha deserves a mentioning. Though shot in a typically Hollywood traditions, it still carries the flair of the original story.

The fight with Mara can also be considered an attempt to cease dukkha, i.e., access the Fourth Truth, seeing how Mara clearly represents Siddhartha’s tortures: “You are pure illusion, you do not exist. The earth is my witness” (Bertolucci).

Works Cited

Bertolucci, Bernardo (Dir.) and Jeremy Thomas (Ex. Prod.). Little Buddha. Keanu Reeves, Bridget Fonda, Chris Isaac (Perf.). New York, NY: Miramax Films. 1993. Web. Netflix.

The Dhammapada. n. d. Web.