Category: Enlightenment

A Summary of the Policy Reform

Policy reform debate in the United States revolves around economic issues that the country is experiencing. Presently, the United States has a vast public debt. As a result, the United States is unable to meet its obligations towards its people and workers. Several states such as Illinois and California are almost bankrupt. Equally, most local governments have gone bankrupt, while rates of unemployment in the states remain relatively high.

The quest to address these issues seems to have raised lots of contention among people from both sides of government. The Republicans and Democrats argue overtly regarding the best way to manage the economy of the United States. However, there exists some agreement between key economists from both sides, on key issues that affect the nation.

In my perspective, the ongoing national debate is not genuine, as it obtains fabrication to serve the interests of a few individuals. In other words, this debate is political and it does not seek to serve the interests of common citizens.

This paper presents a discussion about issues surrounding policy reform using the instruments of the founding debates, principles, and documents of the United States.

Comparative Analysis

Social Contract: Representative Governance

Social contract theory argues that the government has two key responsibilities. First, it is the role of the government to ensure that citizens do not hurt each other and second, the government must ensure that citizens keep promises amongst themselves.

According to this theory, citizens must be ready to surrender some proportion of their liberty so as to maintain a stable, social context. This theory also recognizes the role of the constitution and the need to ratify the constitution as a part of the social contract. Besides, the theory advocates for capitalism.

Looking back at the ongoing national policy debate in the United States, it seems like the Republicans do not fully recognize the governance by the Democrats. The Republicans should surrender some proportion of their liberty and allow the Democrats to develop policy reforms that best suits the nation.

Classical Liberalism: Natural Rights

Classical liberalism recognizes that all people have an entitlement to natural rights (Rosenblum and Robert 27). These rights obtain a declaration in America’s independent clause. Classical liberalists maintain that natural rights should determine the correct size and functions of government.

The philosophers agree that government often violates natural rights of citizens. They also argue that capitalism is the only moral economic system, since it bases on voluntary action. One aspect of capitalism is property rights. America has property rights that get entrenched so well that their basic significance for the suitable functioning of the capitalist system becomes easily disregarded. Hence, policy reform should be directed towards attaining and safeguarding property rights.

Faction: Pluralism

Pluralism in a government refers to inclusion of rival parties in the government. Factions may destroy excellent governance since they ignore the need for the public wellbeing in a dispute involving rival parties and trigger instability. Besides, the most prevalent faction wins at all times in spite of rights or fairness.

The only way to eradicate negative impacts of factions is to disallow liberty. This perspective describes the exact situation that the United States is experiencing. Most of the contentious issues that have caused the prolonged debate originate from the Republicans. Considering that the Republicans occupy a key section of government executives, they may opt to oppose every policy that originates from the Democrats.

Ambition: Elitism

This perspective requires leaders to be elites who can succumb to the needs of the masses. Besides, this perspective requires leaders to be submissive. The Democrats involved seem to be more knowledgeable than the Republicans when it comes to the ongoing public debate on national policy. Besides, these Democrats are extremely confident and ambitious when it comes to policy formulation.

Federalist Position

Federalists support the constitution and do not consider the bill of rights as an essential tool for creating an incorrupt government. Federalists’ opinion is that economic factors have triggered the debate, but not the incompetence of the constitution.

Anti Federalist Position

Anti federalists hold the perspective that the constitution cannot offer adequate protection similar to the Bill of Rights. Anti federalists opinion is that the United States, together with its local governments, are unable to meet their obligations towards their people and workers due to lack of an insufficient bills of rights system.

Constitutional Perspective

The constitution stipulates responsibilities and rights of both executives and common citizens. While constitutions may not be faultless, written constitutions serve as the most excellent way of safeguarding different people and their interests. Hence, interests of Republicans obtain protection by the constitution. The United States Constitution recognizes democracy and the right of expression. Hence, the public policy debate is within the limits of the constitution.

Bill of Rights Perspective

The bill of rights protects civil liberties granted to each resident of the United States, as seen in the Fourteenth Amendment. Among these rights is the freedom of speech. Hence, both parties have a right to express their opinions through public debate. This tool entitles governments to meet their obligations towards citizens. Hence, the United States and entity local governments have denied these rights to their people by not providing adequate employment.

Solutions: the Principle of Compromise and Consensus

Federalism perspective

The founding documents of the United States contain interests of citizens. The documents comprise the constitution, the declaration of independence, the bill of rights and amendments to the constitution (Jefferson 29). Politicians who seek to serve their individual interests should not be allowed to compromise any of the standards established in these documents, since they represent the American foundation.

States Perspective

The United States’ perspective on consensus and compromise is that Republicans should support extensive administration and elevated taxes. However, the government does not offer any examples of Democrats backing deregulation or reduction of taxes. According to the current government, the national interest is totally and wholly the growth of the scope, size and authority of government.

The United States should, however, endeavor to provide the needs of its citizens. Most of these needs as identified by the debate include lack of employment and insolvency. The public policy debate should seek to address these issues, so as to ensure that life is affordable and comfortable to these citizens.

Cooperative Federalism Perspective

The public policy debate, in the United States, should embrace cooperative federalism perspective in order to solve the economic problems facing the entire state.

It can be hard for representatives centered, in Washington, to identify the needs of entity states. Hence, entity states can establish effective and relevant policies through cooperative federalism. Besides, solving issues locally would involve a smaller population than solving these problems from Washington, as the number of those opposing significant perspectives would be less in these areas.

My Proposal and Perspective

From my perspective, the two parties should only compromise their principles, on public policy, after they conclude on the frailest agreements. This must happen because persons who show willingness to surrender their principles easily cannot be trusted to continue with the bargain. The purpose of compromise ought to be a win-win situation with both parties negotiating and not just agreeing.

Conversely, consensus cannot be obtained in cases that involve a few people with similar minds. Whenever the effect of this public policy debate does not satisfy both parties, such consensus should not take effect as there will be lacking enough commitment towards the effort.

The debate on public policy has turned out to be totally disconnected from consensus to a certain direction. Irritated Republicans have forced their members to accept positions that are in conflict with aspects of modern economic scholars. While this may serve the political needs of the Republicans, the policy is not suitable.

The difference between the situation of economic information and public policy debate in America has significant effects. At present, many residents in the United States are experiencing difficulties because of high unemployment. Many books in the country contain potential solutions. However, Congressional Republicans do not create room for such books to be examined. Rather, they also obstruct those policy plans that do not seem to have any controversies, from the perspective of most economists.

Works Cited

Jefferson, Thomas. The Constitution, the Declaration of Independence, and the Articles of Confederation. Radford, VA: Wilder Publications, 2008. Print.

Rosenblum, Nancy and Robert Post. Civil Society and Government. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 2002. Print.

Abstract

This paper examines the movement of enlightenment and then whether the existing state of affairs requires a reformation or whether it is adequate. The present state of affairs is examined by analyzing the socio-economic state prevalent in various states and in the conclusion, it has been determined that dew dawn of “enlightenment” is required for the betterment of the common man.

The basic definition of enlightenment is that of a movement thaws started in the 18^th century against the traditional doctrine and it was done to enforce intellectualism and philosophy. This movement also resulted in the removal of the power of the then extremely powerful church. As a result of such a movement, the common man became more important and as a result, there was complete restructuring in the order of things. The moral code of behavior was replaced by a doctrine of reason and logic; hence arts and trade greatly flourished during this period.

If the order of the world of today’s was observed, it could be seen that though we live in a democratic system in which we have the right of choice more than ever- yet we are still bound as we were during the era of the church in certain ways. When certain nations are attacked by others without the consent of the entire world, the law of supremacy comes into play. The new world order can be perfectly explained by the neo-colonial system in which one nation asserts itself on the rest of the world. The common man though is much more enlightened in a lot of ways than the common man was ever during the 18^th century, yet still faces a lot of exploitation-exploitation which is done in the name of “protection” and sovereignty.

Burdened by a number of taxes amongst many other issues, the common man allows the government a free hand which results in certain unfavorable policies getting implemented. In certain nations, dictatorship still exists. An example of such a nation is that of the isolated one; North Korea, where people cannot dare to voice an unfavorable opinion about the dictator as a result of massive oppression. The common man has lived for decades in such a system and hence, it is way past time that enlightenment was allowed to flourish in the spirit that it was allowed to during the 18^th century.

In today’s world, certain establishments with vested interests have taken charge of major economic forces allowing the exploitation of the oppressed. As a result, many African nations, after decades of oppression by the colonial states, continue to face exploitation at the hands of certain companies. Such companies favor the better off and as a result, the divide between the richest and the poorest is on a rise around the world.

More and more people continue to fall below the poverty line while some flourish at their expense. Nations like Pakistan, India, and even the United States have been found on the list of some of the most corrupt nations in the world. The so-called politicians, who are chosen by the people, continue to exploit the people and oppress them while the common man suffers. Debt is taken in the name of development and the funds squandered by these same politicians. In a way, the church has been replaced by many others; the politicians and certain religious clergy who incite hatred against other races.

The world of today is caught in a situation of mass hysteria where the common man suffers as rising fundamentalism has resulted in a number of people dying every day as a result of a certain suicide attack. The situation has become so appalling that it has become something of a norm in a country like Pakistan where such attacks are thought to be a normal situation. And yet, the ruling government continues to remain unscathed while the common man suffers.

Fundamentalism is the new face of the church which used religion as a means to gain power and influence over the common and. In today’s world, in the name of religion, hatred and violence are being taught and as a result, the entire world faces threat from the perverse ideology of a few. While the coffers of such people get filed by the donations of millions, many get killed as a result of their teachings.

Therefore, it can be said that today’s world might have much more enlightened in certain ways but the common man is still not free from the oppression of a few who do so in the name of “development’” and sovereignty. Many suffer as a result of the actions of the rulers who come into the office on the votes of these people and yet continue to act in their own interests.

Therefore, according to me, enlightenment has not been achieved in its true spirit and what is required is that the political and social order be structured by the actions of the common man himself. Greater transparency is required along with a complete breakdown of those “demonic” forces which in the face of their own interests continue to exploit the common man.

Enlightenment might exist somewhat but it is clearly insufficient as long as there is oppression, mass inequality, corruption amongst some of the vices. While one cannot expect these to be eradicated completely it is essential that the common man learn to step up for himself and fend for his own basic rights which are and continue to be exploited.

References

Bronner, Stephen Eric(2004) Interpreting the Enlightenment: Metaphysics, Critique, and Politics.

Brown, Stuart, (2002). British Philosophy in the Page of Enlightenment.

Buchan, James(2003) Crowded with Genius: The Scottish Enlightenment: Edinburgh’s Moment of the Mind.

Introduction

The enlightenment period also popularly referred to as the age of reason denotes an explosive era in human history stretching from around the year 1600 to the year 1800; a period in which the West experienced great contributions and changes in its history. This period barely stretched over duration of two centuries, yet within such a brief period, what is now referred to as the modern era was inaugurated. Theological considerations that had previously dominated the intellectual of Western civilization between Augustine and the Reformation were radically and permanently disrupted by the enlightenment, giving rise to a completely new course for scientific thought and action. In the course of the enlightenment, people were able to break away from medieval mentality by adapting a completely new understanding of the human being. During this era, humans replaced God on the historical arena and human reason replaced divine revelation as a more reliable path in seeking the truth. A philosophical revolution that had begun with Rene Descartes, John Locke and other philosophers between 1596 and 1650, brought together enlightenment scientists, theologians and philosophers alike, in a combined effort to devise systems that would approximate or lead to the truth. During this age of reason, the church lost its earlier dominance in Western culture as enlightenment thinkers sought for better and more sensible foundations that would replace traditional authority and religious belief as the bases for political order and social morality (Grenz 60-63, p. 70).

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

One of the most famous enlightenment philosophers who made tremendous contribution to society during this period is Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 -1778). Rousseau is famed for making popular contributions to political and social theory through a famous essay, The Social Contract, which he wrote in 1762, and in which he addressed fundamental questions of political legitimacy and social justice. Other famous works of his are The New Heloise novel written in 1761, Emile, an educational theory book in 1762, and an extraordinarily influential and very original autobiography, The Confessions (1764-1770) among other works touching on music, language, botany to name but a few. Because of such a large and wide range of output, Rousseau received an enormous, though very controversial reputation during his time, and his ideas have continued to powerfully impact on society ever since. His life story is dotted with remarkable events such as the death of his mother soon after his birth, his relationship with a much older woman, and his life in the fashionable Paris society where his opera performances became a source of enlightenment for leading thinkers living during the enlightenment era (Dent 1-2, 8, p. 10).

Jean-Jacques Rousseau is well known for formulating the popular sovereignty theory, as a radical response towards the inequalities, social conflicts, and divisions that were a common characteristic of Western society. The sovereignity theory subsequently led to the disfiguration of European societies and states during the 18^th century. Like his earlier counterparts, Rousseau tried to resolve a long-running and deep-seated problem that had characterized Western political theories; the problem that revolved around the continuous tension between the craving for individual freedom, and an autonomous need for collective authority and social order. Through his theory of social contract, Rousseau attempted to make a reconciliation between liberty and order by proposing that sovereign power be conferred to the larger community rather than concentrating power on the state as proposed by Thomas Hobbes, or the strong representative assembly proposed by John Locke. According to Rousseau the state was a non-sovereign executor of the decisions made by a sovereign community (Jones, p. 25).

Rousseau proposed that the state was supposed to be a tool for expressing the general will of its citizens. Unlike other enlightenment philosophers like Voltaire and Montesquieu who advocated for constitutional checks and other balance for state sovereignty, Rousseau was strongly in favor of radical rather than complete transformation of the political and social order with the utmost goal of creating a system of government founded upon liberty, popular sovereignty and equality. Through his concept of general will, Rousseau supposed that individuals should willingly surrender their rights to their respective communities rather than yield to the state; and that the legislative authority should be a community organ that every individual is subjected to while at the same time participating in the lawmaking process. Equality in society was one of his most favored ideals. His ideal state comprised of interdependent equals who according to Rousseau were supposed to be politically and economically independent (Jones, pp. 27-29).

Jean-Jacques Rousseau made great contributions to society through his works addressing political and social themes, language and music, religion and war, botany, education, novel, prose and poetry as well as his autobiographical works, self-explanation and disclosure (Dent, p. 21). His works radically criticized both modern European society and the enlightenment culture as well, including the philosophies that proposed it. Despite several attempts especially during the 20^th century to distribute his works among various academic disciplines, Rousseau had a very clear imagination that united his philosophical, pedagogical, historical, political and literary writings and strongly affirmed the relationship between his works and the suffering human being. His ideas led to fundamental changes to political culture especially in the period preceding the French Revolution (Porter, p. 9).

Eleven years after the death of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, his political philosophy especially his general will and popular sovereignty concepts became major inspirations for revolutionaries during the 1789 French Revolution. Over the span of centuries, his intellectual legacy has had a long-term influence upon socialist, liberalist, anarchist, democratic and to some extent totalitarian schools of thought (Jones 25). Though for many centuries Rousseau has also widely been blamed for many things, his contributions to literature and political theory have tremendously helped to bring change to modern culture and life. His works have invited emulation from prospective writers, and also created a romantic movement in literary writing, that has persisted to modern times (Porter, pp. 12-13).

Enduring legacy, political implications and contributions of the enlightenment period

Since the enlightenment, individual choices and actions of ordinary individuals have overtaken political control in determining the general well-being of human beings. Through the dramatic changes that occurred in societies during the enlightenment, human beings have inherited a heritage of scientific experiment and rationalism. But enlightenment’s most enduring legacy has been the co-ordination of those forces that exist beyond reasonable planning and organization in an attempt to improve the well-being of human beings. For individual choice to produce stability in society, the enlightenment philosophers had to clearly explain how institutions such as marriage, family, sexual morality and parenthood could be sustained without divine retribution or threats of subsequent legal punishment (Jordan, p. 127).

It was only in the enlightenment period of the 18^th century that the scientific discipline gained a cultural significance in Western society than at any other time in history. During this time, science began to build up recognition as the core intellectual system that other systems were supposed to refer to. Scientific knowledge may have existed earlier than this period but the enlightenment philosophers have received credit for helping to establish the scientific discipline in the Western culture during the 18^th Century. The enlightenment has also been referred to as the age of pedagogy during which a more intellectual system of transmitting knowledge to coming generations was discovered in a way that had not existed before. Rousseau’s work, Emile for example, displays a new system of learning that helped to stimulate a kind of curiosity that would make people more independent and critical towards an already established belief system. Enlightenment also witnessed the coming to birth of the famous encyclopedia system of classifying knowledge into various comprehensive disciplines such as natural history, languages, history as well as other particular disciplines. But the most famed technology during this period is the printing press, the new human invention that enabled the processing of new ides into readable material that was subsequently distributed worldwide in large quantities (Fitzpatrick 10, 217-219, 350, 366).

The enlightenment theory of societies constructed out of individual choices of the ordinary people, has over the centuries given rise to principles such as autonomy, individual liberty and mobility. These individual choices have given rise to reformed institutions within social-service organizations (Jordan 147-153). Also closely linked with the age of reason or enlightenment period is the birth of republicanism especially in countries such as France, Britain and America. France and America went through revolutions while Britain experienced a reform movement. The concept of liberty became a very common political feature during this period. Feminism also began during this period when enlightenment thinkers began addressing women’s role in history, their nature, sexual difference and the aspect of women’s intellectual equality with their male counterparts. Contributions to historical writing were tremendous during this period and the enlightenment is said to have paved way for the incorporation of history into university education (Fitzpatrick 207, 457,621).

Conclusion

Under the illumination of reason, society went through tremendous cultural and social transformation during the enlightenment period, giving rise to very intense and long lasting effects that saw the birth of modern Western society. The enlightenment has indeed made an enduring legacy on the socio-political of many nations all over the world (Grenz 61, 71; Jordan 127).

Works Cited

1. Dent, N.J.H. Rousseau. London: Routledge, 2005.
2. Fitzpatrick, Martin. The Enlightenment World. London: Routledge, 2004.
3. Grenz, Stanley J. A Premier on Postmodernism. Grand Rapids: Wm.B.Eerdmans Publishing, 1996.
4. Jones, Tudor. Modern Political Thinkers and Ideas: An Historical Introduction. London: Routledge, 2002.
5. Jordan, Bill. Social Policy for the Twenty-First Century: New Perspectives, Big Issues. Cambridge: Polity, 2006.
6. Porter, Dennis. Rousseau’s Legacy: Emergence and Eclipse of the Writer in France. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.

The enlightenment period is when reasoning was advocated as the only source of authority and legitimacy in Europe (Paine, 208). The period was experienced in different countries such as Britain, France, Germany, Italy, and Netherlands simultaneously and ended with the Atlantic Revolutions leading to the independence of America from the British Empire (Berlin, 132). During this period man used reasoning to understand the natural world and his position in the world without relying on religious beliefs for answers.

Emmanuel Kant on enlightenment

Emmanuel Kant defines enlightenment as man’s emergence from self imposed immaturity that made him unable to reason within himself claiming that laziness and cowardice makes man fear acting and always look for extra guidance since it is easy to be immature(De Groër264).

Immaturity promotes laziness as people rely on one another for every aspect of activity around as non is willing to work for himself or herself for example, if one can pay, others will work for him, if one needs information the book is available and provides information. Immaturity has therefore become part of mans life making it difficult for any individual to work himself out of this bondage (Berlin, 216).

Freedom is the most important agent of enlightenment as the most free individual will able to move away from immaturity of non reasoning nature to a point of knowing what to do every time. The public therefore gradually enlightens itself, a situation that that made it possible for the Western Europe citizens to overthrow the aristocratic regimes of the seventeenth and eighteenth century (Paine, 109).

He added that the move for enlightenment cannot be controlled through intimidation of rulers to the subjects at any given time however the establishment of laws in a country restricts citizens from exploiting the freedom since they are required to obey and not question any policy or rule of the government (De Groër266).

Freedom enables citizens to develop a sense of responsibility to their nation and society at large, they learn to the pay tax, and participate in other duties of the society and avoid dogmatic in religious beliefs (Paine, 278).

The sprit of freedom Kant, explains as capable of extending struggle to barbaric activities of the rulers to the subjects due to loss of order and harmony as a result of poor rules by rulers (Berlin, 324). Man emerged from self imposed immaturity due to several reasons such as; rulers having no interest in assuming their role on subjects and because immaturity is destructive and shameful that no man would like to associate with this spirit extended to series of movements and association of the enlightenment age (Berlin, 326).

Jean-Jacques Rousseau on enlightenment

Jean came to be the most pronounced writer and philosopher whose work recycled older enlightenment ideas when he summed up his work in his book “The Social Contact”. According to Jean, liberty formed the focal point for which people turned against their rulers and began a movement that latter developed to social, political and economic changes (De Groër218).

The foundation of government and the citizens is the social contact in which the citizens give authority to a given group of people to rule over them. The rulers are suppose to offer protection the ruled by formulating laws to protect lives and property failure to which the ruled are liable to protest , move for political liberation then begins (De Groër280).

The idea on noble savage in which the nobility of the 17^th and 18^th century engaged in broke the social contract law making human kind to fight for liberty hence inquiry into different aspects of life as people began to reason. Similarly, the nature of mans distinctions in regard to civilization propelled the search for new knowledge of reasoning to attain liberty in social life (De Groër286).

The nature of human freedom made citizens begin venturing in activities that improve their knowledge and reasoning ability (Paine, 228). Rousseau claimed, human beings were willing to forgo individual freedom to the rulers who would protect their rights under formal government rather every individual taking care of himself (De Groër316). He however, argued that the wealthiest and most powerful personalities trick the general populations hence increasing inequality and therefore urged citizens to rethink over the contract.

He proposed that instead of having a government that protects the wealthiest and the powerful few, all governments should be based on fundamental rights and equality of everyone and any government that fails to protect, rights, liberty and equality should be forced out (Berlin, 332). This promoted the revolutions in France and America as he argued “we all have rights that must be protected”.

John Locke on enlightenment

The period of enlightenment was promoted by the work of philosopher John Loke who claimed that, man possessed great values majorly life, liberty and property (De Groër317). He argued that people are willing to give up their rights in a contractual agreement that their rights are well taken care of, failure to which the ruled can forcefully grab it.

This led to American declaration of independence (Paine, 300). He defined the role of government purely as that of making laws with penalties such as death for those who fail to abide by the rules and less penalty to regulate property. He emphasized for liberal political philosophy that vindicates how responsible is the government to the subjects (Berlin, 336).

The legitimate government, Locke argued must be acceptable contract between the rulers and the ruled since all men have property in their own person ,together with his labor ,no government has the right take it from him(Berlin, 340). His words influenced William III to limit franchise and excess power of the propertied when he came to the throne of commonwealth as the land owners and the moneyed had taken control of all the property (Paine, 234).

He advocated for freedom of conscience and religious tolerance that would allow the ruled to make sound decision about their life by allowing the rulers who protect their rights as well as advocated for mixed economy that was adopted in the west (De Groër300).

The writings of these scholars liberated the minds of individuals in Western and Eastern Europe who began asking questions leading to the enlightenment movements as most literature emphasized on human right, freedom property ownership as well as the relationship between the ruled and the rulers (Berlin, 202). The ruled were then enlightened on their relationship with the governments leading to revolutions and independence of various nations in Europe and upholding human right and dignity (Berlin, 206).

Works Cited

Berlin, Isaiah .The Age of enlightenment: the 18th century philosophers. New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons, 1984.Print.

De Groër, Léon: Decorative arts in Europe, 1790-1850.New York: St. Martin’s Publishers, 1986.Print.

Paine, Thomas: Rights of Man, Common Sense, and Other Political Writings. New York: Oxford University press, 1988.Print.

Historically, the XVII century is known as the Age of Enlightenment, also commonly referred to as the Age of Reason. This era is characterized by the principle: everything should be subjected to reason as the main authority. Outstanding achievements in science that started to belong to more and more intelligent people gave way to constant searches of reasonable ideas among ordinary people. The reason was considered to be some illuminating power that is capable of destroying chaos and shadows of ignorance.

Figuratively speaking, the Age of Enlightenment called upon everyone to think independently. Such changes in the way of thinking contributed to considerable political changes like governmental consolidation, nation creation, greater rights for common people, and a decline in the influence of authoritarian institutions such as the nobility and Church.

Literature as a constant reflector of the current events and ways people percept the world around cannot stand aside and fail to exhibit the characteristics and ideas of the new way of thinking. The current paper is concerned with three pieces of literature that originate from different countries, namely, Moliere’s Tartuffe, Sor Juana Ines De La Cruz’s Reply to Sor Filotea De La Cruz, and Jonathan Swift’s A Modest Proposal. The paper is intended to reveal the works’ reflecting the characteristics and ideas of Enlightenment thinking.

Starting with the comedy of the French author, it is reasonable to admit that during the Age of Enlightenment, France was characterized by a varied ideological struggle, scientific creative deeds, and political events that influenced the country’s development. France was about to leave the morass of feudalism, political division, and economic backwardness; it entered the first phase of capitalism. Enlighteners strived for equality among people and cared much about the spread of education with the masses. Students and scholars of the Age of Reason believed that every situation and conflict could be solved with calm reasoning. Everyone who failed to act and react reasonably but, instead, did it passionately without considering this or that problem properly was to be ridiculed.

The famous play of Moliere has a lot of examples of reasonable thinking required by the French society of the XVII-XVIII centuries. But the most brightly, the ideas and actions of the Enlightenment era are reflected in the character of Dorine. Throughout the play, she signifies herself as an enlightened character; her overall behavior depicted by the author indicates how aligned with the ideas of Enlightenment the character was created.

From the very beginning of the play, Dorine is shown as a logical, intelligent, and plain speaking person. For example, when Madame Pernell speaks of a town member named Orante as “virtuous and devout,” Dorine explains that this is because the character does not have the beauty of youth any longer and has made a choice to live her life in solitude (Moliere 316). As the play runs, the reader observes more distinctly the difference between Dorine and Pernell as representatives of the new way of thinking and adherent of the old order.

Bright examples of thoughts and feelings of Enlightenment are Dorine’s conversation with Orgon when he comes back home from a business trip. Dorine speaks of the state of his house and informs him of his wife’s recent illness. But Orgon does not care about her health; instead, he is interested in the state of his houseguest. Dorine cannot accept Orgon’s unwillingness to care for his wife and sarcastically expresses her indignation. This sarcastic expression of her incredulity at Orgon’s answering questions about Tartuffe instead of his own wife is a perfect example of ideas of Enlightenment.

Further, the reader gets to know about Dorine’s views on suicide which correspond to the Enlightenment views on suicide. Dorine’s position is that suicide is not the way to solve the problems; death is the simplest action that one can take when facing a problem. Dorine says that the very idea of suicide maddens her, and when Mariane suggests committing suicide, she makes fun of her (Moliere 328). It is in the Enlightenment traditions to mock unreasonable actions or ideas of people.

Suppose we consider Swift’s Modest Proposal, we will find a lot of ideas of Enlightenment here. Though the narrator’s suggestion to sell Irish people born into poverty as food for rich gentlemen and ladies does not sound reasonable and illuminatingly, one should understand it as a piece of one of the brightest examples of irony in the history of the English language. By means of the irony, the author “details vividly and with rhetorical emphasis, the grinding poverty” (Smith 136), thus describing the inequality of Irish people. As it was mentioned above, Enlighteners are characterized by fighting poverty.

Moreover, Swift’s work presents a wonderful sample of argumentative thinking: every suggestion of the narrator is carefully considered and a balanced study of the arguments is presented. The narrator even foresees possible outcomes of his undertaking.

Despite of the absurdness of the idea that he has suggested Swift presented a carefully thought over plan of fighting with the difficulties the Irish people faced with. Realizing the role of irony in the work under consideration one should appreciate the ideas of the Enlightenment that the satirical pamphlet is based on.

One more work that exhibits characteristics of Enlightenment is Sor Juana Ines De La Cruz’s Reply to Sor Filotea De La Cruz. This epistolary essay also brings about equality, but this time this equality between men and women. The author resorts to sarcastic tone that helps her more vividly express her desire to learn and teach (an aspiration common for all Enlighteners). The reply is also a sample of constructive thinking – in a long biographical section the author explains how and why she came to the education she had at that moment and the obstacles she needed to overcome to attain it. The author dwells on the church father’s writings on education for women that demonstrate her competence in the subject.

The author’s stress on the need for educated women comes from the importance of education proclaimed by the Enlightenment but goes further, because feministic ideas were not common for the Age of Reason yet.

As it is clear from the mentioned above, the works under analysis focus on the ideas that the Age of Enlightenment brought. Being created in different times they all reflect the new way of thinking and do not stop evoking the readers’ interest because of the burning issues discussed.

Works Cited

Moliere. Tartuffe. Harvest Books, 1968.

Quintana, Ricardo. Swift: An Introduction. London: Oxford University Press, 1955.

Smith, Charles Kay. “Toward a “Participatory Rhetoric: Teaching Swift’s Modest Proposal.” College English, 30.2 (1968): 135-149.

Sor Juana Ines De La Cruz. Response to Sor Filotea. Sor Juana Ings de la Cruz: Obras Selectas. Barcelona: Editorial Noguer, 1976.

Swift, Jonathan. The Modest Proposal. Pocket, 2005.

Trueblood, Alan S. A Sor Juana Anthology. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1988.

Doctrine of the Enlightenment

The innovative ideas of American enlighteners have determined some of the beliefs that are relevant today. The essence of the presented theory is that the human mind has almost unlimited possibilities. Realizing all the potential that he or she possesses, any person can develop the ability to plan the life correctly, to think big and to do the right things. As Thomas Jefferson claims, tyranny over the mind of man is unacceptable, and nothing should limit the potential of our consciousness (Baym 703). Such an appeal to the mind is an attempt to prove that the possibilities of the mind have no limits. Jefferson’s works likely exemplify the concept best as this figure put much effort to develop such ideas. Perhaps, there is something problematic in this doctrine, for example, its interpretation. It is about the creative potential of consciousness, while someone can suppose that the essence of this theory is the call to actions on the reformation of the surrounding world. Thus, this idea of American Enlightenment has become widespread and quite obviously deserves attention.

Native Americans in the Enlightenment

It would be unfair to assume that the texts of Native Americans did not influence the formation of the era of enlightenment in the New World. In addition to the ideas borrowed from European enlighteners, the great American figures that developed philosophical theories about the essence of people and their purpose in the world also turned to the texts of the Indians. For example, Benjamin Franklin explored the essence of a humble person who was able to achieve success due to the mind (Baym 459). Something similar can be observed in the texts of the Indians, who highly appreciated human modesty and paid much attention to the development of the spiritual side. Another example is the work of Thomas Jefferson, who often wrote about the development of Indian society and noted their high level of their knowledge of the animal and plant world (Baym 708). Thus, it can be noted that some thoughts of the Native American people were used by the enlighteners of that time.

Work Cited

Baym, Nina, et al. The Norton Anthology of American Literature. Vol. A & B. 8th ed., Package 1, W. W. Norton & Company, 2012.

Nathan the Wise is one of the best known plays by the German writer Gotthold Ephraim Lessing that touches upon the religious issues, the conflicts, which may happen on the religious field and during the discussion of Christianity, Islam, and Judaism, and the characters, who have to cope with different situations in order to prove their positions and their points of view.

This story is a kind of pursuit for the desirable truth; people are so bothered with the idea to find out whose standpoints are correct, and whose ideas have to be improved. In order to achieve success in life and help the other to follow your example, it is necessary to adopt your mind to current conditions and, at the same time, not to lose own peculiarity and uniqueness.

Nathan the Wise is regarded as the best representative of the Enlightenment, the movement of intellectual change, and deals with one of the brightest ideals of this movement, unalienable rights; these rights imply certain laws, which cannot be violated, religious tolerance that has to be supported, and the idea of being free in ideas, interests, religion, and words.

The age of Enlightenment is considered to be one of the most intellectual movements in our history: free from feudal obligations, scientifically developed, and attentive to human understanding of this world, the Enlightenment came in order to provide people with a chance to live in accordance with own demands and interests and be able to comprehend each of these demands.

Lessing’s Nathan the Wise should be regarded as a kind of enlightenment for each reader because it helps to open human eyes, explain them that unity is their power, and enlighten some new ideas to lead for changes. “None should omit to make use of the reasons/ Given him by God, in things where it belongs” (Lessing, 4:1, 39). This phrase by Patriarch proves that the described in the play times required thorough obedience to God’s wishes and following his hints from ordinary people’s side.

These lines underline the fact that not each person is eager to forget own interests and scarify own demands in order to follow God’s directions. This inability to create friendly society promotes the author to develop a new way that can unite people, show them the right way, and prove them that they are actually free, because for that period of time “Not all are free that can bemock their fetters” (Lessing , 4:2, 43).

Nowadays, the Enlightenment ideal of religious tolerance is taken for granted by many people: revolutions, which aim at proclaiming the separation of state and church, offering an agreement to divide people of believers and heretics in order to punish the latter and encourage the former.

“This sweet illusion yields to sweeter truth/ (For to a man a man is ever dearer/ Than any angel) you must not be angry/ To see our loved enthusiast exercised” (Lessing, 1:1, 4). Nathan’s dialogue with Daya shows the reader how Nathan treats to religion and how strong his faith in renunciation.

He cannot accept the idea that people are less important in comparison to God and angels and that religious truth cannot become an external possession. Religious tolerance becomes the central theme in this play and makes Nathan takes considerable steps in order to demonstrate own interests, own truth, and own faith. He is a Jew, and nothing and even no one can change this truth.

In spite of the fact that he never was and will be a traditional Jew, he cannot change his faith. This faith comes from his fathers, and to change or to forget about it is similar to renunciation of his past and his roots: “there dwelt in east a man/who from a valued hand received a ring/ of endless worth” (Lessing, 3:2, 32).

The Enlightenment ideal of unalienable rights under analysis speaks about the right of word and the right of thought as well as their freedom. However, Lessing himself creates numerous contradictions within his characters and demonstrates how miserable human rights and freedoms can be.

At the beginning, Nathan admits that “needs must – belongs to no man: and a devis” (Lessing, 1:1, 8), however, within a short period of time, he proves Templar that “we must, and will be friends. Despite my nation/We did not choose a nation for ourselves” (Lessing, 2:2, 23).

This change of mind may serve as a good characteristic that introduces the features of human enlightenment, possible revolution of mind, and comprehension of the situation. First, Nathan denies the idea of “must” for people. He cannot accept the truth that people’s actions are obligatory, and they have nothing but to follow the already established rules.

But still, one situation, when Templar saves the life of Nathan’s daughter, changes Nathan’s perception of this world and the duties, which are inherent to all people. On my opinion, our life is too short and full of unpredictable situations, and it turns out to be useless to proclaim something really serious and great in order to change the idea under other conditions.

The ideal of religious tolerance is perfectly described in the Nathan’s story about the ring, and the father’s duty to present this ring to one song only, he loves most of all. With time, two more rings were created: “nor cost nor pains to make them like/ Quite like the true one.

This the artist managed/ The rings were brought, and e’en the father’s eye/ Could not distinguish which had been the model” (Lessing, 3:2, 32). The point is that this ring serves as an analogy to religions, which exist in the world. People have the right to choose, but still, cannot decide which religion is more important and which one should be the ruling one – no one will answer this question, because “nor pains” are left.

Religious tolerance is not an easy concept to comprehend, however, Nathan’s story provides the reader with a chance to realize that it is useless to create boundaries, rules, and other obstacles in order to find out the truth, because the real truth is everywhere and nowhere at the same time.

Nathan the Wise opens a new vision of the ideal of religious tolerance, human rights, and freedom. People have all chances to behave in accordance with own principles and interests, however, they should be very careful, because such abilities usually confuse people and promote some hasty steps, words, and thoughts.

Usually, people want to be free in order to achieve truth and use it in their lives, but still, they have to comprehend that “dry truth is vexing” (Lessing, 3:2, 31), and real truth “has cost… tears of blood” (Lessing, 3:3, 38). This is why it is necessary to thing at first whether any kind of truth is worthy of human sacrifices and hopes.

Works Cited

Lessing, Gotthold, Ephraim. Nathan the Wise: A Dramatic Poem in Five Acts. Trans. By William Taylor of Norwich. Cassell & Company, 1893.

The concept of ‘Enlightenment’ concerning humanistic studies as practiced now in Linguistics, Literature, and History/Society/Culture

Governed by the principle of the one-way movement, the world is spinning around only to approach another stage of its progress. However, the ancient ideas of how the new era must look and what it must be guided by often prove a mistake. Nevertheless, it cannot be doubted that there is a grain of truth in the theories of the past since some of them still prove efficient in modern times. Among these, the ideas of Enlightenment have been also interwoven into the pattern of modern life, yet how they have been implicated might be somewhat different from the suppositions of the ancient philosophers.

It must be admitted that certain subtle issues bring closer philosophy and linguistics, making them an integral part of the concept of the given country and the world in general. Tracking the most peculiar issues of the Enlightenment philosophy manifesting itself in such sciences as linguistics, one will be able to conceive the ubiquity of t5he idea of the Enlightenment and realize what brings the modern world and the old concept of Enlightenment together.

What is Enlightenment, after all? According to Kant, this is freedom – and at the same time the complete, utter understanding. As the philosopher himself claims, “Nothing is required for this enlightenment, however, except freedom; and the freedom in question is the least harmful of all, namely, the freedom to use reason publicly in all matters” (Kant). Therefore, it can be considered that the key idea of Enlightenment is interwoven into the pattern of the modern life since the modern laws presuppose that people enjoy freedom as long as it does not harm the rest of the humankind. Therefore, it cannot be doubted that the ideas of Enlightenment in the vision if Kant has been implemented into the contemporary world long before.

Considering the relation of Kant’s ideas on Enlightenment concerning the aspects of modern English language, one can see the certain interrelation between the key ideas of the Enlightenment and the sections of English studies. Considering the aspect of linguistics, one can claim with certainty that there is a considerable interrelation between the ideas expressed by Kant and the key aspects of the language studies. Thus, one of the most obvious ideas of the Enlightenment, the issue of freedom and the possibility of thinking before following certain ideas blindly has been put into practice most efficiently.

As Kant claimed, one of the most annoying and invulnerable prejudices of the past was the concept of believing without any proofs needed and following ideas blindly. In contrast to the ancient times, nowadays the modern science presupposes well-grounded theories, preferring the ideas that demand certain proofs to the principles that no one has ever attempted to consider. There is no secret that even in linguistics, the rules and laws of the language are completely logical and based on careful and thorough meditations. Also, the modern fashion of teaching the language offers an opportunity for dialogue between the teacher and the student modern language studies are the dialogue between those learning and those teaching.

This means that one of the core principles of the Enlightenment expressed by Kant – the idea of proving the postulates of science – has been implemented. Putting it into the words of Pinker, the ear of language and mind has come for people to understand the links between the two integral parts of each person’s life – the language and the idea of progress. This is the “universal grammar” that Pinker was speaking about. According to Pinker, the ideas of Enlightenment are also the sphere where the common misconceptions concerning the linguistic issues stem from: as Pinker emphasizes, it is the “weaker version”, that is, the linguistic determinism that is the reason for the difference in the speakers’ thoughts (Pinker 57).

Considering how the ideas of the Enlightenment were implicated in the sphere of the English literature, one will inevitably notice that the striving for knowledge is the key issue and the guiding idea for the writers since the thoughts of Kant were sounded. For instance, in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, the scientist’s longing for knowledge dominates over the rest of his wishes.

In terms of the traces of the Enlightenment in modern English culture, one can assume that the theory of Kant proves efficient in this sphere as well. According to Pinker, “the foundational categories of reality are not “in” the world but are imposed by one’s culture”, which means that the modern linguistics possesses a certain speck of the Enlightenment as Kant’s theory of the world development.

The difference between linguistic competence and linguistic performance

It is quite peculiar that the aspects of linguistics touch upon different spheres of people’s brain work. At certain moments incorporating the linguistic competence and the linguistic performance proves impossible, since they are opposed to each other like theory and practice. The first being the sum of knowledge that the given person possesses in the sphere of linguistics, and the latter meaning the practical application of this knowledge, there can be certain situations when the two are completely incompatible. Hence follow all sorts of puns and play on words; however, sometimes more serious misconceptions can occur, once the purport of the communication has been delivered to the recipient in the wrong and distorted way.

A perfect specimen of this kind of linguistic puns is the book by Lewis Carroll, Alice in the Wonderland. Considering the quotation offered, one can claim with certainty that the situation of the linguistic collision has occurred – although the lead character’s linguistic competence was impeccable, and the task was completely clear to Alice, she failed to complete it, thus showing the absolute failure of linguistic performance – mostly due to the circumstances. It is evident that there is a certain distinction between linguistic competence and linguistic performance, and it must be admitted that such a difference is crucial in the sphere of linguistics. The reasons for such assumptions are evident since the two components play the part of the theory and the practical application in the sphere of language.

There is no doubt that the gap that is sometimes created between the grammatical correctness of a certain phrase and its further acceptability is truly significant. A certain phrase might have no meaning at all, yet follow the grammatical rules completely. Analyzing the example from Alice in the Wonderland that has been provided, one can notice that the grammatical construction if the phrase is given is impeccable; yet its monotonousness and the considerable number of repetitions hinders its acceptance. Also, the phrase contains ten separate elements that have to be analyzed (the ten “ones” in the given case, to be more precise), which means that the memorizing process will be somewhat slow.

To complicate the matter, the elements are completely the same, which is bound to lose count of the elements in question. The last, but not the least, is the aspect of speed that the phrase was pronounced with. Analyzing the given sentence, one can spot immediately that it lacks any commas, which means that the entire phrase was pronounced without even stopping to catch a breath. Therefore, the issue of Alice’s linguistic competence cannot be denied – the girl identified the given task and understood what was demanded to complete it, yet the very form of the assignment made her fail. It can be considered that in the given case, the conflict of linguistic competence and linguistic performance comes to the forth.

Although the example is taken from a fairy-tale, it must be admitted that the accidents involving the conflict between the two aspects of linguistics occur in reality as well. Considering the modern world and how the two elements of linguistics are opposed to each other in ordinary life, one can suppose that linguistic competence and linguistic performance must be inseparable for successful communication. Indeed, when ideas are communicated to the other person, the addressee should had the basic linguistic competence, otherwise (s)he will not be able to conceive the ideas offered by the opponent.

On the other hand, the linguistic performance must be completed as well. In this case, the problem of comprehensibility is being touched upon. For instance, if one asks a person what the word “to bubulcitate” means, the respondent will hesitate, which is a clear-cut example of the lack of linguistic competence. In the given case, successful communication is impossible. On the other hand, asking one to stack the words “stay, woe, apple, great, cinder, parallel, prune, adequate” in an alphabetical order orally, a person is likely to encounter the phenomenon of linguistic performance failure.

In contrast to the previous case, the given assignment does not cause any problems with understanding the task, which means that the linguistic competence in the given case is complete. Yet the linguistic performance is hindered by the abundance of the information that the recipient has to operate with. In both cases, the result will be deplorable, which means that linguistic competence and linguistic performance must be inseparable to make communication successful.

The concept of the ‘monster’ in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein concerning critical and theoretical texts

Does a beast deserve happiness? Moreover, can a man who created a monster be called a human being? People say that, when being told that most of the world considers Frankenstein the name of the monster, Mary Shelly said that this could be true. Indeed, the crazy doctor who considered himself Dr. Faustus does not deserve a speck of compassion – in contrast to his creation and victim, the miserable beast that cannot find the place where he belongs. It seems that the creature feared by everyone is more humane than Dr. Frankenstein himself is.

What makes a monster? Perhaps, these are the ideas and the inclinations that give birth to the most terrifying creature ever living on the earth. Even though the monster created had the terrifying appearance and was practically the lowest of the low, compared to his educated and refined creator, the miserable beast is more humane than the doctor – this creature is devoted like a dog and naive like a child, which means that it could not survive in the world of the ordinary.

With his childish approach and the justice of the wild, the creation of Dr. Frankenstein could never live among people – yet the beast is still worth being called a human being. It is evident that the monster does not have the desire to destroy – he would rather live his peaceful life in a detached place, isolated from the rest of humankind, and stay reconciled with himself and the rest of the world. Yet with the doctor Frankenstein’s ambitions, the beast is forced to live the life that he hates and follow the orders that he does not understand. Indeed, Dr. Frankenstein is the one worth being called the true monster in the story, with his ideas as disgusting and terrible as the appearance of his brainchild.

Considering the drama that takes place in Frankenstein’s life through the lens of the theories of Enlightenment, one can assume that the tragedy of the creator and his creation embrace the eternal experience of mankind to cognize the world and bring the knowledge obtained into an integral whole. Considering the idea of Enlightenment as Kant and Foucault explained it, one can suggest that the tragedy of Frankenstein obtains new shades of meaning, once the ideas of Enlightenment are applied to it.

One of the most important issues of the novel is its double name, which makes the novel acquire a double meaning and provides another way to see its hidden ideas. Calling Frankenstein the new Prometheus, Mary Shelly approaches the theory of Enlightenment as Kant and Foucault understood it. According to the Greek mythology, Prometheus, the Titan, created the humankind – in comparison to his, Dr. Frankenstein created a peculiar specimen of a human being, which is, of course, less great, yet nonetheless impressive.

Prometheus gives people the knowledge – the sacred treasure that only gods can possess; compared to him, Dr. Frankenstein tries to breathe some culture and understanding into the creation of his, yet with little success… The opposition of mind and culture has led to the most dramatic results. As Foucault explained, “another society, of another way of thinking, another culture, another vision of the world” (Foucault), once collided with the opposing ideas, is bound to subside – or die.

Seeking for “immortality and power” (Shelley 71), Frankenstein was doomed to failure – and he seemed to know it as soon as his brainchild opened his eyes and stared at his creator. This is the collision of cultures, the clash of the world visions that makes the novel so tragic. Instead of accepting the new member of society, people start persecuting and tormenting him – for people always do so to the ones whom they fear; and the monster, who feels the urge to express his elevated feelings understands the contrast to the high-flown emotions and the miserable flesh of his.

Considering the situation in which the monster was trapped in, one might find certain common traits between Frankenstein’s creation and the chimpanzees from Pinker’s experiment. According to what the results of the test said, chimps were unable to master the skill of either the sign language or the spoken one; this is, perhaps, one of the most impressive evidence of the fact that the “universal system” (Pinker), which all people belong to, proves effective only with humans. Prometheus failed this time; his brainchild was not perfect enough to become a member of the human race.

Works Cited

Foucault, Michel. What Is Enlightenment? 2011. Web.

Kant, Immanuel. An Answer to the Question: What Is Enlightenment? 1784. Web.

Pinker, Steven. The Language Instinct: The New Science of Language and Mind. London: Penguin, 2003. Print.

Shelley, Mary. Frankenstein or The Modern Prometheus: The 1818 Text. Ed. Marilyn Butler. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1994. Print.

The Enlightenment is the broad term applied to the intellectual developments of the eighteenth century, as articulated by a relatively small number of thinkers and writers primarily in Western Europe. The Age of Enlightenment centered on France and two of the major philosophers who contributed to this age of Enlightenment were Voltaire and Montesquieu. The others were Diderot, Rousseau, Hume, and Kant. Voltaire and Montesquieu were confident that the reforms they suggested were both reasonable and practically feasible (Kagan et al, chapter 18). The concept of deism, for example, allowed thinkers to accept new rationalism without having to deny the existence of God in an outright manner. Voltaire and Montesquieu opposed and rejected the views of the Roman Church which they believed was irrational and oppressive (Fitzpatrick, 83). But these philosophes sought religious toleration concerning all European faiths. The philosophes also affected the areas of justice, economics, and political thought.

The philosophes believed that by obeying rational laws society and human relationships could be improved. This belief was the foundation stone for the subject called ‘social science’. During the Age of Enlightenment, Beccaria proposed reforms in the areas of criminal justice and punishment. In the realm of Economics, Adam Smith’s works questioned the trade practices of the time and laid the foundation for the Industrial Revolution. His 1776 Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations is commonly described as the founding document for laissez-faire (hands-off) economic policy. This work was instrumental in raising a debate over economic progress versus individual well-being in Western society. Many French economic reformers advocated agricultural reform. In the realm of politics, the government was the focus of a lot of investigation and criticism. Enlightenment thinkers did not stop with mere criticism of corruption in the government and church. Montesquieu provided the outline of a system that would create a new balance in governing the state. Montesquieu admired the British constitution and the concept of the aristocracy. He tried to incorporate it in his presentation of the ideal government. Rousseau was a radical, who believed society was more important than the individual because only within a properly functioning society could an individual life a moral life. Overall, many philosophes were fundamentally monarchists, though of course, they believed monarchies should be reformed.

Many revolutionary ideas of the Enlightenment reached Eastern Europe in the form of “Enlightened Absolutism.” The rulers of Prussia, Austria, and Russia tried to follow certain Enlightenment principles. But these rulers could not accept the philosophes’ rejection of war as irrational. Frederick II (the Great) of Prussia, Maria Theresa and her son Joseph II of Austria, and Catherine II (the Great) of Russia implemented some Enlightenment measures but did not create any change to their existing political and social frameworks. Ultimately, the Prussian, Austrian, and Russian empires rejected the Enlightenment ideals towards the end of the century (Kagan et al, chapter 18).

The Age of Enlightenment in England took place through coffeehouses and the newly flourishing press. In Germany, the universities became centers of the Enlightenment. Italian representatives of the age included Cesare Beccaria and Giambattista Vico. From America, Thomas Paine, Thomas Jefferson, and Benjamin Franklin exerted vast international influence (Columbia Encyclopedia, 15622).

Voltaire’s satire, Candide was the most influential work of the period and reflected the philosophe’s concerns and general attitudes. The major works that influenced the Age of Enlightenment were the Newtonian worldview, Locke’s psychology, Britain’s wealth and stability, French reform, and the emerging print culture in Europe. The Encyclopedia compiled by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d’Alembert and completed in 1772 contained the views of most of France’s leading philosophes on various subjects. The Encyclopedia helped in spreading Enlightenment ideas throughout Europe.

There were many weak points in the philosophes as well. The four-stage theory of social development proved detrimental to the relationships between the West and other cultures. The philosophes failed to address reforms to help women and had a strong tendency to equate “human” with “male” (Kagan et al, chapter 18). Many philosophes including the radical Rousseau held traditional ideas about gender roles and believed that women were physiologically inferior to men and that women should be restricted only within the domestic sphere. However, late in the 18th century, Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Women placed women’s rights within the Enlightenment agenda (Johnston, page 1).

Bibliography

Kagan, Donald; Ozment, Steven and Turner, M. Frank (1979). The Western Heritage, Eighth Edition. Prentice Hall, Inc. New Jersey.

Johnston, Ian (2000). Lecture on Mary Wollstonecraft’s Vindication of the Rights of Woman.

The Columbia Encyclopedia (2004). Enlightenment. Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press. New York.

Fitzpatrick, Martin; Jones, Peter; Knellwolf, Christa; Mccalman, Iain (2004). The Enlightenment World. Routledge Publishers. New York.

Enlightenment Age

Enlightenment age refers to European culture of the 18^th century. The period was characterized by human knowledge where people tried to interpret the world around them. People questioned why some things were happening. The past carefully explained during enlightenment age. Furthermore, rationality and reason prevailed over traditional believes.

This implied that problems were explained systematically using some scientific techniques and principles. In other words, human beings were expected to use their knowledge practically in defining phenomena. It means that human beings devised some methods and techniques that controlled nature (Fiero, 2011). There was continuous exploration to generate new knowledge.

John Locke’s philosophy is one example of rationalism that characterized enlightenment age. The philosopher wrote extensively about government. He argued that the state was to be delinked from the church and leaders had to share powers equally among the three arms of government. Locke suggested that leadership had to be based on knowledge not tradition.

Therefore, empiricism was viewed as one of the tenets of good leadership. This changed people’s political culture because the monarch was no longer respected. The executive branch of government had to be watched closely by the legislature. The society had to be guided by the rule of law. Enlightenment age led to the emergence of the philosophy of checks and balances.

Jean Jacques Rousseau was one of the scholars who opposed rationalism because he believed that enlightenment was a blind loyalty in the almightiness of human motivation. He believed that rationalism and reason were tyrannical. He therefore advocated for nature that is, human beings had to revisit nature. This meant that people had to revive their inner feelings. According to Rousseau, natural rights had to be granted without negotiation. Such rights included liberty, equality and fraternity. Nature was pure, naïve and less corrupt.

Romanticism

Romantic period emphasized on individuality, originality, imagination and the value of art. It can be compared to enlightenment, which emphasized on rationalism and empiricism. It can be traced to the works of Emmanuel Kant and Rousseau. It actually represents a shift from analyzing phenomena objectively to evaluating problems subjectively.

The scholars in this era believed that each person had a different viewpoint, which could radically differ from those of others. Scholars in romantic era observed that self-realization and nature are some of the factors that influence individuals to act in particular ways (Bossi, & Poggi, 1994). For instance, salvation was believed to be related to an individual but not society or political movements.

An example of romantic philosophy is the nature of human beings as observed by Kant. He examined that people view things differently implying that some factors are considered when analyzing an event. Each society has its own way of viewing things. Perspectives vary from one individual to another.

Understanding world problems depends on individual orientation to the world. Human creations lead to variations, which can further cause differences in society. This was referred to as idealism. Idealism means that human beings are free to reason individually. According to romanticism, some universal laws and regulations do not control ideas.

Schelling came up with another philosophy that strengthened the reasoning of Kant. According to Schelling, the outside world is viewed as an adjunct to what is most authentic, which is the mind. The only thing that people can claim to know is their consciousness. The scholar postulated that the works of art would enable individuals to develop full consciousness.

References

Bossi, M., & Poggi, S. (1994). Romanticism in Science: Science in Europe, 1790-1840. Boston: Kluwer.

Fiero, G. K. (2011). The Humanistic Tradition (6th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill.