Category: Enlightenment

Introduction

Eighteenth-century France and Scotland were characterized by the emergence of a new mode of thinking that helped to change the economic and political landscapes of Europe. Agricultural development that was closely associated with the trade competition and voluntary relationship was an important factor in the emergence of economic societies.¹ Patriotism that accompanied this development can be regarded as a political function necessary for governing “the future interstate system.”²

This paper aims to explore the role of French and Scottish Enlightenment eras in the development of modern economic thought. The paper will argue that a structured analysis of the societal progress was the main contribution of the French and Scottish Enlightenment to the economic evolution of humanity. Despite the discrepancies between the objectives of the Enlightenment and societal experiences in both political and economic terms, the recommendations for bettering human conditions that were formulated by prominent thinkers of the era were invaluable for setting in motion wider European Enlightenment. As a result, the world saw the wave of dynamism and innovativeness in which intellectual energies of people were less controlled by active political forces than in the previous centuries.³

The Scottish Enlightenment

Scottish Philosophical Framework

Before starting the discussion of the Enlightenment era in Scotland and France, it is necessary to explore the intellectual spirit of the eighteenth century that was influential in shaping philosophical and scientific developments that resulted in the emergence of empiricism and inductive reasoning. The key point of the examination of the intellectual wherewithal that instigated striking economic improvement was the development of the science of man by Hume. The philosopher’s attempt to widen the understanding of human behavior was artfully elaborated in his book—A Treatise of Human Nature.

Impressed by the achievements of Bayle and Mandeville, Hume explored the driving force of self-interest in human action as “the original motive to the establishment of justice.”⁴ Unlike thinkers of the previous centuries, the philosopher wanted to develop an empirically-based conception of morality that could become a “looking-glass by which we can, in some measure, with the eyes of other people, scrutinize the propriety of our conduct.”⁵ It can be argued that Hume’s measured account of human nature was instrumental in the social change that took place in the eighteenth century.

The Scottish response to the social developments in France in the 1790s can be best exemplified by the writings of a Scottish economist, Adam Smith, who was concerned with the principles of political legitimacy. In his discussion of loyalty to one’s country, Smith pointed to the two sources of political legitimacy: “certain respect and reverence for that constitution or form of government” and “an earnest desire to render the condition of our fellow citizens as safe, respectable, and happy as we can.”⁶ In other words, authority and utility were the prerequisites for the establishment of the legitimate rule of the law.

However, similar to Hume’s comments on France’s structural changes, Smith argued that although risky, utilitarian inclinations of French people were not illegitimate.⁷ There is no doubt that Smith’s stance was in line with democratic principles that are essential for modern societies. Also, the appreciation of the increased efficiency of human labor that can be achieved with the help of the division of labor was evident in both the Wealth of Nations and the economist’s lectures on jurisprudence.⁸ His influence on the Scottish Enlightenment was so unquestionable and far-reaching that many generations of economists and philosophers lived “in the shadow of Adam Smith.”⁹ Without a doubt, preoccupation with human nature is a key page in eighteenth-century European history that furthered the modernization of societies around the world.

The Power of Intellectual Sharing

The eighteenth-century Scottish philosophers were strong proponents of thinking and sociality. However, unlike in the previous centuries, the literati aimed for independent intellectual pursuits that were not deferential to religious authorities and ancient dogmas.¹⁰ Furthermore, the thinking was treated by Scots as a social activity, which was essential for the development of many branches of knowledge.

Scottish Enlightenment was not a result of a single intellectual movement; rather, the contribution of thinkers such as Smith, Hume, Hutcheson, Montesquieu, Ferguson, Millar, Reid, Stewart, and Kames among others helped to shape the intellectual character of the era.¹¹ Scottish literati regularly gathered in the major universities of the country located in Aberdeen, Glasgow, and Edinburgh in which they discussed a wide range of topics including law, philosophy, the economy, the military, medicine, sociology, and astronomy among others.¹² Undoubtedly, this was a sign of the sweeping cultural shift.

Scottish Triangle

The birth of political economy was a central feature of the French and Scottish Enlightenment eras. Although Smith is widely recognized as the “founder of political economy,” the works of two other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers—Hume and Steuart—made an equally important contribution to the development of the discipline.¹³ Therefore, historians of economic thought often refer to the Scottish Triangle when discussing the intellectual developments of mid-eighteenth-century Scotland. Arguably, these developments were crucial in the analysis of human action under the conditions of the free market.

The contribution of the three philosophers to modern economic thought is highlighted by Omori who states that political economy emerged as a result of their effort to reconcile wealth and virtue in a market economy.¹⁴ Smith’s exploration of natural law resulted in the creation of his theory of justice. Furthermore, the philosopher emphasized the importance of the natural price mechanism in a private property economy, which is indispensable for understanding the forces of commodity production and exchange. Hume argued along Smithsonian lines that the emergence of spontaneous order is a characteristic of a market economy.

However, his advocacy of private property and liberty was not complete without a comprehensive theory of price mechanism.¹⁵ Unlike Smith, Hume was preoccupied with the theory of useful value, which did not allow him to recognize the potency of the theory of exchangeable value. Nonetheless, his quantity theory of money was lauded by Keynes who commented it by saying that economists had “a foot and half in the classical world.”¹⁶ The exceptional value of Hume’s work who was a staunch proponent of economic liberalism is evident in the character of the modern political economy.

Steuart’s contribution to modern economic thinking is best exemplified by his introduction to the government as a party responsible for monetary adjustments in the exchange process. Adhering to the position of Hume, Steuart distinguished industrial activities and labor and argued that the growth of industry separated modern societies from ancient ones.¹⁷ To show the interconnected nature of the free market, the philosopher coined the term “reciprocal wants” which “excite labor.”¹⁸

In his book An Inquiry into the Principles of Political Economy, Hume formulated a comprehensive system of fiscal and taxation policies that were designed to battle the problem of unemployment or “hunger amid plenty.”¹⁹ It can be argued that the Steuartian approach to the development of economic principles influenced the study of economics up to the present. Steuart divided the economic research into the following three stages: the extraction of principles, the incorporation of principles in reality, and the arrangement of a system.²⁰ This approach helped to transform the emerging body of political economy from a speculative philosophy into a rigid scientific discipline.

The French Enlightenment

The French Enlightenment was an era marked by prominent contributions to many fields of inquiry the most important of which was political economy. The emergence of the idea of research markedly changed the pace of scientific progress, thereby contributing to social reform.²¹ However, in addition to the refinement and systematization of what might be referred to as today’s research and development (R&D), the French Enlightenment’s contribution to modern economics was the most valuable in the arena of social sciences.

Voltaire, Rousseau, and Montesquieu who jettisoned some of the beliefs espoused by their time thinkers such as Maupertuis and Buffon were intent upon discovering “a providential order laid down by the deity.”²² It can be said that despite the espousal of the idea of a providential order, by grappling with economic concepts, the French philosophers helped to dismantle archaic taboos on the exploration of both nature and the human mind. Therefore, their intellectual pursuits deserve a prominent spot in modern economic thought.

Even though Montesquieu’s foray into the moral realm of the economy was limited to the exploration of money and commerce, he acknowledged that commerce could improve manners, thereby inducing peace and improving human nature.²³ Rousseau, on the other hand, was a prolific scholar of economic subjects who recognized a close link between commerce and politics. The philosopher’s contribution to the Journal Oeconomique and the Journal du Commerce was key to the development of nascent political discourse in the country.²⁴ Bosiguilbert was another thinker whose crowning achievement in the propagation of the concept of laissez-faire deserves a special place in economic history.²⁵

Francois Quesnay was one of the most prominent economists of the French Enlightenment era. The economist attempted to describe an economic system of a country with the help of the first general equilibrium model.²⁶ Quesnay was an ardent proponent of the idea that “coherence in society results from the dynamics in monetary and commodity flows between the three classes,” which were the nobility, the proprietary class, and the sterile class.²⁷ Except for the desire to tax the nobility, his view of the perfect functioning of an economic system was that of noninterference. Some of Quesnay’s ideas were internalized by Smith, whose works inspired Karl Marx.²⁸

Without a doubt, scientific momentum gathered by prominent thinkers of the eighteenth century France contributed to the richer understanding of the world, thereby helping philosophers to grapple with complex economic phenomena. The cultural leadership of the aristocratic class was substantially undermined by the thinkers of the Enlightenment era whose belief in non-zero-sum interactions fostered economic growth. Furthermore, the intellectual movement of the eighteenth century was essential for changing a negative attitude of the church towards the creation and accumulation of wealth. In an unprecedented cultural shift, the role of the state was permanently changed, thereby allowing free thinkers to engage in independent thought, which facilitated the expansion of numerous fields of inquiry such as physics, politics, philosophy, medicine, and economics among others.

Practical Applications

It can be argued that by closely studying works of thinkers of the Scottish and French Enlightenment era, one might derive at clues for solving the present-day economic crises. Smith’s Wealth of Nations alone contains many indispensable lessons that can be used by modern businessmen, politicians, and economists.

When it comes to business ethics, the importance of which was brought to the fore by the financial crisis of 2007-2008, entrepreneurs have to pay close attention to the interaction between morals and profit-seeking.²⁹ It is not a stretch to argue that today’s Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) strategies would not be complete without a Smithsonian analysis of the interaction between moral norms and competitive markets. Therefore, in the pursuit of self-interest, corporate entities have to take into consideration the role of the Smithsonian apparatus of social approval and disapproval. Moreover, Smith acknowledged that “self-preservation and the propagation of the species, are the great ends which Nature seems to have proposed in the formation of all animals.”³⁰ It means that when engaging in commerce, entrepreneurs, in addition to considering the social implications of their actions, should also strive to avoid causing harm to the environment to which people are seamlessly joined.

Another lesson from the Enlightenment that can be used to resolve some of the modern economic problems is the unshaken belief in laissez-faire.³¹ The system of what Smith referred to as natural liberty can help modern societies to thrive. It must be borne in mind, however, that the rise of corporatocracy must not be confused with the free market, which has attracted an unfair share of criticism in recent years.³² In the eighteenth century, Gournay propagated the concept of laissez-faire to dismantle “archaic restrictions on the trade of grain.”³³ In the same vein, modern economists can advance the notion of unrestricted trade to facilitate the flow of products across the borders and to get rid of protectionist policies that damage the global economy.

Conclusion

The crowning achievement of French and Scottish Enlightenment thinkers deserves a place in the annals of political-economic thought. Even though in the eighteenth century, prominent thinkers from countries such as Italy, Britain, and Sweden helped to further many fields of inquiry, contributors from France and Scotland eclipsed them in fame and importance. The Enlightenment era can be considered a turning point in humanity’s economic thought.

After analyzing the role of the Scottish Triangle of prominent philosophers who developed the idea of free economic society, I predict that Smith will long be revered by economic historians. The philosopher’s doctrine of unintended economic consequences, the analysis of the division of labor, and the concept of property rights have to be studied not only by scholars of political economy but also by those interested in sociology.

Bibliography

Backhouse Roger, The Penguin History of Economics, New York, 2002.

Broadie Alexander, Scottish Enlightenment, Edinburgh, 2011.

Brooke John, Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives, Cambridge, 1991.

Burke Peter, A Social History of Knowledge, Cambridge, 2000.

Christensen Paul, Epicurean and Stoic Sources for Boisguilbert’s Physiological and Hippocratic Vison of Nature and Economics, Duke, 2003.

Deugd Nienke and Willem Hoen, Dovetailing Economics and Political Science: A Paradigmatic Introduction to International Political Economy, Germany, 2010.

Hubbard Glenn and Tim Kane, Balance: The Economics of Great Powers from Ancient Rome to Modern America, New York, 2014.

Keynes John, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money in The Royal Economic Society, Basingstoke, 1973.

Lowry Todd, Pre-Classical Economic Thought: From the Greeks to the Scottish Enlightenment, New York, 1987.

Montesquieu Charles, The Spirit of the Laws, Cambridge, 1989.

Otterson James, Adam Smith: Selected Philosophical Writings, Exeter, 2004.

Paganelli Maria, “Recent Engagements with Adam Smith and the Scottish Enlightenment,” Digitalcommons, accessed July 6, 2017.

Rutherford Donald, In the Shadow of Adam Smith: Founders of Scottish Economics, 1700-1900, New York, 2012.

Schabas Margaret, The Natural Origins of Economics, New York, 2005.

Stapelbroek Koen and Jani Marjanen, The Rise of Economic Societies in the Eighteenth Century, London, 2012.

Steuart James, An Inquiry into the Principles of Political Economy, London, 1767.

Suarez-Villa Luis, Corporate Power, Oligopolies, and the Crisis of the State, Albany, 2014.

Wright John, Hume’s A Treatise of Human Nature, Cambridge, 2009.

Footnotes

1. Roger Backhouse, The Penguin History of Economics, New York, 2002, p. 48.
2. Koen Stapelbroek and Jani Marjanen, The Rise of Economic Societies in the Eighteenth Century, London, 2012, p. 2.
3. Glenn Hubbard and Tim Kane, Balance: The Economics of Great Powers from Ancient Rome to Modern America, New York, 2014, p. 67.
4. John Wright, Hume’s A Treatise of Human Nature, Cambridge, 2009, p. 29.
5. Ibid., 31.
6. James Otterson, Adam Smith: Selected Philosophical Writings, Exeter, 2004, p. 72.
7. James Otterson, Adam Smith, p. 72.
8. Todd Lowry, Pre-Classical Economic Thought: From the Greeks to the Scottish Enlightenment, New York, 1987, p.17.
9. Donald Rutherford, In the Shadow of Adam Smith: Founders of Scottish Economics, 1700-1900, New York, 2012, p. 44.
10. Alexander Broadie, Scottish Enlightenment, Edinburgh, 2011, p. 32.
11. Ibid.
12. Maria Paganelli, “Recent Engagements with Adam Smith and the Scottish Enlightenment,” Digitalcommons, 2017. Web.
13. Koen Stapelbroek and Jani Marjanen, The Rise of Economic Societies, p. 103.
14. Ibid.
15. Koen Stapelbroek and Jani Marjanen, The Rise of Economic Societies, p. 103.
16. John Keynes, The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money in The Royal Economic Society, Basingstoke, 1973, p. 76.
17. Koen Stapelbroek and Jani Marjanen, The Rise of Economic Societies, p. 103.
18. James Steuart, An Inquiry into the Principles of Political Economy, London, 1767, p. 236.
19. Ibid.
20. Koen Stapelbroek and Jani Marjanen, The Rise of Economic Societies, p. 102.
21. Peter Burke, A Social History of Knowledge, Cambridge, 2000, p. 44.
22. John Brooke, Science, and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives, Cambridge, 1991, p. 39.
23. Charles Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws, Cambridge, 1989, p. 204.
24. Margaret Schabas, The Natural Origins of Economics, New York, 2005, p. 44.
25. Paul Christensen, Epicurean and Stoic Sources for Boisguilbert’s Physiological and Hippocratic Vision of Nature and Economics, Duke, 2003, p. 67-71.
26. Nienke de Deugd and Willem Hoen, Dovetailing Economics and Political Science: A Paradigmatic Introduction to International Political Economy, Germany, 2010, p. 35.
27. Ibid., 35.
28. Roger Backhouse, The Penguin History, p. 48.
29. Margaret Schabas, The Natural, p. 44.
30. Ibid., 91.
31. Roger Backhouse, The Penguin, p. 48.
32. Luis Suarez-Villa, Corporate Power, Oligopolies, and the Crisis of the State, Albany, 2014, p. 34.
33. Margaret Schabas, The Natural, p. 44.

Introduction

The Enlightenment was an important philosophical movement that dominated Europe in the eighteenth century. The movement was also known as the Age of Reason, and it completely shifted people’s understanding of nature and resulted in a rapid increase of knowledge in all spheres of human endeavor. However, a wide range of ideas associated with the movement was not supported and promulgated by all intellectuals of the century (Cole et al. 404).

The aim of this paper is to explore the link between the Enlightenment project and the religious mode of thinking of the past. The paper will argue that although the Age of Reason was associated with the strengthening of faith in human reason, eighteenth-century intellectuals did not completely escape from the religious thinking of the previous centuries.

Discussion

The scientific revolution that emerged as a result of the intellectual efforts of distinguished thinkers such as David Hume and Isaac Newton helped to create a new approach to scientific inquiry (Cole et al. 404). This approach was at variance with traditional thought that favored superstition. Kant, who believed that the Enlightenment represented the disappearance of “humanity’s self-imposed immaturity” (qtd. in Cole et al. 404), also saw it as an escape from the intellectual authority of the Catholic Church. In an attempt to systemize human knowledge, great thinkers of the era developed the scientific method. The expansion of literacy that occurred simultaneously with the Age of Reason allowed the broad masses to discover works of Voltaire and Rousseau.

Voltaire was a free thinker whose works were not constrained by religious and political dogmas of the time. The intellectual praised the weakening of British aristocracy and showed his respect for British scientists (Cole et al. 405). The man opposed religious bigotry and argued that fanaticism was linked to human misery. Montesquieu was another prominent thinker of the era who criticized monarchies and claimed that “the soul of a republic was virtue” (Cole et al. 405).

The spirit of the century was captured in the Encyclopedia—a collective project that summarized contemporary knowledge. Diderot overviewed the publication of the work and promoted the application of science. The Encyclopedia was banned by government officials who believed that it thought to destroy religion (Cole et al. 407).

Although France was an engine of intellectual progress in the Enlightenment era, Great Britain and Scotland also produced remarkable philosophers such as Edward Gibbon, David Hume, and Adam Smith. Secular ideas were prominent in works of a British literati, Mary Wollstonecraft. The woman believed in equality of relationships between the sexes, which represented a diversion from religious traditions of the past. Rousseau, on the other hand, claimed that women were radically different from men and, therefore, they should not engage in intellectual pursuits (Cole et al. 418). The intellectual’s reasoning was in line with that of religious authorities.

During the Enlightenment era, the church wanted to stop the spread of humanitarianism and toleration—respect for human dignity—and wanted to maintain an old social order. Even though powerful intellectual elites opposed the persecution of religious minorities and rebelled against dogma, they were deists who believed in a “divine clockmaker” (Cole et al. 408). Moreover, thinkers such as Lessing, who considered Christianity to be superior to other religions, treated followers of Islam and Judaism with disdain. It means that ideas of the Age of Reason were not sufficient for a complete break with the religious thinking of the previous centuries.

The discovery of the New World affected Enlightenment thinkers to a great degree. The importance of the event was underscored by Raynal, who argued that “everything changed, and will go on changing” (Cole et al. 411). The discovery also helped to permanently change Western identity, thereby diminishing the power of the church.

The weakening of the church authority over the intellectual discourse of the century occurred with the help of the book trade. Cheap printing and distribution methods resulted in the emergence of daily newspapers in London (Cole et al. 416). Governments were not capable of censuring a flood of publications that swept across Europe. However, Russian, Prussian, and Austrian authorities were not so permissive of intellectual freedoms; therefore, the countries had much less subversive literature.

The spread of revolutionary books in Europe led to the emergence of high culture. They educated aristocratic women that visited salons often engaged in intellectual discussions of politics and religion, thereby promoting critical thinking. According to Cole et al., the ability to speak and think freely without regard for religious dogma was “a point of pride” (417). Most importantly, the reading culture of the Enlightenment became a part of popular culture. Despite the fact that there was not primary schooling in most of Europe, the self-taught public enjoyed reading and discussing published materials.

Conclusion

The paper has explored the connection between the Age of Reason and the religious mode of thinking of the previous centuries. The paper has argued that although the Enlightenment was associated with the systematization of knowledge and strengthening of faith in human reason, eighteenth-century thinkers did not completely escape from the religious thinking of the past. Nonetheless, during the eighteenth century, the power of religious authorities was substantially diminished, which helped to advance human progress.

The Enlightenment (also known as the Age of Reason) was a philosophical and intellectual movement that lasted the most of the eighteenth century. The movement was characterized by ideas that focused on the principle of reason as the primary explanation for social, political, cultural, and scientific phenomena, which significantly undermined the position that the religious thinking of that period had. Nevertheless, not every thinker who lived in the era of Enlightenment followed the newly created ideology; some of them did not have any agreements with the fundamental principles of the movement. Other thinkers accepted the values of Enlightenment and chose to reject any other.

However, despite the fact that the patterns of the established ideology varied from one country to another, the majority of Enlightenment thinkers shared an opinion that they all were living in a new and exciting environment, in which the traditional and superstitious reasoning would decline under the influence of the “party of humanity” (Cole et al. 404).

Before answering the question of whether the Enlightenment was a complete break from religious thinking, it is important to discuss the basic characteristics thinkers of the movement had in common. Almost all of them were confident about the human power reason had over religious thinking. Such confidence was a result of the contribution of the scientific revolution, which placed a major focus on the development of rational thought, study, and observation.

For Emmanual Kat, the great German philosopher, the Enlightenment movement, represented the society’s move from the traditional reasoning toward the declaration of intellectual independence, which, in his opinion, was similar to a child’s growth. In his view, humanity’s maturity came with the break from the “self-imposed parental figure,” the Catholic Church (Cole et al. 404).

On the other hand, despite the fact that the scholars of the Enlightenment supported the idea of declaring independence from the past, they still valued the contributions made by predecessors such as Newton, Locke, and Bacon, who were often referred to as the “Holy Trinity” (Cole et al. 404).

Basing their ideas on the contributions of the seventeenth-century thinkers, the proponents of the Enlightenment placed emphasis on the value of education, which essentially promised social and political progress achieved through the moral improvement of individuals. Moreover, to a large degree, the thinkers of the Enlightenment had a goal of organizing all knowledge that was available to them. The scientific method (empirical observation of particular phenomena for arriving at general laws) offered the thinkers of the Enlightenment an ability to do research in a variety of areas ranging from human affairs to natural events. Therefore, scholars collected evidence to study the laws that either helped nations rise or fall.

From religious matters to racial differences, the scientists of the Enlightenment studied everything that could have contributed to increasing the quality of practical and applied knowledge for promoting a free discussion about the nature and the goals of their societies.

The era of Enlightenment could also be characterized by heated debates on the role of women in the sphere of science and societal affairs, a topic on which the Catholic Church had a particular view. If to provide an example to the debate, Rousseau’s ideas and the opposition to them stand out the most. According to Rousseau, science and education were not “the proper province of women” (Cole et al. 418).

Moreover, he wrote that scientific accomplishments were beyond the capacity of women and that they had no sufficient power and precision to be successful in sciences that require accuracy. To oppose the view that women were unable to pursue scientific discovery, Madame de Stael wrote that diminishing the role of women in science meant to establish an unequal society. Also, Mary Wollstonecraft stated that Rousseau’s ideas were “nonsense” (Cole et al. 419) and that there was no indication that the nature of women was somehow inferior to men.

The Enlightenment was the result of the scientific revolution characterized by a new sense of power and the possibility to exercise new forms of questioning natural and other phenomena (Cole et al. 420). The majority of aspects of past thinking fell under the scrutiny of the Enlightenment thinkers. Nevertheless, the abandonment of the previous religious thinking was necessary not only for explaining the social processes and phenomena with the help of reason but also for reforming the existing political powers that organized religion had in order to prevent more religious wars.

Thinkers such as Spinoza were determined to remove politics from the religious agenda and make a clear distinction between the Church and the state to avoid any interference in social and political affairs on the part of religious powers. Therefore, it can be concluded that the Enlightenment movement wanted to protect society from the interference of the Church in order to make rational decisions based on reason rather than superstition. The thinkers of the movement can be regarded as true supporters of rational thinking and those who helped European societies become what they are today.

Work Cited

Cole, Joshua, et al. Western Civilizations: Their History & Their Culture. 3rd ed., W.W. Norton & Company, 2012.

Ladies Are not to Be Forgotten!

Followed by the revolutionary change in America, the demand to consider both genders equally both in the social and political sphere was quite predictable. However, Abigail Adams’s suggestion was considered a flight of fancy and nothing more even by her liberal husband. Even though Mrs. Adams’s proposal was not considered as a worthwhile one as America was being reborn and reunited, it is obvious that the traces of this unusual and daring idea finally led to the feminist movement and the acceptance of women’s rights all over the world.

Therefore, the first suggestion of establishing the system of man and woman’s equal rights and freedoms that was founded first at the distant end of the XVIII century finally led to the ideas of feminism and women’s rights acceptance spreading all over the world. Being a decisive woman of great will and determination, she managed to break new ground in the world belonging to men, and only men. Perhaps, many women politicians owe their positions in the government to this courageous and daring First Lady of 1797.

Paying more attention to the ideas which Abigail Adams suggested, one can notice that her arguments were grounded impeccably – declaring independence for all the citizen of America, it would be unjust and illogical to consider men superior to women, since the Declaration of Independence granted each person of America with equal and indefeasible rights, among them the right to participate in the governmental issues.

Basing her arguments on the Declaration, she claimed that women must be equal to men when participating in governmental debates and political issues. A revolutionary idea in the country seized by revolution, this was more than people could take, which John Adams understood perfectly well.

There is no doubt that it was the caution that made John Adams suppress his wife’s attempts to establish the system of equal rights. Fearing that this will trigger another surge of people’s rage, Adams rejected the idea of gender equality. It is quite peculiar that the president grounded his ideas on the fact that the existing “Masculine” theory is the only reasonable means to conduct the state policy.

As Adams considered his wife’s ideas of equality inconsistent, he emphasized that the rest of her considerations, among them the one touching upon the constitutional issues, are going to be tackled sooner or later, thus contradicting himself – practically, he admitted that Lady Adams could participate in the political affairs. However, this was the kind of participation that could be called detached and rather insignificant. No matter how hard Abigail could have tried, the problem would not have moved any further – it was still enough to shift it from the dead point.

Therefore, it can be considered that the revolution for democracy in America was followed by another one – the feminist revolution. Although what Abigail Adams started could be called only the prerequisites of the feminism movement, this was quite enough for a start.

There is no doubt that the achievements of Abigail Adams can be compared to the most significant achievements of the world political leaders. Also, Abigail Adams initiated the movement which would further on grip the European states as well, starting from the liberal France which was quite ready for such changes up to more conservative England that was rather reluctant to change anything concerning the gender politics. With help of Abigail Adams, women of the entire world could finally find their place in the sphere of politics.

A Chain of Revolutions: On the Significance of Social Contract

Due to its well-known revolutionary character, France has always been well known as the stronghold of the most liberal ideas. This has predetermined the striking and daring ideas of such great philosophers and political scientists as Rousseau. However, it was not only the idea of the state reformations which the great man was concerned with. Because the political issues were intertwined with the concern for the people in his works, it becomes obvious that Rousseau’s main concern was the problem of liberty.

Emphasizing the importance of the so-called “social contract”, Rousseau clarifies that people are born to be free, yet the constitutional freedom did not always signify the actual one. At this point Rousseau’s ideas intersect the reflections of Abigail Adams – both consider that the constitutional law does not take into consideration what can be called the inner freedom, the freedom from the social prejudice, and the ossified way of thinking.

Therefore, in his first book Rousseau asks an important question: what is freedom, and what parts it comprises? Since the state’s sovereignty and the constitutional rights and freedoms are given to people might not guarantee absolute liberty, one has to search for it somewhere else – perhaps, within him/herself. As Rousseau compares the legitimate force to the illegal one, it becomes clear that real freedom is hidden deep within people’s minds, and this is only the liberal way of thinking which can help people out of the injustice depth.

It can be considered that Europe was undergoing serious changes during the Enlightenment epoch. With the new liberal ideas streaming from France to the other countries and spreading worldwide, Europe felt the impact of the new social theories better than ever. With help of the ideas conveyed by the most outstanding French philosophers, Rousseau taking the first place among them, Europe could face the changes and accept them.

It is also worth considering that Rousseau touches upon such an issue as slavery. Although Europe did not experience the same difficulties with slavery as America did, this issue raised heated debates among numerous European political scientists. Liberal and democratic, Rousseau states that slavery has to be abandoned as the social phenomenon that has nothing to do with ideas of freedom, saying: “the right of slavery is null and void” (Rousseau 758). Although the philosopher admits the necessity to base the state system on obedience, the latter has nothing to do with depriving people of their inalienable right to be free.

Considering Rousseau’s works, one has to admit that Europe and America were developing each in its way, yet they have passed the same stage of enriching with liberal ideas as they faced the Enlightenment epoch. Focusing on what makes people’s freedom and what a democratic state is composed of, the greatest philosophers of both continents created the foundation for future democratic innovations and restoration of people’s rights. These perfect historical examples showed once again that, once started, the process of revolution would never turn back, reaching each sphere of people’s activities and touching upon every single man.

The epoque of Enlightenment was a natural continuation of the Renaissance humanism and rationalism of the beginning of the New Age. While rejecting religious worldview, the Enlightenment appealed to reason as the only criterion for the knowledge of a man and society. In the new conditions of nascent capitalism, society developed the concept of life values, which were based on the unshakable human right to strive for personal success, enrichment, since only wealth opened up the possibility of fuller satisfaction of individual and collective needs. The fundamental conditions for achieving the goals were personal freedom and the sacred right of private property. The key to happiness was seen in the accumulation of knowledge through experience and the possibility of applying it in practice.

These ideas were a stark departure from the views of Renaissance epoque where a man was seen as the subject of creativity and aesthetics, which he learned from God, the creator of man. In the age of Enlightenment, the creative and aesthetic principle of man was supplemented by rational knowledge. The Enlightenment either completely denied religion in its traditional form, or assigned it the role of a moral educator of people.

The epoque of Enlightenment had a large influence on revision of ideas of gender, race, and economic class adopted in the society. Thus, basic rights such as fraternity, freedom, and a right to private property began to be seen as inalienable rights of a person. These ideas put down the basis for the later egalitarian notion that people of all races and sexes are created equal. The idea of every person’s right to private property laid the foundation for the division of people into economic classes as they are seen today.

The ideas of the period of Enlightenment found their portrayal in the texts A modest proposal by Swift and Voltaire. Swift in his article ridiculed the ideas of superiority of some people over others, suggesting eating children born in low-income families (Swift, 2019). By choosing such a devastating example, Swift wanted to show that the ideas of supremacy are equally calamitous and groundless. The article served to promote equality and fraternity that were seen as the defining values in the Enlightenment.

The text Voltaire dwells on the thinker’s philosophical views, many of which echo the principles of philosophical thought of the Enlightenment. Thus, Voltaire believed that everyone should have natural rights such as the right to freedom, security, and private ownership. However, he criticized the concept or equality which was one of the central beliefs of the Enlightenment epoque. Voltaire believed that society should consist of rich and educated people and those who would work for them. He believed that working people do not need education, because their reasoning can be damaging for society.

Historians consider the Enlightenment an epoque that laid down the foundations of modern society and that is responsible for the emergence of revolutionary thought. During this period, the basis of modern democracy was established. The idea of the existence of a social contract, according to which kings and rulers bore responsibility towards people, was later transformed into the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States of America. The concept of religion underwent great changes; the creed, church and state were separated, which significantly reduced the number of wars due to religious differences. This transition culminated in the creation of libraries and universities as well as the opening of museums and cultural centers, since now art and the divine have become the property of man.

Work Cited

Swift, Johnathan (2019). A Modest Proposal. Ebook. Web.

Introduction

The period of Enlightenment is of great importance in the history of the formation of society, philosophical thought, and states. An aspect that is of particular interest is the question of the development of this thought and the relationship between some of the rulers of European nations, which were called the Enlightened Despots. Thus, Enlightenment philosophers were faced with the fact that some rulers, such as Catherine the Great and Maria Therese, did not follow all the values proclaimed by this worldview. Thus, this essay aims to explore the main differences that arose between the practices of many European monarchs and the Philosophes of the Enlightenment.

European Monarchs and Philosophers of Enlightenment

First of all, it is necessary to gain an understanding of what the Enlightenment era was, which philosophers adhered to its concepts, and what values it proclaimed. Thus, this ideology was the first to provide awareness about such theories as psychology and ethics. One of her followers was John Locke, who argued that people are formed as a person through experience (Wrońska 2). Another representative of this worldview, Thomas Hobbes, was of the opinion that the primary motivation of people was pleasure and pain. Consequently, the belief that people are driven by the desire for survival and satisfaction of needs has been mainly reflected in radical political theories (Fine 154). Thus, the states and their rulers were now observed as a mutual arrangement, the primary purpose of which was to protect the interests and security of the administered territories. Moreover, Enlightenment philosophers contributed to the emergence of a negative attitude towards the dominant authoritarian regimes and the proclamation of the values of political democracy.

Another aspect that is important in the framework of this work is the concept of Enlightened despots that have been formed. Following democratic concepts, Enlightenment philosophers believed that rulers should have been appointed to their places with the help of a social contract. Therefore, the royal power had to worry about improving life in the state in which the rule was and ensuring the safety of the people. Moreover, it was believed that they should first all take into account the interests and needs of the subjects of the board and not put personal interests as the leading ones. Thus, the main difference between the usual concept of a despot and a Most Holy despot lay in following the fundamental values developed by philosophers.

Despite the widespread Enlightenment worldviews, there were monarchs whose actions differed in implementation from enlightened despotism. One example is the activity of the Russian monarch. She was a unique monarch, a woman who sat on the Russian throne longer than any other female ruler. Regarding educational activities, the main areas that were subjected to these transformations were arts, sciences, and education (Outram 158). Therefore, the ruler held the opinion that changes in the Russian education system were necessary since she saw the need to create a new, more European society. However, the inconsistency of her actions was not following the democratic principles proclaimed by the Enlightenment era. It was in this aspect that the Queen’s odds arose with the philosophers who formed this worldview. At the same time, Catherine the Great introduced an initiative into the country, which implied the division of the state into provinces. Thus, it significantly reduced the power of the nobles, which was followed by economic reforms in the country. Moreover, serfdom had great power in the country, which was a consequence of the increased need for demands of the state and private landowners.

Another ruler who can be attributed to the group of Enlightenment despots is Maria Theresa. She was also one of the female rulers of the states that introduced significant changes in the country. Hence, during her reign in Austria, she introduced severe transformations in the military and bureaucratic spheres. In addition, Maria Therese’s significant achievement is financial reform, which contributed to the growth of the economy in the country (Johnson and Koyama 8). The Council of State, created by her, made significant changes to the authoritarian system of government in the country, which converged with the values of the Enlightenment. Moreover, like Catherine the Great, Maria Therese carried out transformations in the educational system of Austria. She introduced a new school system that allowed boys and girls to attend school together. Despite the complexity of its implementation, this initiative is considered one of the main achievements of the Queen.

Despite the fairly successful development of the economic and educational spheres, Maria Therese’s board has inconsistencies with the values of Enlightenment philosophers. Thus, the ruler experienced considerable difficulties in transforming the intellectual domain. One of these aspects is religious concepts and the desire to preserve one religion. This was done with the expectation that the community could limit possible conflicts and skirmishes among followers of different worldviews. However, this view only contributed to the deterioration of the religious situation in the country and the growing discontent on the part of the public. Another aggravating factor was that faiths such as Judaism and Protestantism were considered unsafe. Moreover, they violated and promoted the spread of concepts of tolerance in religion, which was also considered undesirable. From these circumstances, it followed that the followers of these worldviews were under pressure and suppression by the state. Thus, the deviation from the values of Enlightenment in the reign of Maria Therese was that she followed her own causes and interests.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this essay conducted a study of the Enlightenment and its disagreements with the monarchs ruling at that time. The concepts of this worldview believed that the main task of states is to ensure the security of the country and take into account the opinions and needs of the subjects they manage. Thus, the followers of the Enlightenment proclaimed the value and necessity of democratic principles. An important concept that was formed within the framework of the enlightenment era was educational despots, who were rulers who took into account its values in their activities. Examples of such political leaders as Catherine the Great and Maria Therese were engaged in active reform of such spheres as educational, economic, and political. However, the Russian ruler opposed the introduction of democracy in the country, which was reflected in the emergence of odds with the principles of educational philosophers. Marie Therese, in turn, despite her merits, denied the concept of religious tolerance in the country.

Works Cited

Fine, Robert. “Enlightenment Cosmopolitanism: Western or Universal?.” Enlightenment cosmopolitanism. Routledge, 2017, pp. 153-169.

Johnson, Noel D., and Mark Koyama. “States and Economic Growth: Capacity and Constraints.” Explorations in Economic History, vol. 64, 2017, pp. 1-20.

Outram, Dorinda. The Enlightenment. Cambridge University Press, 2019.

Wrońska, Katarzyna. “John Locke and his Educational Thought: Between Tradition and Modernity of Enlightenment,” Filozoficzne Problemy Edukacji, vol. 1, 2018.

Enlightenment ideals such as liberty, equality, and fraternity had a considerable impact on the participants of the French Revolution leading to the introduction of measures such as the Law of Suspects. During different phases of the reign of terror, various measures such as the decree of Levee en Masse and decree of worshipping the Supreme Being were introduced.

The political ideas of Enlightenment such as liberty, equality, and freedom influenced individuals who participated in the French Revolution and subsequent events that took place in France in the 18th century. The Constitution of 1793 comprised a declaration of the rights of man and citizen. The document clearly shows the influence of ideas of Rousseau who believed in the natural rights of human beings. The document believed in inequality between individuals as they were granted freedom. The document also insisted that citizens needed to respect the law as it represented “general will”. This implied that the rights of citizens were guaranteed, but a few restrictions were imposed on them (Lewis 388).

The leaders expressed various views concerning the method of exercising general will and compelling citizens to submit to the same. The Jacobin club, a revolutionary group that believed in the use of brute force took advantage of the situation. As there was considerable confusion in France, there was a need for an agency, which could achieve unity of the country with or without the use of force. Members of the Jacobin Club unleashed a reign of terror.

The initial period of the reign of terror is the radical phase when there was the domination of the Jacobins over the legislative assembly. In the second phase, the members of this club subjected large numbers of anti-revolutionaries to the guillotine, a new machine, which was discovered to kill enemies of the revolution. During this period, there was the rise of the leader Maximilian Robespierre. In the third phase, there was opposition to the views of Robespierre. In the last phase, there was a decline of the authority of Robespierre when he was subjected to the guillotine (Lewis 388-390).

In the first phase of the reign of terror, revolutionaries had to deal with the problem of invasion by countries that sympathized with conservatism. To deal with this problem, a decree called Levee en Masse was introduced. The decree gave extraordinary powers to the administration controlled by the Jacobins. The decree implied that the Jacobin Club considered itself as representing the general will, and citizens were compelled to respect the orders of the administration. The decree allowed the government to compel citizens to become part of the army. The decree gave power to the government to recruit unmarried and widower soldiers in the age group of 18 to 25 years.

Married men had to work in the factories that produced weapons. Women had to work in military hospitals providing services to soldiers injured in the war. The decree allowed compulsory recruitment of more than 700,000 soldiers. The measure allowed France to respond to the challenges of its enemy countries (Hanson 196). The decree was a tool in the hands of revolutionaries to protect enlightenment ideals such as liberty, freedom, and equality.

The sans-culotte represents the second phase of the reign of terror. The group comprised lower sections in the society including petty artisans and traders, and they aimed to defend their rights against the rights of the middle class and elites. During the initial years of the Revolution, sans-culotte lacked appropriate representation in the National Convention and other administrative bodies. The rise of Robespierre provided an opportunity for this group to demand their inclusion in the Committee of the Public Safety. The ideology of the group implied the need for the distribution of property among the citizens. There were a few differences between sans-culotte and Robespierre.

The latter believed in the sanctity of private property. Sans-culotte believed in the principle of equality. To achieve the objectives of this group, there was a need to abolish private property. The group was influential because it added a radical element to the revolution. In the last phase of the reign of terror, this group could not play an important role as enemies of Robespierre had become prominent. Sans-culotte, consequently, could not protect Robespierre in the last phase of the reign of terror (Hanson 290-291).

To preserve enlightenment ideals such as liberty and equality, the administration in France initiated various measures. There was a need to defend various cities and provinces from anti-revolutionaries (Lewis 389). To achieve this objective, in each city there was the establishment of the Committee of Surveillance. The principal function of this committee was to monitor the activities of persons suspected of anti-revolutionary activities. The committee was strengthened with the passage of the Law of Suspects in 1793. The law gave extraordinary powers to the Committee to arrest individuals who opposed the “general will”.

The Committee was active in regions that had witnessed anti-revolutionary movements. The Law of Suspects played an important role in the second phase of the reign of terror when Jacobins were able to dominate the political arena of the country. The legislation allowed the Committee of Surveillance to assist radicals in unleashing a reign of terror (Hanson 79). The Law of Suspects allowed the Committee of Surveillance to deny the document called Certificat de civism to foreigners, ex-priests, and nobles who were suspected of supporting anti-revolutionaries (Hanson 60).

Robespierre believed in the cult of the Supreme Being, and he did not accept the demand to establish a cult of reason by abolishing the Church (Lewis 390). The cult of the Supreme Being represented enlightenment ideas as discussed by Voltaire and Rousseau. Enlightenment scholars argued that there was a need for a “Supreme Being” to achieve unity among different sections of the population. The cult could be instrumental in subjecting the population to the general will. A festival of the cult of the Supreme Being was celebrated in the year 1794 (Hanson 100). The decree of the cult of the Supreme Being represents the religious views of Robespierre particularly in the last phase of the terror.

During various phases of the reign of terror in France, revolutionaries introduced measures such as the Law of Suspects and the decree of worshipping the cult of the Supreme Being. Similarly, Levee en Masse was an attempt to enlist large numbers of people in the army. The measure was needed to fight against external enemies. The social group called sans-culotte played an important role in the implementation of enlightenment ideas during diverse phases of the Revolution. In the last phase of the reign of terror, sans-culotte could not defend Robespierre.

Works Cited

Hanson, Paul R. The A to Z of the French Revolution.Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007. Print.

Lewis, Gavin. WCIV. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning, 2011. Print.

In his book, “The Norton Anthology of World Literature,” Martin Puchner begins by focusing on whether the latest thing is always the best. This question reveals how challenging it is to please human beings. People spend time trying to possess and own new, trending, and shinier items, yet at the same time, they worry that the old tones are gone and forgotten. The text shows how the modern world is full of confusion. Puchner proves how those believing in the past, and individuals practicing modernity arrived at an amicable solution. The resolution was that one should not blindly follow the rules but be skeptical about every idea and reason about the consequences before engaging in a particular act. Puchner (2018, p. 93) states, “life is a struggle between rationality and emotion.” As enlightenment continued, it brought many changes in the relationship between humanity and nature, society, convention, and authority.

Puchner shows how people realized that kings and queens were not immortal, the differences between the diverse social classes, and the relationships between men and women. He reveals the relationship between humanity and nature and the factors involved in their connection. In the eighteenth century, people developed aspects to emphasize the need to follow decorum as it was seen to preserve society’s standards (Puchner, 2018). To modern readers, this might seem antique and artificial due to the changes that have been experienced. However, conserving humanity’s values can still improve today’s rules and modify them to fit contemporary society. Thus, the audience can learn that the text’s main idea entails the differences between the contemporary and ancient world.

Reference

Puchner, M. (2018). The Norton Anthology of World Literature. W. W. Norton & Company.

Enlightenment is a special page in the history of Europe. Religion, an understanding of nature, society and political system – everything was subjected to the most merciless criticism, everything should have been brought before a court of reason and either justify its existence or renounce it. Reasoning mind was the only measure of all existing. It was a time when the world, according to the words of Hegel, was placed on the head first, in the sense that the human head and those that it has opened by his thinking, made demands to be recognized foundation of all human actions and public relations, and then in the broader sense that reality, contrary to these provisions, was actually turned from top to bottom.

All the old forms of society and state, all the traditional presentation were found unreasonable and abandoned as old lumber, the world has so far been guided by prejudice and all the past is deplorable and despicable.

Enlightenment has such great names which are well known to any educated person: Voltaire and Rousseau, Montesquieu and Diderot, Jefferson and Condorcet, Paine and Franklin, Herder and Goethe, Ferguson and d’Alamber.

Most of greatest representatives of Enlightenment objectively fulfill the mission ideologues of rising bourgeois class and therefore primarily concerned about the social restructuring of society, political power, economic relations, economic and social inequalities. They were interested in the problems of learning the meaning of human history, purpose and essence of rights. They raised the questions of aesthetics, and a lot of discussing in detail about the nature of beauty and patterns of art. They focused on the issue of progress, the balance of nature and society.

It is not accidently that the XVIII-th century in the history is called as the epoch of Enlightenment: scientific knowledge, narrow circled before, extends: beyond the universities and laboratories in the secular salons of Paris and London, becoming a subject of debate among writers, popular forth the latest advances in science and philosophy. Confidence in the power of human reason, in its infinite possibilities, in the progress of science, creates the conditions for economic and social prosperity – these are the pathos of Enlightenment.

In come things the epoch of Enlightenment has common features with the features of Renaissance, but there’s a distinction. First, the XVIII century much stronger than the XVII, emphasizes the relationship of science and practice, its social usefulness. Secondly, criticism, which in the Renaissance philosophers and scientists directed mainly against scholasticism, is now invoked against metaphysics, according to convince educators, it is necessary to destroy metaphysics, which came in the XVI-XVII centuries replacing the medieval scholasticism.

There is a main slogan of Enlightenment – science and progress. Enlightenment is an optimistic philosophy of rapidly growing middle class, philosophy, entirely dedicated to progress. Voltaire liked to said: “Once everything will be better – this is our hope.” (Spencer, 1997).

Thus, enlightener created a cult of Reason, following the ideas of Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz. But they appealed not just to reason, but to the scientific mind, which is based on experience and is free not only from religious prejudice, but also on the metaphysical “hypotheses”.

Human can not be just considered from the point of view of reason, but all that is related to it, you can explore with the help of reason: the foundation of knowledge, ethics, political institutions and structures, philosophical systems, religious beliefs.

These views have been historically due to the fact that Enlightenment has expressed the mentality of rising and growing middle class. It is no coincidence that the motherland of the Enlightenment philosophy has become England, before other countries embarked on a path of capitalist development.

It is the appearance on the historic stage of bourgeoisie, with its secular, practical interests; the needs of the capitalist mode of production have stimulated the development of science, technology, culture, and education.

Changes in public relations and public consciousness served as a prerequisite for the emancipation of minds, the liberation of human thought from the feudal-religious ideology, a new outlook.

Religion has got a new interpretation and a new view on religion appeared – “natural religion”.

Associated with the experience and directed against the metaphysical systems of enlightenment rationality represents a secular movement, and educators often contemptuous sarcastically ridiculed “myths” and “superstition” of positive “religions.

Skeptical and often openly disrespect attitude to the church is the main hallmark of the Enlightenment, philosophy, which can be called “secularization of thought.” As we can see, English and German lines of the Enlightenment were more reserved in contempt of religion. Despite the materialistic and even atheistic overtones, raising the idea linked to deism, and deism – part of the Enlightenment is rational and natural religion – it is the largest that can prevent the human mind.

Deism recognizes:

1. the existence of God;
2. God created the world and governs it;
3. future life, in which each will be awarded for good and punished for evil.

So, at the overall flow of the Enlightenment there are atheistic and materialistic currents. But it can not make us forget that the Enlightenment permeated deism, in other words, good, normal, secular religion, which connected the secular, common morality: “The obligations which we must perform in relation to each other are primarily and exclusively in the area of intelligence, so they are uniform for all peoples.”

Natural duties – such as tolerance, freedom – are rational, are civilian in nature, independent of revelation. E. Kassirer argues that the Enlightenment is indeed a creative sense, dominated by absolute confidence in the updating and improvement of peace.

The more there is an incomplete answers provided by religion to the main issues of knowledge and morality, the more intense and passionate become staging such issues. The struggle is no longer around certain dogmas and their interpretations, but around the very religious credibility: this applies not only to religion but also the ways and direction to the function of faith itself.

There is a desire, mainly in the German enlightenment philosophy which strives for the transcendental explanation of religion. This desire explains the specific nature of religion in the Enlightenment; attributed to the negative and positive trends in philosophy, belief and disbelief. Only by combining these two elements, recognizing their interdependence, it is possible to understand its true unity of the process of historical development of philosophy XVIII century.

The enlightenment reason is the basis of legal norms and concepts of the state. And if you can talk about the natural religion and natural morality, the same way you can talk about natural law. The natural means good. Thus, natural law theory, which was the direct heir of humanist ideas of the Renaissance, shifting these ideas into the language of law, thus providing theoretical and legal grounds and formulate common, moral values, perceptions of fairness in the relationship between man, society and state (Spencer, 1997).

The spirit of criticism, forcing carefully to weigh every opinion, representation and beliefs of the past permeates everywhere and found also in the works for the legal and political philosophy, warned the reform projects. It should be noted that these projects are sometimes designed by monarchs, many of whom want to be “enlightened” while remaining as absolute ruler. At times such projects, by contrast, were directed against the absolutist state; in France politico-legal during the Enlightenment led to the revolution, one of the first steps became typical for the natural right of the Declaration of human and civil rights.

Speaking about the attitude of enlighteners to the human nature it should be mentioned that the philosophers of Enlightenment wanted to find a “solution” to the actual individual, to their real life. The physical properties of human thought specially defined, but it was believed that each individual possesses them: everyone tends to have the shape, growth, to produce movement, each is a sensual creature, particularly through the senses come into contact with nature (Wood, 2001).

Everyone has “natural” needs, it has an appropriate desire to meet them that remains true in those extreme cases where people are seeking or have to minimize. Reasonableness is also thought to be at least a minimal degree of belonging to everyone, but people live according to the requirements of the “true reason” rather seldom.

Clearly, the philosophy of the XVIII-th century was an important step towards the liberation of theology and therefore from a dogmatic bias. The new ideals have been abandoned by some of the principles of medieval ideology and philosophy of rights, the whole of their formations, for example, to the ideas of sinfulness of human nature, the search for forms and degrees according to the will of man and mind of God.

However, for several reasons, social, personal, moral and theoretical philosophy of the Enlightenment, in fact, built a utopia of ” new world”, turning science into a means of social projects and determine the life goals of humankind.

The philosophical ideals of the Enlightenment, perhaps the first time in the history of European culture revealed tensions between actual reality and the future paradigm, streamline these tensions and were able to send people hope to change the existing world. Other views perceived as opposition to the light of reason, but dissidents were assessed as “enemies of the people.” (Wood, 2001).

Exposing the religious dogmas, the desire to clear the mind of non-reflexive preconditions resulted in the creation of new prejudices. “Cleaning” Reason, so necessary for the approval of a new mentality, was not merely removing the mind of ideology-mythological identification and symbolic substitutions, but was also a form of confusing public and individual consciousness, which during the pre-revolutionary period has been able to raise the expectations of sudden change.

The ideal of freedom in the broadest sense of the word acquired from the philosophers of the XVIII century truly revolutionary scope and severity. Although a direct appeal to the overthrow of government in the theories of educators were not, but they introduced into the popular consciousness the idea that people are free to reorganize the society, and hence remove barriers that prevent them from doing so. This, in my view, was revolutionary impact of the philosophical ideals of education in the public consciousness.

References

Spencer Lloyd , Krauze Andrzej , Appignanesi Richard, Introducing the Enlightenment, Totem Books, 1997.

Wood Allen W. (ed.), Basic Writings of Kant (Modern Library Classics), Modern Library; Modern Library edition, 2001.

The enlightenment thinkers came up with arguments in support of political liberty subjecting into reasoning the earlier positions on religion and its role in society. In the pre-enlightenment era, it was believed that leadership was divine and that man was not supposed to come against the leadership. Some of the ancient philosophers argued that by having a political establishment people agree to surrender some of their rights and freedoms allowing one of them to exercise leadership and that whatever the leadership comes up with was right for society. Political philosophers like Montesquieu argued for a separation of powers in government which would lead to a wider space of criticism in case the government does not go by the wishes of the majority and goes ahead to misuse powers granted.

Enlightenment thinkers promoted change and progress in society making the enlightenment age a time of complete reflection on the prejudices initially prevalent in society. There was an emphasis on reason, toleration, natural law, and a consideration of the modern man as an innovative being together with his achievements.

The age of enlightenment or as some would term it modernity marked the age where the European cultural and political hegemony was brought to an end. It was a time where political ideas were shared (Kagan 1998)

The enlightenment age (1650-1850) steered the people away from long-held beliefs based on religion to consider a secular life. This is the time that nationalism crept in with feelings of nationalism, individualism, and humanism getting into society and expressed openly. It was the age of reason as opposed to the age of dogmatic beliefs before it. It effectively marked the end of the Renaissance.

The progress started with the study and wonder of the universe, the macrocosm. Then it befell some thinkers that man is the greatest miracle and therefore should be studied narrowing the study from macrocosm i.e. the universe, to the microcosm. The renaissance was characterized by the unique focus on humanity. Enlightenment then brought about the pure study of man and how he functions. It delved into the mind, the body, the reasoning, and so on. With it, therefore, followed empirical investigations by the use of the reasoning power in the close focus on humanity.

Different concepts crept in, the talk of democracy and human rights. Religion was considered as an impediment to the practice of free thought- a situation that necessitated the scientific revolution and industrialization. Science reduced the significance of religion as it explained what was otherwise not explainable.

On the debate on civil rights, the more society was secularized the more it respected the right of fellow men in society. The explanation, in this case, points to the fact that being indifferent to religious groups was not an issue. A person was respected because he is a person. The Jews in Europe were, therefore, safer in a secularized society. Nationality was more of an issue than was religious affiliation.

Enlightenment also promoted individualism with the society respecting individual rights.

The Jewish community in Europe attained relative freedom and recognition as they were now being considered human beings. They were tolerated even though they did not share the same religious culture as the rest of Europe. They were allowed some basic freedoms as was the case in the French National Assembly in 1791.

Jean Jacques Rousseau, an Enlightenment thinker argued in his book “Social Contract” that all human beings are equal. This book elicited debates on the issue with democratic tenets coming to the fore. These philosophical ideas later gained footing in society thus contributing to the discussions on human rights.

Again the arguments of John Locke boosted the civil rights movements as its theory on equality of all was adopted in the preamble of the United States Constitution. It states that human beings were created equal and that they were endowed with inalienable rights including the right to life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness (US Constitution).

The fact that most of the philosophers were staunch advocates of tolerance, social welfare, the rule of law, and secularism, it, therefore, follows that this was the time that civil rights were given a head start. It is the time that people realized they could go for what they wanted, in unity. This led to the French Revolution (1792-1794) which cost so many lives but also was an impetus to civil rights advocates all over Europe and the world to go for what they believe in. it is during this reign of Enlightenment that the view of the state as a leviathan was dropped. Instead, the state became an instrument through which individual liberties and rights are well guarded and that leaders are not that divine but just trustees. They have to operate within the legal confines.

The enlightenment brought in the idea of scientific knowledge. Marquis de Condorcet argued that the main purpose of knowledge is to guarantee the basic rights of people both men and women (Condorcet). To him, the rights include personal security, freedom to own property, equality before the law and representative government. America is credited for having been the first to institute these ideas (Encarta Encyclopedia 2008).

Works Cited

Condorcet, M. Sketch of the Intellectual Progress of Mankind.

Kagan, D. et al The Western Heritage, Vol II: Since 1648, (65^th edition). New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1998.

Microsoft Encyclopedia. Age of Enlightenment. Encarta Microsoft Encyclopedia 2008. Web.

Spiro, K.R. Jewish History