During the late 1700s, France and Haiti were in constant revolution. The revolutions began because of Enlightenment ideas created by Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke and Rousseau. They vouched for the rights of the people and it sprouted new radical ideas in France and Haiti leading to revolution. However, the outcomes of the two revolutions would lead to different paths. France was to be ruled by a military general named Napoleon Bonaparte and the French colony became an independent country named Haiti. France became rich under Napoleon while Haiti became the poorest country.
The Enlightenment was a key factor in creating revolution in both nations. John Locke was a supporter of natural rights for people. He believed that every person had rights to life, liberty, and property. Rousseau was a supporter of freedom of speech and that everyone could voice their own opinions. These enlightenment ideas spread through France and Haiti resulting in revolution. Robespierre was a leader in the French Revolution and without the enlightenment, he would not have risen to prominence. Robespierre believed that the king should be overthrown to make a better republic of France. He believed that having the symbol of monarchy would not condone a republic due to enlightenment ideas. (Only then would there be equality) He garnered the support of the National Assembly and the people and then beheaded the king and queen of France. This shows how the Enlightenment was a huge factor in the making of the French Revolution. The Enlightenment gave ideas about how to govern a country and those ideas were carried out by people like Robespierre. This is also true for Haiti because when the French Revolution was happening King Louis XVI passed the Declaration of Rights of Man. This led the mulattoes of Haiti to demand the right to participate in government and have free speech because the declaration made it a law. It was also the major cause of the want for freedom from France. Because the Enlightenment ideas promoted natural rights and rights to speech the people of Haiti wanted to be free from no representation. Eventually, Toussaint L’Ouverture came into the picture. He was a military leader in Haiti led the rebellion against France and fought for freedom. Haiti ultimately revolted because of the ideas that were presented to them through the Enlightenment.
After the revolutions, the results were quite different for the two nations. France became a powerhouse in Europe because of Napoleon’s superior military forces. They had won support from other neighboring countries and expanded France’s territory by a good margin. Napoleon put reforms into place after the revolution too by giving jobs through a meritocracy and stabilizing the French economy. However, Haiti, once the richest colony ever became the poorest because of trade. No nation wanted Haiti’s sugar because of the issue of race. Haiti was the first black country to be free and other nations did not want to promote slave rebellions so they did not acknowledge Haiti as a country and therefore did not trade with Haiti. The reason why France became a powerhouse was because it won all the battles it fought and that gave wealth to France. On the other hand, Haiti became the poorest nation due to the color of its skin. They were discriminated against and outcasted by other nations and that collapsed their economy. Another cause for the wealth and poverty of the two nations would have been their social classes. France still had the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd estates but the only major difference was that there were no bonuses for being in the 1st or 2nd estates like tax exemption. So France’s society was relatively unchanged, however, in Haiti more than half the population were slaves. This would have been a major shift in the social classes on the island where it was the first time there were no slaves. This would have disrupted the production of sugar and how the economy flowed while in France it was relatively unchanged. All these factors played a role in how Haiti became poor while France became rich.
Both nations were inspired by the Enlightenment to make change happen and to better the lives of all people. These wanted changes caused a revolution to occur but at the end of it, two different outcomes happened. France became a wealthier nation while Haiti dipped down to rock bottom. The people of both nations wanted a better place to live but it was a gamble.
The Enlightenment was a cultural movement stemming from philosophical paradigm shifts concerning changes in both cultural and socio-political dogmas, distinguished by the early modern European era. The culture of Enlightenment portrayed a radical break with the origins of Europe’s past due to the drastic change from a religious-driven world to a scientific basis, with the growth in the humanist movement. The eighteenth-century Enlightenment was hence a crucial moment of change in early modern European history, influenced by a consecutive number of discoveries, reformations, humanist movements, and revolutions- ultimately resulting in the inevitable destruction of the unified, synthetic culture of the early modern European world. It marked the transition from a world in which one simply took what was given, in terms of religion, politics, and a way of life, to a world where it gradually shifted to where a ‘‘man was seen as the architect of his destiny’’ The overruling perception of independence and the freedom of rights of individuals replaced the social hierarchy, aristocratic honor, and the divine right. The Enlightenment is often referred to as the ‘’age of reason’’, as it was set to challenge traditional religious views, provide liberty and freedom, and progress society in ways that will set the nation up for improvement and success, thus marking the eighteenth century as a critical moment of change in early modern European history.
The Enlightenment was a way of thinking that portrayed skepticism in the aspect of religion, challenged the inequity between the Kings and their people, and tried to establish a new system of principles with the application of the scientific revolution. The scientific revolution refers to a certain period spreading approximately from 1500 to 1700. This concept is very familiar in our current era, but the term was only fully understood in the 1940s by historians and famous philosophers who were particularly interested in the history of science. These significant figures stressed the idea of a sudden and dramatic shift in the way Europeans understood and interpreted the physical world in the early modern European period. Their literature upheld the so-called scientific revolution as the triumph of a courageous, rational mind over the irrational, and backward reasoning of the dark early modern era.
In the late 17th century, several well-known scientists like Isaac Newton and John Locke began to challenge the old order. Newton’s laws of gravity explained the world in terms of natural laws beyond spiritual force. In the wake of the political uproar in England, Locke declared the right of individuals to shift to a government that did not believe in protecting the natural rights of life and independence. In response to this, societal norms were starting to change and people were beginning to second guess the existence of a god who could predetermine human beings to eternal damnation and empower a tyrant for a king. Europe was forever transformed by these new ideals. Once devoted Christians began to reposition their faith and believed that the universe determined its course, without the interference of god and his intervention. The scientific revolution movement upheld many discoveries that led to individuals wanting to learn more about the world and the scientific approach behind it, forcing all spiritual and divine philosophies about the universe to become irrelevant. The three major discoveries of the scientific revolution include Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion Galilei’s theories of motion and inertia, and Newton’s findings of the law of gravitation and the understanding of a mechanical world. With several new scientific discoveries being publicized and becoming widespread throughout European society, the accepted Christian understanding of the universe altered. Progressively, thinkers encompassed the scientific paradigm. This paradigm grasps that while God created the universe, science defined and expressed it, and it is through science that enables humans to understand it. Intellectuals began to view the universe as perhaps infinite and full of motion. This paradigm set the tone for Enlightenment philosophy, literature, and the embrace of mankind’s rational thoughts. During the Enlightenment, there was a significant emphasis on scientific procedures, secularisation of learning, religious tolerance, individual liberty, independence, individuality, and universal education. These philosophical concepts clearly show the transition that took place in the European middle ages, previously everybody believed in the same ideals that were engraved in their mind, leaving no room for intellectual thought or individualistic beliefs, further showcasing the critical change in culture in early modern European history.
The Enlightenment served as a collectively driven venture, with scientists in the seventeenth century constructing knowledge that threatened the common societal norms- for instance, Galileo’s perspective on the cosmos had been somewhat ignored and isolated and could be ignored by established authorities. In contrast to this, the Enlightenment was a group-based scheme and built new forms of knowledge as both a social and interactive enterprise. Natural philosophers were keen to explain the entire system of the universe, rather than just discovering new things. Their knowledge covered a wide range of diverse grounds, such as medicine, pharmacology, alchemy, and also theology, philosophy, and law. Thus, further expressing that the scientific revolution is not a revolution in science, but a set of dramatic transformations shifting natural philosophy towards our modern concept of science. A concept striking an uproar in the Middle Ages was the use of mathematics and measurements to acquire a more specific idea of how the world and its parts function. Hence, philosophers started to believe in such observations and personal experiences more than ancient writings and literature that were once considered a staple tool for guidance in the Middle Ages. They relied on specifically conceived experiments to capture a greater understanding of nature’s mysteries, further exposing the drastic change the Enlightenment had on European culture, and marking the eighteenth century as a critical moment of change in early modern European history.
The significance of humanist movements in the Middle Ages was a critical aspect of the Enlightenment period, humanism is a rationalist outlook or system of thought attaching prime importance to humans rather than divine or supernatural matters. It acts as a crucial catalyst in driving the shift in change from a religious philosophy to an independent and individualistic-driven world in Early European history. Isaac Newton and Ben Franklin were two major humanists of the Enlightenment, they reacted in contradiction to the religious dogmatism of the late seventeenth century. The religious rigidity of the time was categorized into three main domains- Protestant scholasticism by Calvinist divines, Jesuit scholasticism, and finally, the theory of the divine right of Kings in the church of England, these three main domains had instigated the English Civil War. The Enlightenment ignored this regimented religious dogma. Rational leaders of the Enlightenment deemed themselves as fearless influential figure who would ultimately assist the world in transforming into a progressive society from a dreadful, long period of cynical tradition and apostolic tyranny. These intellectual leaders eventually simmered persistent religious views to only essential religious practices that were only ‘’rationally’’ protected. These included basic moral practices and a few universally grasped beliefs about god. The period of the Enlightenment also went to the extreme that resulted in atheism, which was barely even heard of in Europe’s past, before the Enlightenment. Thus, religion was essentially exiled from the public sphere, additionally conveying the crucial and sudden shift in change in early modern European history.
Humanism during the Enlightenment continued to gradually develop, becoming a central movement in capitalizing on the new European era in the time of the Middle Ages. Humanism acted as a facilitator of a series of notions about the nature, competencies, and values of individuals. It suggests the perspectives in, history, philosophy, anthropology, ethics, and politics, based on the human being as a crucial referential mechanism. Humanism stresses the importance of an individual’s perspective which is dedicated to the importance and interests of humans. It also suggests that reason and independence are the two main basic rights of human subsistence. Many fundamentals of humanism have been demonstrated in philosophical views, such as Marxism and existentialism. Therefore, humanism is portrayed as a major contributing factor to change in the eighteenth century, it serves to be a critical moment in the alteration of European society during the Enlightenment.
The protestant reformation played a highly influential role in the uprising of the Enlightenment and the changing ordeals in religious teachings that occurred in the Middle Ages. The Protestant Reformation was a major 16th century European movement aimed initially at reforming the beliefs and practices of the Roman Catholic Church. Its religious aspects were supplemented by ambitious political rulers who wanted to extend their power and control at the expense of the Church. Martin Luther is a critical figure in this Reformation period, due to his lack of belief in god and his difficulties in understanding the importance of god as a spiritual figure in his everyday life, he eventually separated himself from the catholic church. The supporters of the Enlightenment did not fully eliminate the role of god in their lives, but they denied that god had any clear and critical involvement in their lives. Individuals believed that god created the universe, but it stopped there, they believed everything else in life was up to them only, with no religious beliefs and guidance being portrayed in their mind anymore. Religious thought in the Enlightenment tried to demolish traditional religious views, Christianity, and shape a new foundation of religion that was centralized on an Earthly fundamental.
Ultimately, the culture of Enlightenment exposed a radical break with the origins of Europe’s past due to the drastic change from a religious-driven world to a scientific basis, with the growth in the humanist movement and the protestant reformation. The eighteenth-century Enlightenment was hence a crucial moment of change in early modern European history, influenced by a consecutive number of discoveries, reformations, humanist movements, and revolutions- ultimately resulting in the inevitable destruction of the unified, synthetic culture of the early modern European world. It served as a drastic and somewhat destructive shift in a religious-based world, then progressed into a scientifically proven driven world. Several key significant influencers turned the Middle Ages from a traditional religious-driven society into a more Earthly and scientific scenario- including intellectuals, philosophers, and historians. Literature and changing philosophies also led to a more humanistic way of life and gave individuals a sense of independence and freedom that they previously never had before in the Middle Ages.
John Locke was known to be one of the most influential philosophers of the Enlightenment Era, and earned the title of the “Father of Liberalism”. Within his work, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, a foundational work during the Enlightenment, Locke’s epistemological narrative reflects the claim that we, as humans, are not in the position to know, or discover, more than we need to live. His dedication to concept empiricism is reflected in his theories of personal identity, government, politics, and even metaphysical concepts such as perception, as they maintain relation to the practical concerns of human beings. Locke’s account of personal identity within the Essay examines the limits of human understanding and the qualities of personhood through an empirical lens, as it pertains to moral responsibility and conditions of persistence.
To understand personal identity, we must begin with an understanding of the conditions of personhood and the qualities of identity. Locke begins by acknowledging four kinds of existences within the world: atoms, compounds of atoms, masses of matter, living organisms, and persons. The principle of individuation for a sequoia tree, for example, is that it has a consistent existence; From its beginning atomic composition as a sapling to its life as a giant redwood, the sequoia persists through each stage of life and development as the same organism in the same life cycle, regardless of variation in mass or atomic structure, characterizing its numerical identity, or the state of being the same entity across of time.
The qualities that characterize persons, however, consist in the sameness of one’s consciousness across time, converse to the sequoia’s persistence of material life itself. Locke’s discussion of this diachronic identity begins with the examination of personhood (Barnes, 2021a). According to Locke, a person is. This awareness characterizes Locke’s principle of individuation for persons, as he believes that the condition required to establish a numerical identity between persons across time is one’s persisting consciousness through memory. Further, it is in this current awareness, this ability to identify ourselves as ourselves at this moment, that allows us to identify our past thoughts as our own. Memory, according to Locke, presupposes consciousness in that it connects person X at one given time to person Y at another given time; In his Essay, he states,
In other words, a person can be seen as a single center of consciousness, and so long as that single center of consciousness persists in thought and awareness, the person persists.
In his account of personal identity, Locke reasons that persons are, in addition to the empirical definitions of personhood and numerical identity, entities that can be held accountable for their actions. Moreover, he argues that it is in one’s continuity of consciousness and capacity for memory and thought that creates moral responsibility, as one is conscious of the consequences of their actions. With this reasoning of personal identity, Locke identifies one of the strongest fallacies to his account: the objection to interrupted consciousness. Within the Essay, he outlines the conditions of these gaps in personal identity as lapses in our memory that result from forgetfulness, sleeping, drunkenness, etc (Locke, Essay II.27.20). As aforementioned, one’s identity is contingent upon the “sameness” of consciousness and being across time. Given this assertion, any change in the self reflects a change in personal identity, and conversely, any change in personal identity therefore implies that the self has changed. Locke continues to suggest that one’s identity extends only so far as one’s consciousness is present, inherently implying that one may not be held morally culpable for actions done in a dissociative, unconscious state.
Memory, according to Locke, is both a necessary and sufficient condition of self, and consequently, personal identity. I believe that, among other arguments of circularity and memory, the objection of interrupted consciousness seems most obvious and inherent to his account; Locke accepts this objection as an additional quality of his account, stating,
It is because of Locke’s defense of this objection and addendum to his account of personal identity that I believe it is successfully defeated, but a significant objection nonetheless. To put it simply, I believe in the continuity of consciousness through memory. If acting is part of one’s present consciousness, then one must be held responsible for the act. Conversely, if one has no recollection of the action and cannot be brought to the consciousness of performing it, it was not their action, and cannot be held, at least not morally, to it.
I believe John Locke’s view of knowledge has maintained a simple philosophy: no one has access to the hidden secrets of nature, but what we need to know for practical purposes we can know. In his Essays, he strongly argues that the only significant identity is responsibility. In so being, as philosophy professor and author Richard Francks states,
One’s ability to reason, reflect, and consider themselves as the same thinking beings in different times and places is, as Locke believed, all to say that they uphold some form of responsibility in their actions as conscious beings, and in this knowledge may we better understand our existence and persistence in the world.
During the late 1700s, France and Haiti were in constant revolution. The revolutions began because of Enlightenment ideas created by Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke and Rousseau. They vouched for the rights of the people and it sprouted new radical ideas in France and Haiti leading to revolution. However, the outcomes of the two revolutions would lead to different paths. France was to be ruled by a military general named Napoleon Bonaparte and the French colony became an independent country named Haiti. France became rich under Napoleon while Haiti became the poorest country.
The Enlightenment was a key factor in creating revolution in both nations. John Locke was a supporter of natural rights for people. He believed that every person had rights to life, liberty, and property. Rousseau was a supporter of freedom of speech and that everyone could voice their own opinions. These enlightenment ideas spread through France and Haiti resulting in revolution. Robespierre was a leader in the French Revolution and without the enlightenment, he would not have risen to prominence. Robespierre believed that the king should be overthrown to make a better republic of France. He believed that having the symbol of monarchy would not condone a republic due to enlightenment ideas. (Only then would there be equality) He garnered the support of the National Assembly and the people and then beheaded the king and queen of France. This shows how the Enlightenment was a huge factor in the making of the French Revolution. The Enlightenment gave ideas about how to govern a country and those ideas were carried out by people like Robespierre. This is also true for Haiti because when the French Revolution was happening King Louis XVI passed the Declaration of Rights of Man. This led the mulattoes of Haiti to demand the right to participate in government and have free speech because the declaration made it a law. It was also the major cause of the want for freedom from France. Because the Enlightenment ideas promoted natural rights and rights to speech the people of Haiti wanted to be free from no representation. Eventually, Toussaint L’Ouverture came into the picture. He was a military leader in Haiti led the rebellion against France and fought for freedom. Haiti ultimately revolted because of the ideas that were presented to them through the Enlightenment.
After the revolutions, the results were quite different for the two nations. France became a powerhouse in Europe because of Napoleon’s superior military forces. They had won support from other neighboring countries and expanded France’s territory by a good margin. Napoleon put reforms into place after the revolution too by giving jobs through a meritocracy and stabilizing the French economy. However, Haiti, once the richest colony ever became the poorest because of trade. No nation wanted Haiti’s sugar because of the issue of race. Haiti was the first black country to be free and other nations did not want to promote slave rebellions so they did not acknowledge Haiti as a country and therefore did not trade with Haiti. The reason why France became a powerhouse was because it won all the battles it fought and that gave wealth to France. On the other hand, Haiti became the poorest nation due to the color of its skin. They were discriminated against and outcasted by other nations and that collapsed their economy. Another cause for the wealth and poverty of the two nations would have been their social classes. France still had the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd estates but the only major difference was that there were no bonuses for being in the 1st or 2nd estates like tax exemption. So France’s society was relatively unchanged, however, in Haiti more than half the population were slaves. This would have been a major shift in the social classes on the island where it was the first time there were no slaves. This would have disrupted the production of sugar and how the economy flowed while in France it was relatively unchanged. All these factors played a role in how Haiti became poor while France became rich.
Both nations were inspired by the Enlightenment to make change happen and to better the lives of all people. These wanted changes caused a revolution to occur but at the end of it, two different outcomes happened. France became a wealthier nation while Haiti dipped down to rock bottom. The people of both nations wanted a better place to live but it was a gamble.
The Enlightenment was a cultural movement stemming from philosophical paradigm shifts concerning changes in both cultural and socio-political dogmas, distinguished by the early modern European era. The culture of Enlightenment portrayed a radical break with the origins of Europe’s past due to the drastic change from a religious-driven world to a scientific basis, with the growth in the humanist movement. The eighteenth-century Enlightenment was hence a crucial moment of change in early modern European history, influenced by a consecutive number of discoveries, reformations, humanist movements, and revolutions- ultimately resulting in the inevitable destruction of the unified, synthetic culture of the early modern European world. It marked the transition from a world in which one simply took what was given, in terms of religion, politics, and a way of life, to a world where it gradually shifted to where a ‘‘man was seen as the architect of his destiny’’ The overruling perception of independence and the freedom of rights of individuals replaced the social hierarchy, aristocratic honor, and the divine right. The Enlightenment is often referred to as the ‘’age of reason’’, as it was set to challenge traditional religious views, provide liberty and freedom, and progress society in ways that will set the nation up for improvement and success, thus marking the eighteenth century as a critical moment of change in early modern European history.
The Enlightenment was a way of thinking that portrayed skepticism in the aspect of religion, challenged the inequity between the Kings and their people, and tried to establish a new system of principles with the application of the scientific revolution. The scientific revolution refers to a certain period spreading approximately from 1500 to 1700. This concept is very familiar in our current era, but the term was only fully understood in the 1940s by historians and famous philosophers who were particularly interested in the history of science. These significant figures stressed the idea of a sudden and dramatic shift in the way Europeans understood and interpreted the physical world in the early modern European period. Their literature upheld the so-called scientific revolution as the triumph of a courageous, rational mind over the irrational, and backward reasoning of the dark early modern era.
In the late 17th century, several well-known scientists like Isaac Newton and John Locke began to challenge the old order. Newton’s laws of gravity explained the world in terms of natural laws beyond spiritual force. In the wake of the political uproar in England, Locke declared the right of individuals to shift to a government that did not believe in protecting the natural rights of life and independence. In response to this, societal norms were starting to change and people were beginning to second guess the existence of a god who could predetermine human beings to eternal damnation and empower a tyrant for a king. Europe was forever transformed by these new ideals. Once devoted Christians began to reposition their faith and believed that the universe determined its course, without the interference of god and his intervention. The scientific revolution movement upheld many discoveries that led to individuals wanting to learn more about the world and the scientific approach behind it, forcing all spiritual and divine philosophies about the universe to become irrelevant. The three major discoveries of the scientific revolution include Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion Galilei’s theories of motion and inertia, and Newton’s findings of the law of gravitation and the understanding of a mechanical world. With several new scientific discoveries being publicized and becoming widespread throughout European society, the accepted Christian understanding of the universe altered. Progressively, thinkers encompassed the scientific paradigm. This paradigm grasps that while God created the universe, science defined and expressed it, and it is through science that enables humans to understand it. Intellectuals began to view the universe as perhaps infinite and full of motion. This paradigm set the tone for Enlightenment philosophy, literature, and the embrace of mankind’s rational thoughts. During the Enlightenment, there was a significant emphasis on scientific procedures, secularisation of learning, religious tolerance, individual liberty, independence, individuality, and universal education. These philosophical concepts clearly show the transition that took place in the European middle ages, previously everybody believed in the same ideals that were engraved in their mind, leaving no room for intellectual thought or individualistic beliefs, further showcasing the critical change in culture in early modern European history.
The Enlightenment served as a collectively driven venture, with scientists in the seventeenth century constructing knowledge that threatened the common societal norms- for instance, Galileo’s perspective on the cosmos had been somewhat ignored and isolated and could be ignored by established authorities. In contrast to this, the Enlightenment was a group-based scheme and built new forms of knowledge as both a social and interactive enterprise. Natural philosophers were keen to explain the entire system of the universe, rather than just discovering new things. Their knowledge covered a wide range of diverse grounds, such as medicine, pharmacology, alchemy, and also theology, philosophy, and law. Thus, further expressing that the scientific revolution is not a revolution in science, but a set of dramatic transformations shifting natural philosophy towards our modern concept of science. A concept striking an uproar in the Middle Ages was the use of mathematics and measurements to acquire a more specific idea of how the world and its parts function. Hence, philosophers started to believe in such observations and personal experiences more than ancient writings and literature that were once considered a staple tool for guidance in the Middle Ages. They relied on specifically conceived experiments to capture a greater understanding of nature’s mysteries, further exposing the drastic change the Enlightenment had on European culture, and marking the eighteenth century as a critical moment of change in early modern European history.
The significance of humanist movements in the Middle Ages was a critical aspect of the Enlightenment period, humanism is a rationalist outlook or system of thought attaching prime importance to humans rather than divine or supernatural matters. It acts as a crucial catalyst in driving the shift in change from a religious philosophy to an independent and individualistic-driven world in Early European history. Isaac Newton and Ben Franklin were two major humanists of the Enlightenment, they reacted in contradiction to the religious dogmatism of the late seventeenth century. The religious rigidity of the time was categorized into three main domains- Protestant scholasticism by Calvinist divines, Jesuit scholasticism, and finally, the theory of the divine right of Kings in the church of England, these three main domains had instigated the English Civil War. The Enlightenment ignored this regimented religious dogma. Rational leaders of the Enlightenment deemed themselves as fearless influential figure who would ultimately assist the world in transforming into a progressive society from a dreadful, long period of cynical tradition and apostolic tyranny. These intellectual leaders eventually simmered persistent religious views to only essential religious practices that were only ‘’rationally’’ protected. These included basic moral practices and a few universally grasped beliefs about god. The period of the Enlightenment also went to the extreme that resulted in atheism, which was barely even heard of in Europe’s past, before the Enlightenment. Thus, religion was essentially exiled from the public sphere, additionally conveying the crucial and sudden shift in change in early modern European history.
Humanism during the Enlightenment continued to gradually develop, becoming a central movement in capitalizing on the new European era in the time of the Middle Ages. Humanism acted as a facilitator of a series of notions about the nature, competencies, and values of individuals. It suggests the perspectives in, history, philosophy, anthropology, ethics, and politics, based on the human being as a crucial referential mechanism. Humanism stresses the importance of an individual’s perspective which is dedicated to the importance and interests of humans. It also suggests that reason and independence are the two main basic rights of human subsistence. Many fundamentals of humanism have been demonstrated in philosophical views, such as Marxism and existentialism. Therefore, humanism is portrayed as a major contributing factor to change in the eighteenth century, it serves to be a critical moment in the alteration of European society during the Enlightenment.
The protestant reformation played a highly influential role in the uprising of the Enlightenment and the changing ordeals in religious teachings that occurred in the Middle Ages. The Protestant Reformation was a major 16th century European movement aimed initially at reforming the beliefs and practices of the Roman Catholic Church. Its religious aspects were supplemented by ambitious political rulers who wanted to extend their power and control at the expense of the Church. Martin Luther is a critical figure in this Reformation period, due to his lack of belief in god and his difficulties in understanding the importance of god as a spiritual figure in his everyday life, he eventually separated himself from the catholic church. The supporters of the Enlightenment did not fully eliminate the role of god in their lives, but they denied that god had any clear and critical involvement in their lives. Individuals believed that god created the universe, but it stopped there, they believed everything else in life was up to them only, with no religious beliefs and guidance being portrayed in their mind anymore. Religious thought in the Enlightenment tried to demolish traditional religious views, Christianity, and shape a new foundation of religion that was centralized on an Earthly fundamental.
Ultimately, the culture of Enlightenment exposed a radical break with the origins of Europe’s past due to the drastic change from a religious-driven world to a scientific basis, with the growth in the humanist movement and the protestant reformation. The eighteenth-century Enlightenment was hence a crucial moment of change in early modern European history, influenced by a consecutive number of discoveries, reformations, humanist movements, and revolutions- ultimately resulting in the inevitable destruction of the unified, synthetic culture of the early modern European world. It served as a drastic and somewhat destructive shift in a religious-based world, then progressed into a scientifically proven driven world. Several key significant influencers turned the Middle Ages from a traditional religious-driven society into a more Earthly and scientific scenario- including intellectuals, philosophers, and historians. Literature and changing philosophies also led to a more humanistic way of life and gave individuals a sense of independence and freedom that they previously never had before in the Middle Ages.
John Locke was known to be one of the most influential philosophers of the Enlightenment Era, and earned the title of the “Father of Liberalism”. Within his work, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, a foundational work during the Enlightenment, Locke’s epistemological narrative reflects the claim that we, as humans, are not in the position to know, or discover, more than we need to live. His dedication to concept empiricism is reflected in his theories of personal identity, government, politics, and even metaphysical concepts such as perception, as they maintain relation to the practical concerns of human beings. Locke’s account of personal identity within the Essay examines the limits of human understanding and the qualities of personhood through an empirical lens, as it pertains to moral responsibility and conditions of persistence.
To understand personal identity, we must begin with an understanding of the conditions of personhood and the qualities of identity. Locke begins by acknowledging four kinds of existences within the world: atoms, compounds of atoms, masses of matter, living organisms, and persons. The principle of individuation for a sequoia tree, for example, is that it has a consistent existence; From its beginning atomic composition as a sapling to its life as a giant redwood, the sequoia persists through each stage of life and development as the same organism in the same life cycle, regardless of variation in mass or atomic structure, characterizing its numerical identity, or the state of being the same entity across of time.
The qualities that characterize persons, however, consist in the sameness of one’s consciousness across time, converse to the sequoia’s persistence of material life itself. Locke’s discussion of this diachronic identity begins with the examination of personhood (Barnes, 2021a). According to Locke, a person is. This awareness characterizes Locke’s principle of individuation for persons, as he believes that the condition required to establish a numerical identity between persons across time is one’s persisting consciousness through memory. Further, it is in this current awareness, this ability to identify ourselves as ourselves at this moment, that allows us to identify our past thoughts as our own. Memory, according to Locke, presupposes consciousness in that it connects person X at one given time to person Y at another given time; In his Essay, he states,
In other words, a person can be seen as a single center of consciousness, and so long as that single center of consciousness persists in thought and awareness, the person persists.
In his account of personal identity, Locke reasons that persons are, in addition to the empirical definitions of personhood and numerical identity, entities that can be held accountable for their actions. Moreover, he argues that it is in one’s continuity of consciousness and capacity for memory and thought that creates moral responsibility, as one is conscious of the consequences of their actions. With this reasoning of personal identity, Locke identifies one of the strongest fallacies to his account: the objection to interrupted consciousness. Within the Essay, he outlines the conditions of these gaps in personal identity as lapses in our memory that result from forgetfulness, sleeping, drunkenness, etc (Locke, Essay II.27.20). As aforementioned, one’s identity is contingent upon the “sameness” of consciousness and being across time. Given this assertion, any change in the self reflects a change in personal identity, and conversely, any change in personal identity therefore implies that the self has changed. Locke continues to suggest that one’s identity extends only so far as one’s consciousness is present, inherently implying that one may not be held morally culpable for actions done in a dissociative, unconscious state.
Memory, according to Locke, is both a necessary and sufficient condition of self, and consequently, personal identity. I believe that, among other arguments of circularity and memory, the objection of interrupted consciousness seems most obvious and inherent to his account; Locke accepts this objection as an additional quality of his account, stating,
It is because of Locke’s defense of this objection and addendum to his account of personal identity that I believe it is successfully defeated, but a significant objection nonetheless. To put it simply, I believe in the continuity of consciousness through memory. If acting is part of one’s present consciousness, then one must be held responsible for the act. Conversely, if one has no recollection of the action and cannot be brought to the consciousness of performing it, it was not their action, and cannot be held, at least not morally, to it.
I believe John Locke’s view of knowledge has maintained a simple philosophy: no one has access to the hidden secrets of nature, but what we need to know for practical purposes we can know. In his Essays, he strongly argues that the only significant identity is responsibility. In so being, as philosophy professor and author Richard Francks states,
One’s ability to reason, reflect, and consider themselves as the same thinking beings in different times and places is, as Locke believed, all to say that they uphold some form of responsibility in their actions as conscious beings, and in this knowledge may we better understand our existence and persistence in the world.
The video 21st “Century Enlightenment” (The RSA) is devoted to the issues of the Enlightenment process in the past period and the perspectives for the development of this phenomenon within current realities. It observes the philosophical and historical sources and backgrounds of the Enlightenment project. Matthew Taylor, Chief Executive of the Royal Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce (RSA), examines the reaction of people with different social backgrounds to understand the nature of the phenomenon. The process of the enlightenment is relevant, and it undergoes changes and qualitative metamorphoses due to the needs and demands of society. The speaker describes this process as cultural psychotherapy (The RSA). The development of new technologies, economic progress, and educational reformation affect the consciousness of contemporary society, thus influencing its enlightenment. The author introduces the idea of individualization of the informational and educational processes for a more profound understanding of human nature. He claims that it is of vital significance to realize the essence of the ethical component of progress.
Regardless of the heterogeneity of humanity, its representatives are facing common problems day by day. He suggests people reconsider their role in the transformation of the modern world with its constant crimes, disasters, political and business tricks. Do we want to remain the observers, silent passersby or do we need to take an active part in the solution of these global issues? Every person should find the answer to this question to change his or her life quality for the better. For this purpose, people should learn to feel empathy for other people and their experiences (Morrell 134). Individuals are to be more engaged with the problems of others. People should not be slaves of their passions and desires; they are to learn to control them effectively.
The speaker provides the idea that by influencing our close people we can influence unknown people. So, we have all chances to change something, being happy we can make happy people surrounding us. This interaction is maybe even more effective than one can imagine. Social change is the reaction of people that relates to the community issues of different levels (Jimenez 123). These are some community-based changes that can implement more global changes in the economy, policies, fairness, laws, and norms. They are presented as the collective action of individuals that are closely connected with these problems. For this purpose, there is an efficient tool for community organizing. It unites people with common problems for the effective solution of their problems and establishment of progressive social changes within the community (Shragge 78). It empowers powerless people for effective social activity. Progressive community organizing includes theoretical concepts that will be important for efficacious for the members of the community.
It encompasses the principles of efficient management over human feelings, perception, and consciousness (Pyles 21).
One of the most appropriate methods for the solution of social problems is the involvement of people concerned with these issues (Hadar 12). The best motivation for people to be engaged in the decision-making is their involvement in the implementation of social changes within their community that are of the vital need for them. To stimulate people for some global changes, they should see the effect of some minor modifications. Thus, by uniting people in community organizations, involving them in social activity, there are chances to avoid various possible challenges and solve existing problems. There is a multitude of possibilities to influence significant public decisions through individual citizens’ activities. Very often, people decide to take a passive position in the solution of urgent issues only due to the pessimism of their expectations. However, life shows that every single action aimed at the creation of positive alterations contributes to social progress. There are numerous ways to participate in the solution of urgent social problems.
A person may provide some information and sound ideas, support the community in significant decisions, avoid conflict situations, just be friendly and responsive to the problems of other people, be ready for interaction, and trust others. Every person has numerous opportunities and instruments to help others. Helping others, we enrich our inner life and make social changes possible and real. Thus, activism should be aimed not at the satisfaction of personal values and needs but the fulfillment of some social or personal duties. Mutual assistance in the solution of individual issues and challenges can significantly contribute to global social changing. The analysis and profound understanding of our personal needs and norms may lead us to the realization of the nature of the problems of other people. Sympathy to other people makes us involved in the solution of their problem. Thus, social activity is over someone’s values; it is the instrument for penetration in the essence of various challenges. Comprehension is the first step toward the effective contribution to the process of reformation of modern society’s nature. All of us can make a difference. However, not everyone is ready to realize it. Thus, enlightenment is one of the most effective methods to provide people with insight into current problems.
Works Cited
Hadar, Uri. Psychoanalysis and Social Involvement. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013. Print.
Jimenez, Jillian. Social Policy and Social Change. Los Angeles: Sage, 2010. Print.
Morrell, Michael E. Empathy and Democracy. University Park, PA.: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2010. Print.
Pyles, Loretta. Progressive Community Organizing. New York: Routledge, 2009. Print.
Shragge, Eric. Activism and Social Change. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press, 2013. Print.
The RSA. Matthew Taylor – 21st Century Enlightenment. Full Edit with the Audience Q&A Session, 2010. Web.
Political activism does not necessarily have to take place in grand halls or out in the riotous streets, it can be very subtly done because anyone in any place can become a political agent. The women living in France at the time of the Enlightenment must have realized this and used it to their advantage. Salons at the time were all the rage with carefully selected patronage that required a certain amount of prestige for one to get admittance. The women to be found there were at the time seen almost as being part of the décor- delightful to look at and rarely anything more. But the women had their own agenda. It shall be looked at what impact these women had on advancing the fight for women’s liberation and women’s right in their time.
Introduction
History is made by men; this is a gross assumption that is made when the recorded history of humankind is studied. It was the men who went on voyages to discover and conquer new lands. It was the men who ruled empires, made political decisions that determined the fate of nations, built and tore down empires, passed decrees and went to battle.
A critical examination of history shows that women have been excluded to the point of invisibility. Unless a woman carried out a phenomenal feat, like Egypt’s queen Cleopatra did, her role was considered too insignificant to record. Yet at all times the women were there somewhere in the picture; they fought alongside their men, they gave political counsels, they suffered from consequence of war as their men did, they had the same hopes and fears as their men folk did. They had their own triumphs too (Hufton, 1995).
It is said that every generation rewrites history in the light of its own understanding and appreciation of it. Major events become minor; heroes are transformed into villains and acts that at one point lauded for their ingenuity are at another point booed for their gaucherie (Smith, 1988).
The historical role of women has been for a long time sidelined as being too minor to be considered of any significance. This is probably because in the past women rarely got a say or a platform from which they could voice their opinions. It was the men who dictated what went into history books and they also dictated what aspects of their nation’s histories were important. This is how the women came to be left out. The history of France is no exception to this rule. There are French women who were active participants of the French reformation period of the mid 19th century (Smith, 1988).
Women tried in their own limited way to be part of the reformation and restructuring going on in the Enlightenment period though society put stipulations and restrictions that held them back. There were women who defied all norms of society to fight on the barricades of Paris in the memorable June of 1848. One of the women who stood out in this fight was Victoria Charlemagne who was recognized by the French government for her efforts (Streissguth, 2005).
It shall be examined how the women of the Enlightenment period used their influence in salons to push for women’s right in France and to advance the liberation of women.
The position of woman in society in the 17th and 18th century France
The ideal for the woman living in the age of Enlightenment in Europe was the married life. It can be said that it is what a woman was born and bred for. From the time in childhood that a young girl could grasp the nature of her gender, she was inculcated with the understanding that she had only one true purpose in life: she would grow up to get married-if the occasion allowed, to a man of higher social standing and/ or means- bear children for her husband and be a good hostess to his guests. A woman could not own property, she could not actively participate in politics, she could not hold a job that was in anyway male oriented. For genteel society, a young woman could not even go out without a suitable male companion or chaperone (Hufton, 1995).
Though the women of the aristocratic and noble classes received an education, it rarely went beyond what would furnish her with enough finesse on the charm and grace needed to run a good home and what to do in polite society (Whitehead, 1999). It must have been a miserable existence indeed.
Lower class women especially had a hard time of it. Since there wereminimal to no chances that they would marry rich, they started saving for their married life as soon as they could be put to work. Once married, they had to constantly see to domestic chores; they washed, scrubbed, cooked, baked, mended and sewed. There was not a moment’s rest in the bustle of single-handedly looking after families that were relatively larger than the ones that are there in modern Europe today (Kavanagh, 1893).
At the time, it had not even been articulated that women had their needs too, that they had opinions on issues that affected them directly such as what number of children to have, or how the financial matters within the home could handled. The men who had never known what a misery it was to be born a woman could not comprehend the woman’s plight of being a voiceless mule, a chattel to be handled as callously as the nature of the man in whose possession it was held allowed (Chastain, 2004).
Women were perceived as being inherently evil: their beauty and delicacy was a constant temptation to men. They were treated with suspicion; almost as if they were a foreign and un-understood species. Out of this misunderstanding arose a cruelty toward women that would be found most unnatural today (Hufton, 1995).
Another institution which had a major role in women’s lives at the time was the church. The church cast the type for gender and sex roles; they regulated what men and women were meant to do. Of course the church advocated for the man being the head of the family and the woman subjecting herself to his will (Hufton, 1995).
On the other hand, the church provided an alternative to marriage. This was especially true of the Catholic Church who trained them to become Ursulines in professions such as teaching and nursing. There were other orders formed such as the Sisters of Charity and it is noted by Hufton (1995) that by the time of the French revolution in the latter part of the 18th century, approximately one in every one hundred and twenty women had dedicated their lives to the church. It leaves one to wander just how despicable the married life was (Hufton, 1995).
The age of Enlightenment
In the late 17th century, there arose a new school of thought that advocated for application of reason as being the basis on which justification of actions and authority could be founded. It called for logical deduction and rationalization where things had once been taken for granted. The age of Enlightenment was one that called into question institutions which before had been taken at face value. Everything had to weighed and analyzed before being deemed as acceptable. Arguments had to be followed to their most logical conclusions before they could be declared sound (Mealy, 2008).
What remained the driving force and a characteristic for this period in history was that the focus was on the freedom and equality of all men. There was a notable shift from the traditional focus on aristocracy, nobility and theocracy.
The age of Enlightenment had a major impact on the cultural and social aspects of peoples’ lives. Everything could be brought under scrutiny, even the highest authorities including the church. While before there had been a silent acceptance by the masses of whatever dictum was passed to them, this changed. Philosophers, artists and scientists alike questioned the established systems that were to be found at the time (mealy, 2008).
The Enlightenment was like a time of renewal and revival. There was conceived the idea of the ‘public sphere’ which referred to the open group discussions of issues that touched the lives of the general public. This laid the framework for the salons where matters touching on the lives of the masses were picked up and re-assessed. It also created room for more open and meaningful discussions by the masses on political as well as social issues that had once been considered the preserve of the aristocracy and the nobles (Mealy, 2008).
The age of Enlightenment provided fertile ground for the liberation of women. While the position of women had always been taken for granted; that they were mere appendages to their men and made up a lower class in society who were meant to sit at home and be good wives, with Enlightenment such practices could safely be questioned (Mealy, 2008).
The women of the salons: salonnieres in France
The salons of France were the hub where the shape and pace of Enlightenment were forged. It was in these salons that there were conducted open discussions on what were still considered delicate topics such as the rights of men, Forethought, sciences and literature (Tallentrye, 1901). The women who ran these salons were given the name ‘salonnieres’ and they were infamous for their wit, their cutting sarcasm, their knowledge on a wide variety of subjects that were facing France at the time and their unerring intelligence (Tallentrye, 1901).
A salon simply means a gathering. In France it was a gathering of exciting people who met in the homes of the elite of French society and at the houses of one of their kind. The hostesses, for they were mostly women- were a charming, beautiful and witty kind. They were highly independent women who were not afraid to defer the normal standards that were set for women such as getting and staying married. Some, such as Madame de Deffund, took lovers, abandoned their husbands and were the source of scandal (Tallentrye, 1901).
Outstanding salonnieres of the age of Enlightenment in France
Madame de Rambouillet was the ‘first’ salonniere in France; at least she was the first notable salonniere. She ran her literary salon from her home the Hotel de Rambouillet in Paris. There were other women in her circle such as Mademoiselle de Scudery who later went on to establish her own renown salon, the Duchesse de Montpensier who established a famous social salon, Jean Louis Guez, the Duchesse de Longueville among others. Madame de Rambouillet and her lady friends can acclaim the origin of the term ‘blue stockings’. The ladies in this circle came to be refered to this way because of their blue stockings (bas-bleus) and the term came to have the slightly derogatory connotation for an intellectual woman. the term of the same name which was use for over three centuries to refer to intellectual women (Tallentrye, 1901).
Other famous salonnieres were such as Madame Geoffrin, Madam de Tencin, the duchesse du Maine, Madame d’Epinay, the Marquise de Lambrt among others (Tallentrye, 1901).
There are disagreements on what were the conversations that went on in these salons.
It is agreed that these discussions tended toward the radical topics that were not discussed in ‘polite’ society. However it is not clear whether there were specific topics avoided such as those that revolved around politics. It is also agreed that salons were the hub for the philosophers of that time who gathered there to expound their ideologies. The salons were like a testing ground where they could sound out their thoughts with the assurance that they would be open to intelligent incisive counterarguments or gain support that would garnish their original theories (Goodman, 1994).
As with other places where women played a dominant historical role, the function of the salons in the Enlightenment period was relegated to a back burner. The approach that was adopted was that of taking the women as individuals- not treating the salons as one compact entity. The focus was not on what went on within the salons themselves but rather on the personalities and dramas of the women who ran them. This undermined the actual role and importance of the salons. When the role played by salonnieres was looked at in the context of the actual goings-on in the salon itself, that it was these women who geared conversations and debates, then it became more apparent that their impact went beyond the simple image of being a salonniere (Mobius, 1983).
A salonniere had to show great tact when it came to handling people. As happens where there is an argument and two opposing sides, more so if both sides firmly and passionately believe that they are right, things tend to get out of hand. The salonniere had to learn the skill of diffusing potential scenarios before they got out of hand. It was a delicate job since the salonniere had to exhibit her wit by asking just the right questions awhile at the same time remaining neutral enough so as not to be seen as playing favorites (Tallentrye, 1901).
The salonniere toned down not only tempers but the language used as well. The salons attracted men from all walks of life and professions. There were philosophers, musicians as well as journalists and novelists. This was why the use of French was favored over the Latin that the scientists and philosophers preferred. Hence, the most suitable environment for debate was cultivated; one could air their views without fear of censure as long as the right language and tone was used, and he would get an interested audience (Goodman, 1994).
Salons in France gained such prominence in Europe that it was considered the number one intellectual hub. Philosophers, scientists and artists alike would make their pilgrimage from all parts of Europe to come and pay homage to the infamous gatherings (Goodman, 1994).
It has been argued that despite the fact that women were the central figures in the salon, their sphere of influence did not go far beyond this. However, the men that these women interacted with were the same men who governed France at the time, who were considered the heavy weights and as being the most knowledgeable (Goodman, 1994).
As Goodman (1994) asserts, these women were mostly well educated since they were mostly members of the aristocratic class or even the nobility. They were well informed on the issues that were facing France at the time and were highly intelligent in their own right. They were not shallow, attention seeking beauties that some historians make them out to be.
Since the salons were a ‘woman’ affair, it was up to the salonnieres to decide to choose who would be among their guests and what the nature of their salons would be. Most salons took either a social, literary or political bent. Goodman goes as far as to say that the salon could be thought of as a place where salonnieres and the women in their circles pursued some form of higher education. They were presented with the opportunity not only to harvest from the brightest minds in the land, but also to pit their minds against such minds. They also found a platform from which to voice their own ideas, a very rare occurrence indeed (Goodman, 1994).
What was the contribution of these salons to the liberation of women?
Just the title of ‘salonniere’ in itself was a mark of a certain level of liberation. The fact that these women had chosen to flaunt the norms lay down by society and gotten away with it was a beacon of hope for the other women of France. These women were proof that a woman could live by herself and thrive, not only that but she could have the attention of a man on her own grounds and on her own terms (Goodman, 1994).
The salonnieres were also the fore runners of feminist activism by intelligent, radical-minded women. These women withstood the ridicule and scorn with which they were treated and in the face of great opposition started the stone rolling for the advocating for women’s rights (Goodman, 1994).
Conclusion
The liberation of women has come a long way. From the 17th and 18th century when the woman was a subhuman being, when the question of women’s rights was not even raised because it was the norm for them not to have rights. It was taken for granted that a woman would get married and submit herself to the will of her husband at home and to the will of the men in society in general.
The salonnieres of Enlightenment France remain among the ranks of unsung female heroes who shaped history just as much as their male counterparts did. Since the perspective on history keeps changing there may come a time that they will be given just as much respect as the philosophers, artists and scientists that they once hosted
References:
Chastain, Joy. Women’s Rights in France, 2004. Web.
Goodman, Dena. The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment. Cornell University Press, 1994.
Hufton, Olwen. The prospect before her: A history of women in western Europe. London: HarperCollins, 1995.
Habermas and the former associates of the Frankfurt School had put forth a critical theory that was fundamentally different and new knowledge in the area of enlightenment goals in modern times. Such knowledge is distinguished with the natural sciences as being basically reflective in that the awareness that it provides shows us the path to enlightenment as per our actual pursuits and the freedom from our unsuspecting manners of internal and external coercion (Mehtab Dere, 2009).
The first theories and hypotheses in this regard are available in the works of Freud and Marx. The vast changes that happened in Europe after the 16th century such as the inventions that took place of several new techniques of production, the rise of nation-states, colonization of new regions, the homogeneity brought about in time, and progress made in linear perspectives brought about newer ways of viewing, explaining and understanding of different happenings through the understandings of the social sciences.
This pattern led a large number of thinkers to come out with theories in regard to the phenomenon of change. They put forth a wide range of ideas that dealt with the vitally significant issues pertaining to social life that came to be called sociological theories (Stephen K. White, 1989). The two factors that influenced and led to the creation and popularity of the sociological theories were essentially the intellectual and social forces prevailing during the time. One of such intellectual forces was the enlightenment that came about with the introduction of sociological theories (John J. Macionis et al, 2002).
According to Foucault (1984), enlightenment is, ” the moment when humanity is going to put its own reason to use, without subjecting itself to any authority; now it is precisely at this moment that the critique is necessary since its role is that of defining the conditions under which the use of reason is legitimate in order to determine what can be known, what must be done, and what may be hope, enlightenment is the age of the critique” (Foucault, 1984).
This was characterized as the attitude of modernity. This kind of modernity has been squeezed between pre-modernity and post-modernity and Foucalt has pictured it as a kind of approach rather than an epoch-making development. Kant described enlightenment as being a kind of exit which is best explained by the darkness in a cinema hall which is often disturbed and taken up by the flashes of reality on the screen in being much different from the reality that we are aware of, while at the same time there is a red exit sign which makes us aware of the escape route in case of a fire. The calm of the darkness makes us feel comfortable and entertained while making us forget our problems for some time.
Kant also said that we may be scared to face our own shadow in the dark and that the man who is truly enlightened will never be scared of shadows. It is quite natural to be scared of shadows but theoretically, such an approach is open to be critically examined. A philosophical attitude is required to conduct such an exercise, which was in fact propounded by Focault. This enabled people to make a critical examination of the self and to analyze their limits and research on their transcendental potential.
The central question to explore in this regard relates to the paradox which shapes modernity and to discreetly analyze the social influences that they have on society (David Kolb, 1991). The uniting theme in this matter becomes the influence of modernity as created for society. The most pertinent issue in this regard pertains to the paradox of modern capitalistic communities in different fields of activities.
One aspect of the theories in this regard relates to empirical realities whereby qualitative and quantitative data are analyzed during empirical investigations. The other aspect which is imperative pertains to the views developed by the Frankfurt School critical theories which defend the theorizing on an elaborate basis with the point of reference being made secondary in comparison to the current empirical realities.
It is widely believed that the loopholes in the theories are primarily responsible for the reactions happening in the short term in regard to the pedagogical discussions. A genuine stand can be arrived at by conducting independent research by detaching from the current situation so as to avoid becoming prejudiced and influenced by a large number of opinions and theories currently making the rounds (Michael E. Zimmerman, 1990).
Enlightenment refers to the modern system of thinking that aims at emancipating people from self-created and socially planned heteronomy. As per the core insights of the critical theories in this regard, social freedom is construed to be associated with enlightenment.
The connotation of enlightenment implies the strengthening of the goodness prevalent amongst humans in society. Thus enlightenment becomes a process whereby human beings seek wisdom so as to get freedom from the different kinds of dependencies, whether they are internal or external, inflicted by self or by society. It is the procedure by which humans become more matured by way of destroying the authorities of tradition and the popularity of myths. Enlightenment aims at liberating people from fear and domination from myths. However, it is pertinent to note that such a practice did become mythology that enslaved people by replacing the myths pertaining to the old world order as engineered by society.
According to Habermas, there is a definite tendency of positive actions being taken in the modernization process and this tendency indicates the likelihood of logical communications and discussions in helping towards the development of moral and social awareness to the extent that people are able to initiate transparency in realistic discourses on social justice. The Frankfurt School argues that modernity entails the possibilities of overcoming antagonism amongst people and between people and institutions.
This likelihood is related to the realistic recognition and reciprocity in three aspects; primary relationships such as friendship and love, legal relationships pertaining to rights of people, and the value systems in the community such as solidarity. The Frankfurt School examines such parameters explicitly and outlines the importance of the differences quite convincingly. It has a tradition of relying on heterogeneous research and has common standards in addressing all agents and the diverse formulations of critical theories. These principles become the forces behind the research in matters pertaining to enlightenment goals.
The philosophical reflections and experiential sciences are related to each other and the research in this regard is directed towards a social critique of the unjust social frameworks. The Frankfurt School endeavors to take into account the expectations, requirements, and moral convictions of individuals that have to live in social structures with the widespread prevalence of unjust practices.
Marxism is the basic political philosophy put forth by scholars of the Frankfurt School such as Habermas, Adorno, Marcuse, Lowenthal, Hokheimer and Benjamin (M. Horkheimer et al, 2002). The maximum influence in the Frankfurt School comes from Habermas and Adorno amongst others. Habermas was a post-World War II German philosopher who wanted to complete the unfinished project of modernity. He upheld civil liberties and equality amongst the masses and argued against postmodernism.
He believed that social democracy has immense potential. The Frankfurt School believes in authentic culture instead of the mass culture propagated by other philosophers. Such a culture produces satisfaction, depoliticizes the working class, and controls the prospects of economic and political goals thus creating a Utopian space in making the world be imagined as a better place. There is a promise for the future and it allows people to renew their energy levels. In the viewpoint of the Frankfurt School, the post-modernist declaration that sociology should abandon the enlightenment goals of modernity leads to threatening of the culture industry (Richard Hooker, 1996).
Contrary to postmodernist views, philosophers such as Habermas and Adorno present modernity as a dream for enlightenment and insist that political structures must be rationalized in order to criticize domination (Timothy McGettigan, 2000). They disagree with the concepts of post structural critique of reason and find potential and value in reason. They see norms as being realistic in allowing people to communicate. In referring to the bourgeoisie they point out that although they gained immense wealth and social authority, political power and land were not acquired by them. The Frankfurt School requires governments to win over the war of public opinion in accommodating reason.
There is no scope for the rejection of reason which should be integrated fully into normal life. They dub the post structural and post modern thinkers as young conservatives that are unnecessarily tied to modernity that should be despised. The work of the Frankfurt School has been valorised and criticized but it cannot be denied that they add immense meaning to the statement that enlightenment goals of modernity should not be abandoned. Above all, they uphold equal protection under the laws, universal rights and economic justice (Lawrence, 1988). Indeed, Habermas and the Frankfurt School were on the right path in propagating that the enlightenment ideals were an ongoing project and very useful as aims, but were a little Utopian in not being realistic in the real-world sense.
References
David Kolb, The Critique of Pure Modernity: Hegel, Heidegger, and After, 1991, University Of Chicago Press.
Foucault, Michel, What is Enlightenment. The Politics of Truth, 1997, Edited by Sylvere Lotringer. USA: Semiotext.
John J. Macionis, Ken Plummer, Sociology, 2002, Prentice Hall.
Lawrence E. Cahoone, The Dilemma of Modernity: Philosophy, Culture, and Anti-Culture, 1988, State University of New York Press.
Mehtab Dere, The Misinterpretation of Modernity, 2009, B C Journal of International Affairs.
M. Horkheimer and T. W. Adorno, Dialectic of Enlightenment: Philosophical Fragments, 1947, edited by G. S. Noerr, translated by E. Jephcott, Stanford University Press, 2002.
Michael E. Zimmerman, Heidegger’s Confrontation with Modernity, 1990, Indiana University Press.
Richard Hooker, Crisis of Modernity, 1996. Web.
Stephen K. White, The Recent Work of Jürgen Habermas, 1989, Cambridge University Press.
Timothy McGettigan, The Virtues And Limitations Of Postmodern Theory, 2000, Theory and Science.
Bhagavad-gita is a significant sacred scripture in Hinduism that provides a detailed account of ethical, religious, and philosophical issues. In a more specific way, this scripture serves as a guide on the particularities of believing in Krishna as a path to conscious and enlightened life. This epic poem is written in the form of a dialogue with Krishna, who provides his instruction on how to live life according to the principles of Hinduism, which include practicing yoga, meditation, and engaging in virtuous living. Indeed, the achievement of enlightenment is considered an ultimate goal that establishes an opportunity of avoiding reincarnation or the continuous circle of death and rebirth. In this essay, the pieces of advice given by Krishna in Bhagavad-gita are explored and analyzed as per their complexity and attainability. It is claimed that despite the comprehensiveness and structural presentation of the requirements for achieving enlightenment, only the ones who abide by the strict rules might achieve enlightenment.
In the narrative of the epic poem, the guidance provided by Krishna unfolds some specific advice on how to achieve enlightenment. Indeed, the text holds that for an individual to become enlightened, one has to adhere to the different structurally divided methods of yoga. Overall, “Bhagavad-gita recognizes four yogas or methods of bhakti yoga (devotion), dhyāna yoga (meditation), jñāna yoga (transcendental knowledge), and karma yoga (virtuous acts),” which are the methods of enlightenment attainment, or God-realization (Rajandran 164). These methods are inherently connected with the Hindu differentiation between body, mind, and soul, which are separately trained through these yoga practices (Rajandran 163-164). The importance of practicing yoga as a path to enlightenment is repeatedly referred to in the text of the epic poem. Indeed, Krishna addressed his interlocutor by saying, “perform your duty equipoised, o Arjuna, abandoning all attachment to success or failure; such equanimity is called yoga” (Prabhupada 166). Thus, being emotionally balanced and unattached from the feelings and external factors allows an individual to engage in the practice of yoga. Thus, following these guidelines, one might eventually obtain true enlightenment.
The enlightenment is only available to the individuals who comply with the strict requirements and complete all of the steps necessary to achieve the enlightening goal. As stated above, the practice of the four yoga methods with the conscious mind, dis-attachment from the outer world, and balanced attitude allows an individual to attain enlightenment. Indeed, “having accepted strict vows, some become enlightened by sacrificing their possessions, and others by performing severe austerities, by practicing the yoga of eightfold mysticism, or by studying the Vedas to advance in transcendental knowledge” (Prabhupada 309). Moreover, in Bhagavad-gita, it is explained that even for a devoted believer, mere belief is not enough to obtain true enlightenment, which is why the achievement of this goal requires significant sacrifices (Prabhupada 533). In such a manner, the opportunity for enlightenment is available to everyone who desires to unite with Krishna. However, it is accessible only to those few who succeed in following the rules and demonstrating true integrity and sincere abiding by the strict guidelines presented explicitly and implicitly in the text of Bhagavad-gita.
Given such a complicated yet understandable path toward enlightenment, one might state that this journey is not an easy one. As the text of Bhagavad-gita demonstrates, it is rather difficult to succeed and achieve enlightenment. Indeed, the complexity and relative unattainability of the yoga methods has been claimed in the text of Bhagavad-gita. Arjuna said to Krishna that the system of yoga was “impractical and unendurable” because his mind was “restless and unsteady” (Prabhupada 37). In response to such a claim, Krishna states that “of all the yogis, the one with great faith who always abides in Me, thinks of Me within himself,” and renders loving service as the highest (Prabhupada 37). Such an individual unites with Krishna and breaks the cycle of death and rebirth. Therefore, to stop reincarnation and obtain access to Paradise, an individual should adhere to the rules and methods of enlightenment by practicing the four types of yoga and using the conscious mind. Although it might not be easy, the guidelines are simple and available to all the people who want to know Krishna.
In summation, the exploration of the concept of enlightenment and the textual guidance on how to attain it has unfolded several pivotal points from Bhagavad-gita. In the logically unfolding dialogue, Krishna educates Arjuna on the methods of yoga, which are the practices that are necessary to achieve enlightenment. The following strict rules of believing in the divine essence of Krishna make it possible for people to free themselves from the cycle of reincarnation and stop deaths and rebirths. Overall, the path toward enlightenment is paved by devotion, transcendental knowledge, virtue development, meditation, and the abandonment of the attachment to the material world. Although the rules and requirements of achieving enlightenment are difficult and strict, this experience is available to everyone who proves with their practice that they deserve Paradise.
Rajandran, Kumaran. “From Matter to Spirit: Metaphors of Enlightenment in Bhagavad-gita.” GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies, vol. 17, no. 2, 2017, pp. 163-176.