Category: Enlightenment

The work is concerned to set forth the miserable conditions of man, his weakness, pride, and vanity, his unmeasurable desires, the prevalency oh his passions, the corruption of reason. -Swift during a sermon.

Gulliver in his travels through the four books gains a lot of new experiences and perspective on life and his way of seeing the world. Swift has used the element of these adventures to criticize England in the eighteenth century and humankind in general. It seems at first glimpse that the enlightenment of the early 18th century relied more on logic and reason rather than emotion, but the lust for more knowledge by pushing experimentation to its limits and the need for dominion over new people in new worlds says otherwise.

In book three Gulliver points out that he felt that the minds of the residents of Laputa were so taken up with intense speculations, that they neither could speak, nor attend to the discourses of others, without being roused by some external action. Finding reason through science according to Swift was beyond ones capability. Swift here has used Gulliver as a mouthpiece. His contemporaries argued that Swift’s thought process bing a christian divine might have also had a strong influence.

The part also talked about the interconnectedness between all the advancements and music and astrology, all being important themes of the time Swift wrote Gulliver’s Travels. This also brought out the ironical bigotry practice by people in Swift’s world. For he gives the example of a lord who was universally reckoned stop, unwise and ignorant simply because he didn’t have an ear for music or the correct skills for maths even though he had offered many services to the crown.

Swift also points out a state of impossibility that humans have been trying to reach through the university of Lagado where the residents were trying to achieve unachievable goals, like turning feces back to food and reviving a dead dog by blowing air into it. While Swift was writing this similar experiment on a d go were being conducted later of which inspired Mary Shelley to write Frankenstein.

In book four Gulliver, after interacting with the yahoos, sees them as very foolish and frankly annoying beings. Upon meeting the houyhnhnms however, he realizes that he and his entire race are in fact yahoos. The foolishness of their meaningless experiments, their earthly desires brought about by uncontrolled emotion, are all characteristics as yahoos, making them unfit to govern themselves and unable to lead a truly successful society. This is Swift’s way of showing the futility of the so-called progress being made at the time.

The houyhnhnms themselves being void of emotion that would otherwise lead them to silly conquests rule without turmoil and without tyranny. Being void of emotion is, of course, impossible, so this shows that men in their foolishness will never be able to successfully govern themselves. This shows another side of Swift’s argument that suggested the enlightenment thinkers, instead of directing their experiments and discoveries toward possible progress, actually were only performing them for personal gain and domination.

These horses represented the philosophers of the time that Swift saw as the only reasonable people that had a chance of creating a successful society, but because of the popularity of the enlightenment they were overpowered by the experimental thinkers, or Swift’s yahoos.

This satirical adventure written to portray human folly in the enlightenment was written to serve as a mirror to those experimental thinkers just as the yahoos were a metaphorical mirror to Gulliver. Rather than conforming to the common view that the enlightenment was going to send man into an era of progress, Swift attacked this mode of thinking through the ridiculousness and exaggeration of human characteristics and the events that followed as a result.

A lot of scientific advancements were taking place at the time and It is through the use of these veiled attacks on the ideas popularly held and often worshipped by society that satire had its greatest effect upon it. It destroyed the conceptions and opinions people have of various things through metaphor, comparison and by making ludicrous what is held dear indirectly which then used to a growing sense of finding reason and progressing through science.

The Enlightenment was a consequential movement that allowed some power to be taken away from the government and the church, and in return gave more power to the people. This movement resulted in the major influence of democracy and completely changed the way nations were governed. However, it took many new ideas and solutions to eventually allow the enlightenment to work efficiently, and it all started with the Renaissance.

The Renaissance was a period of time between the 14th and 17th century where the central idea of life was humanism. Humanism was the belief that people had the potential to achieve excellence and was the beginning of major support for education in the liberal arts. Humanists strongly believed God created the world for a reason and that people could choose their own destiny. The Renaissance forever changed the way that art, music, and literature were portrayed in society. The renaissance artists developed a linear perspective and the idealization of the human body in art. This different style of liberal arts was one of the main reasons art became so popularized during this era. It was viewed very highly by society. Following the Renaissance movement was the Protestant Reformation Revolution which was the second step in the process of achieving the main goals of the enlightenment.

The Protestant Reformation was a revolution that took place in the Western church throughout the 16th century. It initially started to change the beliefs and practices of the Catholic church but eventually ended up establishing Protestant churches instead. Many people believed that the church was not following the practices and other ideas that they supposedly believed. One example of the practices not followed was the sale of indulgences, which was the relief of punishment due to sins that have been committed. When people began noticing the corruption in the Catholic Church, some people saw a need to change the way it worked. A monk, known as Martin Luther became the spokesperson of the reformation regarding the churches and he succeeded because his ideas appealed to people of all classes. The three major outcomes of the reformation were that the Roman Catholic church became more unified, Protestants gave more emphasis to the role of education in promoting their beliefs, and individual monarchs and states gained power. The Protestant Reformation helped trigger the start of the Enlightenment and made people start questioning the teachings and power of the Catholic Church, which made people look to new ideas for the answers to life.

The last movement that led to the enlightenment was known as the scientific revolution. The scientific revolution began in the late 1500s and changed the way that people thought and lived drastically. People began questioning, observing, and experimenting with things they didn’t quite understand thoroughly, such as the ideas behind philosophy, astronomy, and biology and how they led to many modern sciences that we now have today. The scientific revolution inevitably led to the enlightenment because it made people think, question, and use reason to argue and gain knowledge on certain subjects. People challenged traditional ideals and began moving towards modernism. The Enlightenment was not just created from one event, or one thought – but instead it is derived from multiple different movements and cultures that eventually made people change their way of life.

The thirteenth century Japanese Zen master, Dogen Zenji, had the advantage of looking back at eighteen centuries of the development of Buddhist though and practice. Dogen was well informed of earlier Chinese Zen developments, and his writings and teachings show that he was on intimidate terms with the great Zen teachers of the Chinese lineage. One area of Dogen’s teachings that is particularly worthwhile to take note of is his teachings and writings about practice and the nature of Enlightenment because one can see how Dogen had taken the teachings of his predecessors and remolded it with his owns. Dogen’s teachings originated from the ideas of Hui-neng, Bodhidharma, and other great Zen Masters, but at the same time one can witness the depth and subtly of Dogen’s own though as he goes beyond what his predecessors taught.

Enlightenment is commonly seen as a spiritual breakthrough experience in Zen Buddhism. Scriptures and writings often state how Shakyamuni Buddha, upon days and days of rigorous meditation, had suddenly realized that everything surrounding him had attained Buddhahood, thus he became enlightened. There have been stories of monks who had experienced some sort of dramatic shift in consciousness after an intense pursuit for such transformative experience. In Zen Buddhism, these stories have been studied as cases of obtaining the great enlightenment. In the Lin Chi and Rinzai schools, such stories are used as koans to help the monks break through their conventional thinking that is confined by the barrier of dualism. Dogen, like every other Zen master, often quoted such stories of enlightenment and incorporated it into his teachings, but unlike the Lin Chi and Rinzai schools, Dogen did not rely on koans in his teachings and practice, but instead used zazen mediation. On one side of the coin is Dogen’s teaching where one practices the way of awakening, and experiences enlightenment moment after moment, but on the other side is Lin Chi and Rinzai’s teaching that one has to endure a long and hard time to achieve a breakthrough. But which side is correct? In fact, they can both be correct, seeing as how one can achieve enlightenment either way as stated by Dogen, “Actually, the meaning of studying sutras is that if you understand and follow the rules of practice for sudden or gradual realization taught by the buddha, you will mistakenly attain enlightenment” (Transmission of the Teaching 148).

Surprisingly, Dogen never directly responded to the controversy concerning whether obtaining enlightenment is a sudden or gradual process, but throughout his numerous teachings and writings, one can come to a sort of conclusion as to what Dogen may believe the process is. In China and Japan, there were two different views on the attainment of enlightenment, the Northern school viewed the process as a sudden event while the Southern school viewed it as a gradual process.

It is understandable as to why some people may believe that Dogen promoted gradual enlightenment because the Soto style does seem to take on a gradualist approach to the topic. Dogen’s teachings was very demanding of zazen practice in contrast to the teachings of Rinzai Zen, where it had taken more of a relaxed and apathy approach to practice, but the constant ongoing practice of zazen does not mean it is a gradual approach. Viewing zazen practice as such is to completely miss the purpose of its intensity. Enlightenment in Soto Zen can be characterized on as “enlightenment from the beginning”, whereas Rinzai’s was “enlightenment with a beginning”. It can be said that the former places more of a stress on gradual process in enlightenment because it is as stating that enlightenment is starting from a fixed point and continuing on whereas the latter stresses a sudden experience of enlightenment since it is as stating the enlightenment is starting somewhere and sometime.

Based on the characterization made, if zazen practice is considered as a means to which one can obtain eventual enlightenment, then it can be assumed that Soto Zen is the process of gradual enlightenment. But if one views zazen as such, then it is like the notion of mediation gives the impression that the self-purification will culminate into a transformation, thus one can will attain enlightenment. The problem lies within the interpretation of Dogen’s teachings, because while there are some elements of gradualism in his teachings, there is also some subitism. Another part of the problem lies within the fact that enlightenment is thought of as a temporal state.

While many believe that the effect of enlightenment is sudden, the principle of gradual enlightenment was help by some Buddhists. Mahayana Buddhism refined the nature of the goal to an even greater extent. The goal was no longer purification, but more of a sudden perception of the universal emptiness which lies the nature of morals and faults. By realizing such emptiness, those faults are removed. Even though such perception is sudden, it can be debated that the progress is gradual not because whether the transformative even per se is sudden but rather whether it is necessary to undergo some sort of purification process prior to such enlightenment.

Throughout the centuries, Zen Buddhism in China had undergone several important developments, which eventually led to issue of whether enlightenment is sudden or gradual. According to the newly modeled ideals in China, the meditation of the mind-body leads to enlightenment whereas some people can achieve rapid results in mediation while others may not. Therefore, while the enlightenment is always sudden, some people attain the sudden enlightenment quickly while others may take eons and eons to achieve the same sudden enlightenment. Thus, one can conclude that the enlightenment is sudden for both types of individuals, not gradual. Even though some may require longer time to prepare for the sudden enlightenment, others may not. So, what does this mean for the nature of enlightenment in Dogen’s writing?

Dogen inherited centuries of continental tradition, but his teachings concerning enlightenment can only be appreciated when discussed against his predecessors’ teachings since this is what defines Dogen more as an innovator rather than an inheritor. Dogen developed his own unique teaching concerning practice and enlightenment. Dogen’s teachings particularly concentrate on zazen. If zazen is a means for attaining enlightenment, then what is the point of it for someone who already attained enlightenment? Dogen states that practice and enlightenment are identical, and that practice and realization are one. “Because practice of the present moment is practice-realization the practice of beginner’s mind is itself the entire original realization” (On The Endeavor 151)

Thus, one can see the relationship between practice and enlightenment as Dogen taught it. Practice is not a means to attain enlightenment, but it is that which measures one’s already existent enlightenment. In fact, Dogen states that zazen practice is enlightenment. Practice is an intrinsic realization whereas zazen is simply the way such realization manifests itself. The realization takes the form of dispassion and clarity in the activity of zazen. Consequently, a distinction can be made between practice and realization now; when one is present, so is the other. In Dogen’s view, enlightenment does not occur as a distinct event at the end of one’s long journey of the Bodhisattva. In fact, enlightenment Is present even in those who have not started practice, but only through practice can one realize that they are enlightened. There are numerous teachings that equate enlightenment as events or states of minds, and Dogen believes that all of these are equivalent to realization and Buddhahood because all of those events or states of mind are concrete manifestations of the transcendent which is the actualization of Buddha nature. With this being the case, for Dogen, zazen is no longer thought as an activity that nurtures one’s inner latent spiritual self. Instead, Dogen states “Zazen is, rather, an activity through which we testify to, actualize or realize that which we really are, total, at all times.” Therefore, what it means to be enlightened, is not transforming oneself gradually or even suddenly, but instead a matter of self-authentication, meaning being one’s authentic self, that which is one’s Buddha self, which can be done through the process of zazen.

For Dogen, the overwhelming emphasis in his teaching is on practice rather than finding a way to attain enlightenment, which is what makes his Zen Buddhism unique. The reason why practice is held to such a high standard by Dogen is because through practice does one realize their Buddha self and such realization is what Dogen associates to enlightenment. But one cannot stop once thieve achieved their actualization, their practice must continue because such realization must be repeated over and over again for each new event that occurs. Prior to practice, there is no realization, thus one’s Buddhahood cannot be actualized. Only when one begins to practice, even just a little, will their actualization materialize.

In a way, there is some sort of gradualistic approach in Dogen’s teachings of practice, but at the same time each realization is timeless. Thus, while there is a gradualistic notion to such realization, it cannot simply be either gradual or sudden. The whole nature of Dogen’s enlightenment can be best acquainted to the process of constant sudden realizations, thus combining the two notions of gradual and sudden enlightenment.

Enlighteners were encyclopedically educated people. Many of them openly opposed the feudal state. Some even paid with imprisonment in the Bastille, they even emigrated to other areas of the country. But despite this, they did not stop their struggle with noble prejudices and the arbitrariness of the authorities. The Catholic Church was especially hated by the majority of enlightenment writers. the enlighteners of France and England exposed parasitism, some of them came to atheism. Enlightenment still could not see the representatives of the bourgeois classes.

The most radical of them taught that after the abolition of serfdom and the abolition of autocratic monarchical power, the eternal kingdom of Freedom, Equality, Brotherhood, Harmony in human life will come.

Enlighteners called for the judgment of Reason. Everything that could not prove the rationality of its existence was to perish. The idea of ​​the self-worth of the human person, the slogan – no differences other than virtues and talents – were of great importance at that time; they revolutionized the consciousness of society.

Features of the development of educational literature and art of England of the XVIII century. explained by the specifics of its historical development. The bourgeois revolution took place here as early as the 17th century. Therefore, the English Enlightenment is developing under the conditions of an already victorious bourgeois system. However, this does not mean that in England the enlighteners did not have to struggle with remnants of feudalism.

The periodization of the literature of the English Enlightenment can be proposed as follows: the first period (1688 – 1730) – enlightening aesthetic thought is still gaining strength. The second period (1730-1750) – The greatest flowering of Enlightenment fiction. The third period (1750 – 1780) – the heyday of sentimentalism. By the end of the third period, a crisis of educational ideology sets in, leading to a decline in educational literature and art.

Despite the fact that, on the whole, the English Enlightenment is more moderate than the French (or even German) one, since it develops under the conditions of an already victorious bourgeois system, nevertheless throughout the eighteenth century. The critical wing of the English Enlightenment at the first stage should include the poet Pop and the novelist Defoe.

D. Defoe took an active part in the struggle of political parties, published a magazine and created novels and pamphlets; he lived a tumultuous life: he was in prison, stood at the pillory, gained the national honor and love. In 1719, when Defoe was 59 years old, the first part of Robinson Crusoe appeared, making his name immortal. The second part of the novel was published in 1720, the third – in 1721, Defoe gave the novel as a genuine memoir of Robinson himself

In Robinson, enlightened ideas about the “natural man” are embodied in his relationship with nature.

Robinson’s diary summarizes the “balance” of the positive and negative sides of his position. Defoe also put into the image of Robinson the most sincere moods and thoughts. Robinson appears in the central part of the novel as bold and active. Robinson has to spend a whole year to cut his spears and erect a fence around his home; with incredible effort he makes a table and chair, makes a wooden shovel. A terrible collapse half destroys his cave; his first crop dies from drought; he himself develops a debilitating fever. He risks his life to save people unknown to him (Friday, ship’s captain, Spaniards). The second and third parts of Robinson Crusoe, both in depth of content and in artistic level, are significantly inferior to the first. They are talking about the life and work of Robinson after he left the island – about his trade trips to India, China and Siberia. The third part of Robinson contains the didactic arguments of bourgeois Robinson about life. The language of the novel is remarkable for its simplicity and clarity. It gives the impression of the complete truthfulness of the author, striving step by step to reproduce his former life. Defoe’s psychological prowess also deserves attention; both central images are convincing and real.

In conclusion, I want to say that the educator Defoe in his work called for the judgment of the Mind. The protagonist of the work is the embodiment of ‘natural man.’ Robinson dreams about when the eternal kingdom of Freedom, Equality, Brotherhood, Harmony in the life of people will come. And everything that could not prove the rationality of its existence was supposed to perish.

Enlightenment in English Society

‘No arts; no letters; no society; and which is worst of all continual fear and danger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short’ – Thomas Hobbes 1588- 1679

The Renaissance, the Protestant Reformation, and the invention of the printing press all led to free-thinking, reasoning and questioning of authority, religion, science and our place and roles within humanity. This in turn led to the period of history known as the Enlightenment.

The Enlightenment or what some call the ‘Age of reason’ was a 17th and 18th-century European intellectual movement that transformed and challenged society’s ideas, traditions and preconceptions through transforming our understanding and knowledge of the universe and the world around us.

Knowledge itself is power- Sir Frances Bacon, Meditationes Sacrae (1597)

So to what extent did the Enlightenment change English society and culture? During the Enlightenment, England it seemed became the blueprint for how intellectual, political, scientific and social growth and ideas were done. The English Civil war can be seen by some as where ideas of The Enlightenment first began to emerge. On one side we had the royalists, aristocrats and gentry landowners who supported King Charles I and his right to rule independently without Parliament. On the other side we had the Parliamentarians who were mainly tradesmen and smaller landowners who disliked Charles religious and financial policies. The execution of Charles I and the defeat of his son caused Parliament a political problem as England was now a republic and how could a revolution be preserved when the majority of England’s population disliked it?

The Civil war, the restoration of the monarchy and the glorious revolution of 1688 led to many changes within Parliament and the monarchy. The signing of The English Bill of Rights which created a constitutional monarchy where Parliament’s power is elevated and the King and queen act as heads of state but their powers are limited by law was created after the revolution. It is thought that the English Bill of rights was the inspiration for the 1789 U.S Bill of Rights.

So who were the great thinkers of the English enlightenment, whose ideas influenced and changed society, its traditions and ideals?

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

Thomas Hobbes was a historian, scientist and political philosopher who advocated the idea of the absolutism of the sovereign. In 1640 due to the long Parliament and his views and championing of royal absolutism Hobbes escaped to France where as well as tutoring The Prince of Wales (later Charles II) in mathematics he became conversant with a group of philosophers that included Descartes. In his 1651 masterpiece Leviathan, he set out his doctrine of the foundation of states and legitimate governments. Leviathan was written during The English Civil war and is considered as one of the earliest examples of social contract theory and argues for a social contract and rule by absolute sovereign. Hobbes believed that the monarchy was the best government on the grounds of reasoned right and not divine right. Many were influenced by Hobbes philosophies such as Immanuel Kant and John Locke.

John Locke (1632-1704)

Although Hobbes and Locke’s ideals lay in the social contract theory, they differ in their opinion on the absolutism of the sovereign. Locke explains in his work The Second Treatise of Government that he believed that sovereignty resided within the people and he believed in a constitutional monarchy, he believed a contract could exist between the monarchy and its subjects in some form.

In his philosophies Locke advocates religious toleration even though in his Letter Concerning Toleration, he contradicts his assumptions of religion being a matter for the individual and that places of worship are voluntary organisations, by denying tolerance to the intolerant (namely Catholics who he did not like). It seems as though Locke contradicted himself a lot, his philosophy of natural rights states that individuals have the right to protect their life, health, liberty and possessions. If this was his philosophy why was he an investor (through the Royal African Company) of the English slave trade, and in the constitution he drafted for Shaftesbury why did he give a master complete power over his slaves?

Locke’s idea that the duty of the government is to protect the natural rights of its people in his work Second Treatise of Government were said to have greatly influenced Thomas Jefferson as he drafted the Declaration of Independence.

Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

Sir Isaac Newton came to be the figurehead that best represented Britain during the Enlightenment. His contributions and theories to the sciences and scientific method by showing how the world and universe works, have been used by many scientists and thinkers and are still used and taught today in schools all over the world. Other Philosophers saw Newton as the man that embodied the spirit, thoughts and ideas of the Enlightenment. Voltaire an ardent admirer was instrumental in popularising Newton’s theories in France. As Peter Gay wrote “the propagandists of the Enlightenment were French, but its patron saints and pioneers were British: Bacon, Newton, And Locke….”

Had God intended Women merely as a finer sort of Cattle, he would not have made them reasonable – Bathsua Makin, an essay to revive the ancient education of gentlewoman, 1673

We know a lot about the men whose ideas shaped and changed English society and culture during the Enlightenment but what about the women who contributed as well? Modern history is seen as starting around the 1500s and at that time women’s roles within society were different to what they are now, women during the Enlightenment were not seen as equal to men. Although there has always been strong women throughout history, it has not always been linear, without those women who pushed against society’s expectations of them would the modern world be what it is today? Wealthy women during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries used their homes as places of intellectual debate or employed tutors so as to pursue their academic interests. Others might have become patrons to those men who became renowned for their discoveries, ideas and philosophies. A lot of other women may have helped a husband, brother or another relative by helping to carry out research on their behalf thus being able to engage on a seemingly practical level while indulging in their own intellectual needs.

Mary Sidney Herbert; Countess of Pembroke (1561-1621)

Mary Sidney Herbert also known as the Countess of Pembroke was the wife of Henry Herbert, Earl of Pembroke one of the richest men in England. Mary received an outstanding education for a women of her time and became a patron to many, turning her home into a literary and scientific centre that became known as the ‘Wilton Circle’. In her laboratory that she had a Wilton house she developed medicines and invisible ink, showing she was a woman of many intellectual talents. Mary became regarded as one of the most significant poets by authors of her time such as John Bodenham in his verse miscellany, Belvedere.

Margaret Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle (1623-1673)

Margaret Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle was a philosopher, writer of biographies, fiction and poetry as well as a scientist, who when publishing her works did so under her own name and not anonymously like most women of her time did. Margaret was viewed as being eccentric and was unfortunately known as ‘mad Marge’ due in part no doubt to her behaviour (she was accused of using obscenities in her speech and of being very flirtatious) which would have been seen as unbecoming and unladylike for the time. A lot of her work was not well received, Samuel Pepys made fun of her and confided in his diary that she was ‘Possessed of a dress so antic and a deportment so ordinary that, I do not like her at all’ and some scholars have argued that her views were odd or even childish, while others have claimed that they were shaped by her gender-based status as a scientific outsider.

Elizabeth Tollet (1694-1754)

Elizabeth Tollet was a poet whose poems not only covered a wide range of topics from religion, through to philosophy, science, and women’s education but also have proven invaluable to reconstructing her life. Her poem Hypatia is seen as a feminist protest poem and the opening lines seem to reflect a view of women being oppressed and seen as nothing more than vapid servile homemakers until old age renders them useless.

Hypatia

What cruel laws depress the female kind,

To humble cares and servile tasks confined!

In gilded toys their florid bloom to spend,

And empty glories that in age must end;

Elizabeth was also, according to Patricia Fara, new Newtonian women who; ‘As a Woman who wrote about Newton and incorporated scientific imagery in her poetry, she provided an unusually early example of an eighteenth-century woman who were starting not only to learn about natural philosophy but also to affect its inclusion into polite culture’

At a time where women were not allowed entry into university, through her poetry Tollet was able to educate other women about the natural world even if she did publish her poetry anonymously to protect her reputation.

Although I have focused on women during the Enlightenment more than the men I do feel that events leading up to the seventeenth and eighteenth century had already started to provide the means for an intellectual and scientific movement. Social norms were starting to change, the church and the monarchy were no longer as powerful as in previous centuries, the Enlightenment thinking of understanding and improving the world saw fears of witchcraft decline with the last person to be sentenced to death for witchcraft in England in 1712.

More prominent members of English society already had a voice (mainly a male Aristocratic voice) and a platform from which to pursue their ideas. Lesser members of society were starting to become more open to exploring ideas through reading, writing, discussion and public debate. No longers were intellectual discussions and pursuits confined to the universities and houses of the wealthy, instead of coffee houses, societies and clubs and other public establishments that had sprung up, gave all members of English society a chance to be seen as each other’s equals. In England over 300,000 books were published between 1660 and 1800, reading became a source of liberation, writers no longer relied on the patronage of the wealthy. In 1771 the first newspaper, the Norwich post was printed followed by other newspapers and in 1744 the first magazine the Female Spectator was published, written by and for women.

Things that distinguished each social class from the other became less clear than before; ‘visitors found it unsettling that in coffee houses, parks theatres or pleasure gardens such as the famous Vauxhall and Ranelagh they could not judge the status by outward appearance, and so risked encountering social inferiors’. The changes that were happening must have left our European neighbors bewildered but in turn with the Enlightenment, England started to become a country whose ideas, ideals, government, religious tolerance and liberty in turn laid the foundation for the French revolution and for American independence.

This midterm paper would tell about the thoughts of Thomas Hobbes, associate their context to modernity, why Thomas Hobbes thought can be considered modernity and to end of the paper, it would discuss the nature of modernity and how the thoughts of modernity affect such scholars; Thomas Hobbes.

Who was Thomas Hobbes? According (Introduction to the thoughts of Thomas Hobbes, 2020) He is a sage philosopher of the year 1588-1679 He is one of England’s extremely rational dogmatic scholars; A specific assessment that he owns anticipated remarkably liberal scholar of his moment created upon the discrete strategy for geometry; his political concept should uncover political sentiments alongside the certainty of geometric records; Such a science Thomas require by his related English citizens; He is a scholar of history an elitist, especially his notable work The Leviathan Hobbes insists that absolutist organization is the finest kind of Institution or the total government. Thomas Hobbes agrees to use it for the resistance that political errors and clashes, they find it can trigger of why the state can be destroyed.

According to (Introduction to the thoughts of Thomas Hobbes, 2020) Thomas shows he is the major dogmatic scholar by giving the concepts of ethics, sovereignty, and citizenship. Thomas Hobbes considered that his coherent radical theory as the preparation that would generate or upgrade political arrangement vesting to set up independent, danger-free, and see the state’s value.

Hobbes contributes the relevant degree of governmental issues that are easy way clearer to comprehend than persons of the past and throughout this, it would succeed the said objectives (Introduction to the thoughts of Thomas Hobbes, 2020) added that the scholar argues that entities are not government aware of the state of nature he supposed about a condition of war. The people must set up an institution that considers personal voice with others that accept fundamental rationality among its co-individuals. This was examining on leviathan 1651 (H, n.d.), which gives a thought of what Hobbes notions. According to (Bristow, 2017) The context of Hobbes is in the time of Enlightenment when the basic war in England is happening (Introduction to the thoughts of Thomas Hobbes, 2020).

Along these lines, therefore, the context of Hobbes is the creature who can have absolute power and to be the sovereign it is head of state which I consider the leviathan is that who asserts social contract and absolute power (Hobbes, The Leviathan). One theory of Hobbes is the nature of man is they’re observational or being pragmatic (discusses the mood of understanding); he expresses an individual has its passion that it shows our self-interest aside which also makes the human mind run as indicated by Hobbes inside the condition of war (Introduction to the thoughts of Thomas Hobbes, 2020) (Hobbes, The Leviathan, 1651);

According to (Hobbes, The Leviathan, 1651) it is ‘ nasty, brutish, poor and short” He imparts there’s nothing right or wrong since you have the force or the power which will turn to be feared; According to (Hobbes, The Leviathan) there, no incredibly such thing as liberty since it may result to individuals they will afraid thus the significant liberty is the place you have controls or limitations. he establishes a Social contract; is to offer a couple of rights that are self-saving and it guarantees to individuals; The leviathan is ‘sovereign’ to offer amity and requesting and offer insistence of the people that they’re secure as per (Hobbes, The Leviathan); The leviathan is that the response of Hobbes to fear while confronting the political clash of ordinary war; If the individuals decide to ask for peace; it is essential to succeed also; maintain. It is situated only step to attain peace is to give away the natural right to attain to preserve everything, according to Hobbes, he specifies; it must be a mutual effort If everyone approves to act on the same thing so if then, It proves a point to surrender the liberty to harm others.

According to (Hobbes, The Leviathan, 1651) he establishes that contains human liberty as a social contract. According to (Hobbes, The Leviathan, 1651) social contract upturns the so-called state of nature which forms called; the passions that are running the mind of an individual to the state of nature; Concerning the obligations of moral, it specifies non-appearance of obligation, individuals act under the rules, and individuals who didn’t follow rules because they follow one who is exposed in power; In that sense, it shows how powerful are the obligations than rights;

(Hobbes, The Leviathan, 1651) thought that it is a rational means to maintain individuality as well as guards the obtain goods According to (Hobbes, The Leviathan, 1651), the law of nature is not responsible for the state of nature, thus (Hobbes, The Leviathan, 1651) specifies that looking for peace along with maintaining pacts on the part of the state of nature can be self-damaging and illogical. (Hobbes, The Leviathan, 1651) states that behaving that is not under the rules is not logically can be called; unnatural or unjust. According to (Hobbes, The Leviathan, 1651) nobody can be considered certainly right, wrong or can be blamed; He added that Justice occurs only as a convention, specifically in the settings of the civil nation.

According to (Introduction to the thoughts of Thomas Hobbes, 2020) Thomas highlights the absolute power in his work (Hobbes, The Leviathan, 1651) which the sovereign of the leviathan appears Hobbes is implying his idea with the liberal notion Wherein institution is there dedicated to the individual’s civil liberty security. However, Thomas Hobbes’s state of nature is where the humans aspiring for security, and specify the responsibility of the institution which is to satisfy the individuals and fulfill their needs; The individual always seeks (Hobbes, The Leviathan, 1651); for their desires and that’s how to obtain their pleasures; (Hobbes, The Leviathan, 1651)

According to (Hobbes, The Leviathan, 1651), human in the society has no natural responsibility for other people or the common good. Moreover, he specifies that he keeps holding the natural right to secure oneself even though he joins to the commonwealth because as said a while ago, individuals are self-preserving and always seek their self-interest (Hobbes, The Leviathan, 1651); His political theory dispatches the contention that the individual has a sacred right ordinarily and recommends that governmental issues exist to help further the person’s quest for his bliss. Hobbes starts the liberal idea of agent government speaks to however doesn’t manage as it should make our lives and acquisitions safe not to frame our spirits (Hobbes, The Leviathan, 1651). Hobbes’ political thoughts excited a lot of discussion in his time, and they keep on being disagreeable. Some can’t help contradicting Hobbes’ case that governmental issues ought to be seen basically as an instrument to serve personal responsibility and side with Aristotle in believing that legislative issues serve both essential needs and higher finishes. our political skylines (Introduction to the thoughts of Thomas Hobbes, 2020).

The context of Thomas Hobbes can be associate to modern, why? As said to the previous paragraphs the context of Hobbes is in the time of Enlightenment in which it is concentrating on force and the common good of an individual

According to (Bristow, 2017), enlightenment is about the progression of social and pious expansion. The enlightenment is also about the awakening of the individuals wherein the individuals is self-seeking. Thus, according to (Kumar, 2016) modernity is also about the progress of social and pious expansion because in modernity there the idea of religion. Similarity where the modernity keeps on enlightening or waking the mind of the people, in terms like in institutions, rulers of the nation, and the people around them that is self-seeking. In modernity, this where the individualization come in, where in people tend to act on their own to achieve the desires and that is one that makes drive their action because of the desires.

Example would be, the term “leviathan” is located at the bible, and according to (Introduction to the thoughts of Thomas Hobbes, 2020) the background of Thomas Hobbes, Thomas Hobbes gave a claim God’s presence, he believes that God is existing, and he also claims that God is the reason of everything what is happening and what we have where the rising of religious belief is in the modern.

I would give reason why the context of Thomas Hobbes can be correlate with modernity; firstly, because According to (Introduction to the thoughts of Thomas Hobbes, 2020) the context of Thomas Hobbes in the age of Enlightenment, as written above it is about the progress that has a goal to awake the minds of the individuals to everything, in which the modernity also.

Secondly, According to (Hobbes, The Leviathan, 1651) Thomas Hobbes is Empiricist where he believes that everything is in motion, things can’t move with the cause, In example, According to (Bristow, 2017) Thomas Hobbes form a law wherein he claim that God’s existence Tis true, and he believe that God is the cause of everything that results what we are now.

Thirdly, I believe that Enlightenment is where the individualization comes in because it is another idea of Enlightenment, and modernity also has it features of individualization, fourthly, since Thomas Hobbes is Empiricist I believe that he also uses Science wherein modernity also uses science. And lastly, one central idea of Hobbes is about modern political problems. the one To sum up the ideas that be correlate modernity to the context of Thomas Hobbes; the features of enlightenment and modernity has its similarity, and according to (Bristow, 2017) enlightenment is the making of modern, like it is the continuation of enlightenment where in the idea of enlightenment is developing (Kumar, 2016).

How the thoughts of modernity affect Thomas Hobbes. according to (Kumar, 2016), the essence of modernity has the power that is responsive, it is originated to the power through comparing and finding similarities, also through not accepting what happen before.

According to (Kumar, 2016), The modernity also is a manner of individualization where in humans act on their own to attain their desires, they act as individual rather than as a community in getting what they desire; another manner of modernity is when humans actions are guided by the practices, modern government are controlled by the basic laws and guidelines that can obtain authority with the assistance of science. In the means they aren’t the ones who is in the religious area with the dogmatic power, but it is corresponding to the humans do something logical and guided by the teachings articulated by “professional”

I believe that it affects Thomas Hobbes in way the works of Hobbes was being studied and used in modernity. In example to it, according to (Wandrei, 2019) Thomas Hobbes in indirect way impacted the authors of the United States, who, in the Announcement of Independence and the Statute, broadcast another sort of legislative issue dependent on equity and assent in which government serves moderately restricted and famous points. The America institution is guided by the Enlightenment scholars – Thomas Hobbes is one of them. Even though Hobbes’ ideas are not in favor to America beliefs. The notions of Thomas like the social compact, fairness and freedom encourage the America to the announcement of Autonomy and its statute. It involves Thomas Hobbes in a way that some citizens felt that the notions of Thomas was crazy, and many oppose to his notions (Wandrei, 2019).

In conclusion, Thomas Hobbes is terrific in generating books like leviathan that argue that entities can’t stay alive without an institution (Hobbes, The Leviathan, 1651), and in what manner Thomas Hobbes argues that people are self-pursuing, self-sustaining to attain the particular aspirations and that makes them act out, aspirations. The context of Hobbes is in the age of enlightenment where in it consolidate the notion of modern political crises. The correlation of modernism and the perspective of Thomas Hobbes, wherein according to (Bristow, 2017) Enlightenment is the making of the modern. Furthermore, according to (Wandrei, 2019) Hobbes dogma alter to structure the US independence and they believed of Hobbes notion as a steer towards to create a statute.

References:

1. Wandrei, K. (2019, January 10). Thomas Hobbes’ Importance in American Government. Retrieved March 20, 2020, from https://www.theclassroom.com/thomas-hobbes-importance-american-government-22001.html
2. Hobbes, Thomas. (1651). Leviathan. London: Printed for A. Crooke. Retrieved from 10.5479/sil.59773.39088001833995
3. Great Thinkers. (2020). Introduction to Thomas Hobbes. Retrieved March 17, 2020, from https://thegreatthinkers.org/hobbes/introduction/
4. H, W. G. P. O. G. S. O. N. S. M. I. T. (n.d.). HOBBES ’ S LEVIATHAN REPRINTED EDITION OF 1651 H _ s z _ If ‘. KASXIA COLLEGE.
5. Bristow, W. (2017). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved March 17, 2020, from https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2017/entries/enlightenment/
6. Lubienski, Z. (1930). Hobbes’ Philosophy and Its Historical Background. Journal of Philosophical Studies, 5(18), 175-190. Retrieved March 20, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/3745504

In this assignment I will be talking about enlightenment and how sociologists discard women and their main focus is on the man, then I will include how feminist theorists challenge enlightenment representations with their theories about inequality and power. Also including how this affected women throughout. The Enlightenment period was a movement that dominated the world in Europe during the 18th century. Philosophers of the period shared their ideas through meetings at scientific academies, these philosophers were mainly white and male. Men were seen as a representative of rational thought and inhabit areas of understanding. Whereas women were seen as having irrational thought, this led to a distinction of sex and led to the theory that men and women were different based on biological makeup. This introduces how women were represented and had implications for example women weren’t allowed to have the same education as men.

Dualism was also something present during this period and thought the other of ‘man’ was ‘woman’. In the period of dualistic thinking, it was thought that men ‘are masters of mind, culture, and masculinity.’ ‘This positions women as mistresses of passion and emotion’ This in itself explains that women are seen as the subjects of men and how they supposedly think with their hearts. One example of a philosophers in the Enlightenment period who didn’t know the value of women is ‘Immanuel KANT. Kant defines ‘enlightenment’ as the process of man coming to maturity. Another statement he made was that ‘femininity is inappropriate’. Many philosophers including Kant believed women were not capable of reasoning and moral responsibility. Helga Varden’s main interests were Kant and his book ‘political writings’ (1970) and she published ‘KANT and women’ in this she includes that Kant refers to women as ‘passive citizens’ and men as ‘active citizens’. This enforces the distinction of sex and links passiveness to women and the only people contributing to society are men as active can be described as engaging and leads to the idea that women don’t do this.

In a book by Hamilton (1992) ‘enlightenment and the pursuit of modernity’ during this era, it states there was a new mode of thought for man and society and it pushed away from religion. It was more concerned with the ‘emancipation of man from the ties of superstition….’ From the book it was thought that men were unhappy and with the process of enlightenment ‘institutions could make men happier and free them from cruelty, injustice and despotism’. This indicates that they were not concerned with how women felt it was all about the man. This gives a representation that all contributors to enlightenment were male and gives no concern for women.

Furthermore, Genevieve Lloyd is an Australian philosopher, in her book ‘ The man of Reason’ she portrays that western political thought is masculine and highlights the fact that during essential periods women were excluded and this was due to Enlightenment thinkers view on gender roles. In the book feminist methodology’ by Carol et al quotes Lloyd, she explains the view on what individuals thought women’s roles were, e.g. ‘the proper place of women’s knowledge is confinement to the realm of feminine, domestic and maternal in natural subordination to male mastery’. This shows the inequality of where women are positioned in society and they’re only good for domestic purposes. Enlightenment backed this up as there was never talk on how women are affected and their struggle. The main subjects were men and how they were good for knowledge as they were rational and women were supposedly ‘irrational’. On the other hand, the book by Carol et al states that feminism brought dramatic changes e.g. ‘winning political struggles to allow women access to an education.’ Lloyd goes on to say that women have always been thought to be less inferior to men. Philosophers such as Kant and Rousseau and used them as examples she used as their way of thinking was that women were a benefit to the man. Quoting Kant he says ‘a woman who has a head full of Greek… may as well even have a beard….’ This statement enforces the point that women were not taken seriously and did not have the right to express themselves or reason. The section where he says ‘ ..may as well even have a beard’ indicates that he believes only men should reason. ( Kant : 1995b; 581 -2)

Jean Jacques Rousseau ( 1712 -1778) was a philosopher who influenced the progress of the Enlightenment, Rousseau proposed a modern education for men, and women’s role was to strongly be supportive, and this view was strongly supported by his publication of ‘the social contract’ (1762). In this, it was introduced that he admired ‘antique manliness’ and insisted on the subordination of women. This represents that during this era, women were placed in a lower position and did not allow women to be educated as a part of society’s subordination of women to men. Rousseau proposed a modern education for men, and women’s role was to strongly be supportive, and this view was strongly supported by his publication of ‘the social contract’. In this, it was introduced that he admired antique manliness and insisted on the subordination of women. This represents that during this era, women were placed in a lower position and did not allow women to be educated as a part of society’s subordination of women to men.

Moreover, prior to the 18th century, many women gained knowledge from correspondence with males because books were not as accessible to them. A known feminist who criticized a lot of Rousseau’s points was Mary Wollstonecraft, Mary Wollstonecraft (1759 – 1797) was an advocate for women’s rights from the 18th century until the 20th century. She argued that ‘women are not naturally inferior to men, but appear to be only because they lack education.’ She suggests that both men and women should be treated as rational beings and imagines a social order founded on reason. During that period women were not seen to be capable of contributing to society, it was believed women were too fragile to be able to think clearly. She disagreed with Rousseau who believed women were to be enshrined in the home. This relates to Wollstonecraft’s points as she believed that women were not seen as smart as men because they weren’t given the same education. Rousseau’s main point were that women should only be educated on how to please men. Wollstonecraft published ‘A Vindication of the Rights of a Woman’ (1792) where she highlighted what Rousseau states which was ‘woman ought to be weak and passive because she has less bodily strength than man….’ he goes on to say that the whole point of a woman’s life is to be pleasing the man ‘this is her duty.. being the grand end of her existence’. This shows that women were seen as subjective objects and that their only role was to please males. Wollstonecraft says ‘It’s time to effect a revolution in female manners …. Labour by reforming themselves to reform the world’. This highlights that she wants women to become equal members of society and prepare women to contribute more productively to society just as a man do. She also includes ‘I do not wish them to have power over men but over themselves.’ This emphasis that she is not asking for women to dominate however she wants women to be intelligent and rational.

Some implications of seeing women as inferior to men were that in the 1800s women could not vote and it was not until 1918 that a woman was able to vote, even after helping out during the First World War, some men still believed women were not capable of having a say in political affairs. However, they had to be married if they wanted to vote. This proves the point of there being a representation of women that had been embedded in society from earlier periods and allowed them to make a distinction between what men and women could and couldn’t do.

Carol Pateman (1940) is the second feminist that I will be talking about, she believed that liberal democracy was based on an unwritten contract between men from which women are excluded as full potential subjects. Based on her publication of ‘ the sexual contract’ (1988), she considered that this contract was in favor of men and how it aided how men have domination over women and the right to enjoy easy sexual access to women. In her words, the contract ‘is the vehicle through which men transform their natural right over women into the security of a civil patriarchal right’. For example, in the 1980s it was seen that in marriage a man has no limit to access his wife’s body, and denied that rape was possible in marriage. She used the forefathers of Enlightenment such as Weber, Marx, Durkheim, Locke, and many more, and believed that they developed what the freedom and rights were as a woman. To add Rousseau had given ideas for ‘the social contract’ and Pateman believed that women were excluded from this to create a sexual hierarchy.

Emile Durkheim published a book ‘The Division of labor’ and this promoted social solidarity he acknowledged the role of women and how they contribute to society e.g. ‘one sex having taken over the affective, the other the intellectual function.’ However, this exhibits the idea enforced in that era which is that women are more emotional and men more intellectual.

Above it is stated how men could have access to their wives’s bodies, unfortunately in the third world for example countries that are not in Europe and continents such as Africa also had a problem of not seeing women as their equals. For example, Oyeronke Oyewumi published ‘The Invention of women’ (1997) she stated ‘Gender is not a structure in precolonial Yoruba society and women don’t exist as a social category. This highlights that gender inequality is seen around the world and not just in one area. Also ‘the rape of women in colonial societies was a normal part of conquest’. This means that colonized countries had the mindset that women were weak and anything could be done with them, even disposed of. Colonization was already male-dominated and these societies that had been taken over did not know any better but to follow what their oppressors had shown them. The role of the suppression of women in the colonial conquest of the western world included the displacement of women, interiorization, and imposition of the nuclear family. From this era, women in third world countries still suffer and recently there has been the introduction of the me-too movement as a group of men assaulted a woman in India. This movement is a campaign against sexual harassment in the workplace and is evidence that women to this day suffer from harassment.

Mohanty (1994) is a feminist who looked at Western feminism and the ‘third world’, she believed that Western feminists were universalizing their experiences with the third world. In her publication ‘Under Western Eyes (1994) she states ‘Western feminism is its conflation with imperialism in the eyes of particular western women’.This states she thinks that Western feminism is a Western construct and links in with coloniality and imperialism. Taking into account that many national groups have been introduced in continents like Africa and Asia but even western media presents women of this world as oppressed. Which is how Mohanty explains it. ‘A homogenous notion of the oppression of women in the third world’. Recently there have been movements globally for example Me Too movement which originated in the US but has gone to third-world countries trying to be equal to the men and depict that women are not objects. Even from the pre-colonial period to now women still face gender inequality as statistics show’ the gender pay is 18% in favor of men.

In contrast, a feminist sociologist by the name of Marianne Weber published the book ‘Authority and autonomy in Marriage’ (1950). This publication focused on the social location of women in Germany’s patriarchal society, she believed capitalism and modernity opened up opportunities for women that went beyond domestic duties. She acknowledged that marriage can restrict the lives of women but believed that this new exposure to work for women could shift gender-based power dynamics within the household. From that era and now family types have changed as there are fewer nuclear families and more single-parent, mixed families, and same-sex families. A lot of values have changed as the importance of marriage has decreased and many are happy to cohabit with each other.

To conclude feminist theory of inequality challenges enlightenment representations as enlightenment representations displayed the roles of men and women as unequal and key thinkers of enlightenment also aided in how women were depicted. Feminists spoken about in the essay, criticized key thinkers that had aided this with their theories and let it be known that women can be rational human beings and are not objects. Key feminists all had points that related to men being superior and how society/opinions were fitted to match their needs.

References;

1. Garry, A. and Pearsall, M. (2010). Women, knowledge, and reality : explorations in feminist philosophy. New York ; London: Routledge.
2. Ramazanoglu, C. (2002). Feminist methodology: challenges and choices. Thousand Oaks, CA Sage Publications.
3. Ramazanoglu, C. and Holland, J. (2002). Feminist Methodology: Challenges and Choices. pp.15-30.
4. www.dictionary.com. (2019). Definition of subordination | Dictionary.com. [online] Available at: https://www.dictionary.com/browse/subordination [Accessed 20 Dec. 2019].
5. SuperSummary. (2019). SuperSummary. [online] Available at: http://www.supersummary.com/the-sexual-contract/summary/ [Accessed 25 Nov. 2019].
6. Lloyd, G. (2016). Man of reason : male and female in Western philosophy. Routledge.
7. Wollstonecraft, M. (1792). Vindication Of The Rights Of Woman. S.L.: Verso.
8. Apetrei, S. (2014). Women, feminism, and religion in early Enlightenment England. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
9. Rousseau, J.-J. (1987). Basic political writings : Discourse on the sciences and the arts ; Discourse on the origin of inequality ; Discourse on political economy ; On the social contract. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub. Co.

Numerous people have made scientific discoveries and inventions that have had a lasting impact on the world. Without these contributions, the world could have never progressed into what it has become today. Society tends to take for granted the technological and medical advances that are available in today’s modern world. While it can be said that every scientist’s contributions helped pave the way to the modern world, there is no denying that some scientists have made a bigger impact than others. Alexander Fleming, Louis Pasteur, and Sir Isaac Newton made discoveries that would change the course of history. Fleming’s discovery that mold can kill bacteria, and Pasteur’s germ theory of disease would allow for millions of lives to be saved and life expectancy to rise. Sir Isaac Newton’s contributions to mathematics and optics would change the way people viewed the world and would even help to bring about the Age of Enlightenment. Without these men, the world as it is known today may have never existed. These three scientists undoubtedly made the most important contributions to the world that would ultimately allow for today’s modern society.

Alexander Fleming made a hugely significant impact on the world of medicine when one of his petri dishes was contaminated. Before throwing out the petri dish, Fleming noticed that the mold growing on the petri dish was killing the bacteria that was also present. This chance event brought about the discovery of penicillin and eventually led to the development of the field of antibiotics. Before the discovery of penicillin, many people died from diseases and infections that could have been easily cured with a round of antibiotics. Diseases such as syphilis and bacterial pneumonia, and everyday injuries such as a cut on the hand or an infected tooth would likely have been a death sentence before penicillin. Numerous diseases and injuries that society does not give a second thought to in today’s world would have been a great cause for concern before the widespread use of antibiotics. The access to antibiotics to cure dangerous diseases and infections led to a higher life expectancy. In 1945 Fleming won the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for his discovery. Although the contamination of the petri dish was accidental, Fleming was intelligent and observant enough to notice something that would change medicine forever. Fleming is undoubtedly one the most important scientists as his work led to millions of lives being saved.

Similar to Alexander Fleming, Louis Pasteur’s work would go on to change medicine forever. Pasteur’s work in fermentation was controversial for his time. The idea that fermentation was caused by microorganisms put him at odds with the scientific community who believed that fermentation was caused by a chemical process, not a biological one. His work in fermentation inspired him to begin looking into the cause of diseases. He believed that, like fermentation, the disease was caused by microorganisms. The idea that life-threatening diseases could be caused by such tiny organisms did not seem plausible to the medical community who instead believed that disease was caused by environmental factors and poor personal habits. When livestock began dying at an alarming rate across Europe, Pasteur saw an opportunity to prove his germ theory of disease. Although many remained unconvinced, Pasteur ultimately proved that the disease plaguing European livestock was caused by the anthrax bacterium. Despite having many skeptics of his work, Pasteur’s germ theory of disease also gained many supporters and even inspired fellow scientists to use this theory to make improvements within medical practices. One such scientist was Joseph Lister. Lister, inspired by Pasteur’s germ theory of disease, began working on ways to lower postoperative mortality rates. At the time that Lister began working on this issue, one in two patients would die of postoperative infections. Lister’s solution was the use of carbolic acid during surgeries to kill bacteria. Lister’s use of antiseptics drastically lowered postoperative mortality rates and saved countless lives. The use of antiseptics would be the beginning of a surgical revolution that was largely inspired by Pasteur. Pasteur also helped save countless lives due to his work in immunology. In the 1790s Edward Jenner discovered that he could cure people suffering from smallpox by vaccinating them with cowpox, which was a much milder disease. By the time Pasteur began working on immunity through vaccination the only disease that had been treated through immunity was smallpox. Pasteur’s first success with vaccinations was with animals suffering from chicken cholera and anthrax, but he would soon turn his attention to curing humans suffering from rabies. Although rabies was a rare disease that only affected a small portion of the population each year, its horrific and painful symptoms led Pasteur to look for a cure through immunity. After Pasteur’s success with curing animals by injecting them with a diluted form of the disease, he eventually set his sights on curing humans of rabies. Despite the controversy surrounding his decision to vaccinate humans, on July 6, 1885, Pasteur got the opportunity to put his vaccination to the test when nine-year-old Joseph Meister was attacked by his dog. Over eleven days Joseph was injected with a series of increasingly stronger vaccines consisting of ground-up spinal cords from rabbits who had been afflicted with rabies. The cure was a success as the boy never started exhibiting symptoms of rabies. Soon numerous people who had been bitten by rabid animals would be coming to Pasteur for his vaccination. Pasteur’s germ theory of disease and use of vaccinations became more accepted as time went on and people realized the truth in what the scientist was trying to tell them. His germ theory of disease led to antiseptic and hygienic practices that would help to save lives. Although these practices have been modified over the years, antiseptics have become an integral part of surgical procedures. His work in immunology paved the way for the widespread use of vaccinations that we see today. Many diseases have been prevented, cured, or even completely eradicated through the use of vaccines. Like Fleming, his work would change medicine forever and go on to save millions of lives. There cannot be any doubt that he contributed greatly to our modern world.

One of the most influential and well-known scientists who contributed to our modern world is Sir Isaac Newton. Despite having lived centuries ago, today people young and old know his name, and for good reason. Newton’s use of the scientific method and discoveries in optics and mathematics would change how people viewed the world around them. In 1661 Newton started attending Cambridge where he would work as a servant to earn his keep. Although his mother had money, it is believed that she gave him little to no allowance. Newton, who became dissatisfied with how little curriculum had changed since the time of Aristotle, began shutting himself in his room where he would study a multitude of subjects and write down questions he wished to answer. In 1664 Newton was officially declared a scholar, but in 1665 he was forced to leave Cambridge for his home in Woolsthorpe due to an outbreak of the plague. It is here that Newton would create one of his most important inventions. Frustrated with Algebra and Geometry’s inability to answer complex questions such as the changing speed of a moving object, Newton came up with a new system of mathematics now called calculus. Calculus is still used in today’s modern society in everything from architecture to physics. Newton was eventually able to return to Cambridge where he began to focus his attention on optics. Unlike other scientists at the time, Newton believed that white light was composed of a multitude of colors and almost ruined his eyesight by staring at the sun in hopes of proving his theory. Hoping to help prove his theory of colors, in 1668 Newton began working on a reflecting telescope which, unlike refracting telescopes used at the time, used mirrors to magnify images. This reflecting telescope did indeed help prove his theory of colors and also helped to produce crisper images than that of the refracting telescope. Newton would also go on to inspire people and usher in the Age of Enlightenment. His use of the scientific method and his use of reason rather than tradition to question the world around him would inspire integral figures of the Age of Enlightenment, including the famous French writer Voltaire. Newton’s genius not only changed the world but also changed the way we evaluate the world around us, making him one of the most important scientists to have ever lived.

The works of Alexander Fleming, Louis Pasteur, and Isaac Newton helped change the world. Fleming and Pasteur’s medical innovations, which are still used today, helped to save millions of lives and increase life expectancy. Newton’s invention of calculus and the reflecting telescope are things that are still in use to this day, and his way of thinking has continued to inspire others to look at the world around them with a logical eye. There is no doubt that these three scientists were an integral part of shaping today’s modern world.

What was the Enlightenment? The Enlightenment was a philosophical movement in Europe that occurred throughout the late 17th and early 18th centuries. The Enlightenment arrived at a time of history when countries were governed by monarchs. There were many kings throughout Europe. These kings allied themselves with the Catholic Church to govern the citizens. The king told their citizens that they had a divine right to govern them, God permitted them to create the rules of the country and enforce them. The Catholic Church supported the kings when the people questioned this “divine power”. During this time, several brave people known for their leadership and intelligence started a movement that questioned the absolute authority of the king and the church. E.g. A German man by the name of Martin Luther risked his life when he questioned the church. This act of bravery during the Enlightenment led many others to follow his lead. This essay will focus on six political philosophers who were skeptical of their traditional government. Their names are; John Locke and Thomas Hobbes.

John Locke was a 17th-century philosopher. He is remembered for his brilliant contributions to three issues that still concern us today; What should we do about people who have different religious beliefs, Who should rule us, and how we should educate our children. John Locke was born on August 29, 1632, in Wrington, Somerset, England, and died on October 28, 1704. In 1667, Locke wrote a book called: Toleration. Within the premise of Toleration, Locke argued that religion was a personal choice. He stated ‘Enforcing a single “true religion” would not work, because you can’t be compelled into belief through violence’ (The School of Life, POLITICAL THEORY – John Locke 2:22-2:30). It was because of his influence that the concept of locking up people for their beliefs, entirely fell out of favor. In 1689, Locke published: The Two Treatises of Government. This book tries to answer the question of who should rule the country, and to what extent. In the First Treatise, Locke destroyed the concept of a king’s divine rights, and in the Second Treatise, he challenged Hobbes’s ideas about the state of nature. Locke agreed that before the governments, there would have been a state of nature. But he disagreed as to what this place would have been like. Locke argues “That it would have been broadly peaceful, and that in agreeing to submit to governments, people have therefore not, fearfully agreed to surrender all of their rights” (The School of Life, POLITICAL THEORY – John Locke 4:33-4:41). He proposed that they possessed a range of natural rights that no monarch could deliberately take away. Locke even conceived the notion that if the people felt that their rights were being abused. They could overthrow their government, and set up anew. In, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Locke developed a theory: Tabula Rasa, or blank slate. He wrote ‘The little and almost insensible impressions on our tender infancies have very important and lasting consequences’ (The School of Life, POLITICAL THEORY – John Locke 7:08-7:15). Locke explains that at birth, the mind is blank and empty. However, the experiences we face as we grow can shape and alter who we are when we grow up.

Thomas Hobbes was a 17th-century English philosopher. Hobbes is remembered for his thoughts: To what extent should we patiently obey rulers, especially those who are not very good, and to what extent should we start revolutions and depose governments, in search of a better world? Hobbes’s ideas are directly connected to the English Civil War, which began when he was 64 years old. The English Civil War distorted Hobbes’s view of people and affected all his subsequent thinking. Hobbes published Leviathan (1651) to explain why one should obey government authority. Even a very imperfect kind to avoid the risk of chaos and bloodshed. He believed that the “divine right of kings theory was nonsense, and was going to be increasingly unpersuasive as religious observance decreased…” and ‘Hobbes was deeply frightened of the possible consequences of “The social contract theory”. Which could encourage people to depose rules whenever they felt a little unhappy with their [government]’ (The School of Life, POLITICAL THEORY – Thomas Hobbes 2:43-3:06). Hobbes had personally seen the beheading of King Charles I in 1649, and his intellectual ideas were directed at making sure such ghastly scenes would never be repeated. In Leviathan Hobbes tries to combine the social contract theory with a defense of total obedience and submission to traditional authority. He supports this by taking his readers back in time to a period he called “The state of nature”. Before there were kings of any kind, and to get them to think about how governments would have arisen, in the first place. Hobbes focused on how unsightly and brutal the state of nature was. As a result out of fear and dread of chaos, people were led to form governments. “They would have done this willingly as social contract theorists maintained… But also by fleeing into the arms of strong authority, which they, therefore, Hobbes argued had a subsequent duty to keep obeying” (The School of Life, POLITICAL THEORY – Thomas Hobbes 4:25-4:38). Hobbes stated that the only right people might have to protest about an absolute ruler of Leviathan as if he/she directly threatened to kill them. However, if the ruler merely “suppressed opposition, imposed onerous taxes, crippled the economy, and locked up the dissidents” (The School of Life, POLITICAL THEORY – Thomas Hobbes 4:52-4:59). Then there was no validity in protesting and demanding a change of government. Hobbes admitted that a ruler might come along with the intent of carrying out treacherous acts, but the people would still have a duty to serve him/her.

In summary, many aspects make up a political philosopher during the Enlightenment period. The philosophers in this essay were heroes in that they possessed a greater than average bravery and intellectual qualities than others and were able to help move society away from the monarchies of the time and into governments more aware of the natural rights of humans. The six philosophers in this essay are remembered for many political ideas. Hobbes is remembered for supporting the monarchy because he believed that in nature people would have chaos without a powerful leader. On the other hand, John Locke is associated with the concept of natural rights and that everyone has a natural right to defend his; life, health, liberty, or possessions. Kant is famous for his belief in the categorical imperative. Finally, the three Frenchmen stood out with lasting contributions to future beliefs on the government of the people. Voltaire influenced us by sharing that freedom of speech was the best way to battle a corrupted government. Rousseau can be remembered for writing the Social Contract and Emile. Lastly, Montesquieu has gone down in history for his formation of the Checks and balances. All could be considered heroes of the Enlightenment. They all come in many shapes and sizes and have dark sides, but all have one true characteristic: they stood up and expressed themselves influencing the freedoms we enjoy today.

References

1. The School of Life, LITERATURE – Voltaire. YouTube, YouTube, 13 May 2016, www.youtube.com/watch?v=LAzKGkTIKpg.
2. The School of Life, POLITICAL THEORY – John Locke. YouTube, YouTube, 8 Apr. 2016, www.youtube.com/watch?v=bZiWZJgJT7I&t=4s.
3. CrashCourse, Kant & amp; Categorical Imperatives: Crash Course Philosophy #35. YouTube, YouTube, 14 Nov. 2016, www.youtube.com/watch?v=8bIys6JoEDw.
4. The School of Life, POLITICAL THEORY – Thomas Hobbes. YouTube, YouTube, 31 July 2015, www.youtube.com/watch?v=9i4jb5XBX5s&t=8s.
5. “Montesquieu: The Spirit of Laws: Book 11.” Constitution Society: Everything Needed to https://www.constitution.org/cm/sol_11.htm
6. “Montesquieu: The Spirit of Laws: Book 8.” Constitution Society: Everything Needed to https://www.constitution.org/cm/sol_08.htm
7. Then & Now, Introduction to Rousseau: The Social Contract. YouTube, YouTube, 26 June 2018, www.youtube.com/watch?v=qvjrE5nc4xs.

Throughout history, art has been heavily influenced by sociopolitical and cultural events which have transpired within society. These events have had a notable influence on the genre and characteristics of art produced. For instance, the emphasis on religious subjects during the medieval era; was used to inspire pious living through religious indoctrination. During the Enlightenment, as scientific discoveries and inventions developed, reason informed man’s thinking rather than religion. This resulted in a contentious debate often represented through complex art subjects and themes. Liberal thought and philosophy emerged as women’s social struggles began to come into question. This was exposed through literary works by women keen on communicating the social pressures imposed in patriarchal societies. Two Enlightenment luminaries, whose works reflect conflicting views, are Jean Jacques Rousseau and Mary Wollstonecraft. Their writings are exceptional guides of the sociopolitical and cultural environment, which defined Enlightenment society. Evidence can be seen in the fine artworks produced during this period. Specifically, their respective works influenced, Richard Wilson’s The Destruction of Niobe’s Children (Fig. 1), Joseph Wright Derby’s An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump (Fig. 2), and Henry Fuseli’s The Nightmare (Fig. 3).

Rousseau’s philosophical perceptions regarding the disharmony between man and nature and the inferior social status of women are evident in much of his writing. In A Discourse of Arts and Sciences (1755), he determines the affliction of modern society. His philosophy is based on the belief that man is inherently good by nature, however, he has been corrupted by society (Neidleman 15-24). Most philosophers considered advances in art as an improvement for society. However, Rousseau argued the accumulation of knowledge improved human understanding but led to corrupted morals. These corrupt morals can be seen through amour-propre. In The Social Contract (1762), he states “Man was born free, and everywhere he is in chains. Those who think themselves the masters of others are indeed greater slaves than they” (Cottingham 498). This corruption created opportunities for luxury and idleness while encouraging comparison and competition. Consequently relegating man to a state of perceptual disharmony within civilization. Rousseau’s philosophy on women’s rights was quite surprising for such a “free thinker.” He believed women were biologically inferior to men; due to their emotional nature and limited capacity for rational thought. Which in turn, caused their roles to be subservient and unworthy of the same virtues men were permitted (Neidleman 193). Due to these philosophies, Wollstonecraft often criticized his works (Bryson 16).

A major feminist work of the 18th century, A Vindication of Women’s Rights by Wollstonecraft, exhibited her tenacious views while going against mainstream Enlightenment. Seen as an ultra-radicalist, her aggressive writings fought against women’s subjugation. Her writings proved men and women shared equal intellectual abilities and capacity for rational thought; despite being perceived as emotionally and sensually inclined (Taylor 126-30). Below Wollstonecraft described her candid conversations with men:

I have conversed, as man to man, with medical men, on anatomical subjects and compared the proportions of the human body with artists . . . yet . . . was never reminded by word or look of my sex . . . And I am persuaded that in the pursuit of knowledge, women would never be insulted by sensible men . . . if they do not by mock modesty remind them that they are women. (Taylor 141)

Wollstonecraft advocated women were entitled to equal rights to develop properly; with education being the most important of these rights. Referencing Rousseau, she states “If men were confined as women were, they would also develop ‘female’ characteristics” (Bryson 19). For such a radical feminist, it is surprising to learn, she did not support the women’s suffrage movement. She believed as long as a woman was well-educated, she did not need to be self-sufficient or politically active (Tong 13-18). While Rousseau and Wollstonecraft had similar views on liberty and justice, the treatment and rights of women were opposites, causing much tension and animosity between the two (Bryson 17).

Richard Wilson’s, The Destruction of Niobe’s Children (Fig. 1) was based on Ovid’s, Metamorphoses, Book 6. Wilson aptly conveys Rousseau’s philosophies through the horrific actions of Leto’s children against Niobe. Rousseau believed man is inherently good by nature while condemning civilization for his demise. This change is observable in the psychological transformation within society, especially in the consequences of amour-propre (Neidleman 26). In the myth, Leto’s children, Apollo and Artemis, murdered Niobe’s children due to her prideful celebration. Niobe gloated for having fourteen children, thus deserving more praise than the goddess who only had two (Ziff 146). Her boastful declaration represents a violent transgression against the gods. The reflections of the tragic events are evident in the somber atmosphere, tempestuous ocean, and bleak mountain landscape. This approach focuses the viewer’s attention on four elements; including the bright white clouds forming a circle, lighting striking the mountain, broken tree trunks, and a distant rider shown suffering the repercussions. The white clouds signify the opening of the sky for the gods, irrespective of the chaos. In contrast to Niobe and her children, who appear between the broken tree trunks. The comparative destruction of these features references the disconnect between man and nature, due to amour-propre. Niobe’s central position supports the disharmony of Rousseau’s philosophies due to her prideful celebration.

Wilson positions Niobe as a member of civilization, whose materialistic focus reflects a tradition of feminist analysis, akin to Wollstonecraft’s works. According to Tauchert (145), Wollstonecraft’s works dramatized the suffering of the female subjects during the Enlightenment. In Mary and The Wrongs of Women, Wollstonecraft’s characters, Mary and Maria, struggle to prove that autonomous, rational, female subjectivity does exist. As well as inform the existence of female reason since many philosophical writings promoted women’s inferiority due to their emotionality (Strommer 96-99). Niobe’s position aligns with Wollstonecraft’s dramatized characters. The suffering and series of unfortunate events which the figures endure are quite aggressive.

Joseph Wright of Derby’s, An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump (Fig. 2), highlights the significance of the scientific advances during the Enlightenment (Israel 15). Originally a portrait painter, Wright belonged to the Lunar Society. This group attempted to popularize science through art. He painted a dramatization of an experiment demonstrating the effectiveness of the air pump; one of the most innovative technological accomplishments during the 18th century. During the experiment, the air pump sucked the air out of the glass bowl until the cockatoo would collapse. Then using another mechanism the air could be reintroduced (Stokstad 452). The figures form a circle around the device, similar to religious paintings of the past, signifying the momentousness of the occurrence. Through the use of chiaroscuro, the figures are illuminated to enhance their expressions in contrast to the dark background. Wright reflects on the effects of Enlightenment through the contrasting reactions of the characters depicted.

While Rousseau rejected the sciences, his philosophical principles on gender relations can be seen in Wright’s work. Observing the experiment, the female figures are terrified and the male figures are engrossed; as the audience is left to wonder about the bird’s fate. As such, the female subjects are purposely depicted as emotional and less rational, in contrast to the men who seem unconcerned about the wellbeing of the bird. Rousseau’s philosophy is prevalent in the vast distinctions between the figures. Applying his philosophy, the men were very excited because they could rationally comprehend the experiment. While all the women were emotional, due to their lack of understanding (Bryson 19). A prime example of Rousseau’s principles is the father and daughters. The daughters are seen as emotional and irrational due to their fearful expressions. While the father, seen pointing, is “rationally” explaining the experiment to them to ease their fears. Wollstonecraft fought against such illustrations of biological essentialism about women’s roles (Strommer 98). However, women being present at such an important scientific event shows women were being educated. A right that Wollstonecraft fought for. In my opinion, Wright is displaying Rousseau’s philosophies rather than Wollstonecraft’s.

Wright emphasizes amour-propre and the corrupt morals of man in the representation of the cockatoo. The scientist demonstrates the air pump holds the power of life and death over the bird; a power previously regarded as exclusively god’s domain. He is delaying the reintroduction of air, which causes suspense. The illuminated glass on the table with a skull plays with the viewer. The dramatic lighting highlights the issue of life and death, with the suggestion of science bringing light into the world. An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump communicates the substitution of religion with science; now giving man all the power. Wright’s infusion of entertainment further conveys Rousseau’s philosophy of corruption stemming from knowledge and amour-propre (Israel 273).

Henry Fuseli’s, The Nightmare (Fig. 3), glorified the irrational side of human nature, which the Enlightenment sought to deny. The Nightmare is deemed as an astute example of romanticism, due to its irrational and morbid elements. Originally presented in 1782, at the Royal Academy exhibition in London; it acquired a reaction of shock and fear (Stokstad 463). This reaction can be attributed to the central figure, a woman, being perceived as similar to the seduced maidens. During the 18th century, the perception of these women had shifted to unfavorable judgment (Staves 117). Fuseli portrays this woman, who appears to be sleeping, draped upon a divan. She is oppressed in an erotic dream by the incubus who is seated on her chest. The asymmetrical position of her body is accentuated by the white light. To the left, a horse appears through the curtains of the murky background, causing a frightening effect. Similar to Wright, Fuseli uses chiaroscuro to heighten the drama (Stokstad 463). However, his application of light is manipulated to explain the darker realms of the unconscious. The shortened foreground ending with a curtain and tassel completes the dramatic effect. The drama of Fuseli’s figure is reminiscent of Wollstonecraft’s characters, Mary and Maria. Fuseli’s figure is suffering, just as Mary and Maria were, due to female oppression (Strommer 98). With the incubus seated on her chest and the pose of her body, the woman is shown as powerless. Her asymmetrical position and facial expression, present emotional and sensual inclination. These elements also lead to the connection between the woman and the seduced maidens. Wollstonecraft vehemently fought against this perception of women in all her writings (Tong 21).

Fuseli also reflects Rousseau’s ideals regarding man’s disconnect with nature. The corruption of society has led the woman to a vulnerable state due to her corrupted morals. She is tormented due to the desires she has learned through society and her biological inferiority (Neidleman 195). The tormenting effect is intensified by the incubus and the horse with glowing eyes. The corruption of society can also be seen in the glowing eyes of the horse; implying he has gone mad. Unfortunately, she cannot escape her frightening dream due to her emotional nature. This further supports Rousseau’s philosophy of women’s limited capacity for rational thought, making them inferior.

Rousseau and Wollstonecraft were significant influences during the Enlightenment period. Rousseau’s philosophy advocated for man’s return to nature or natural harmony with his environment. Wollstonecraft’s literary works criticized the subjugation of women in patriarchal societies. Both their writings have shaped the world today. The discord and reverberations of their writings can be seen through the art produced by Wilson, Wright, and Fuseli. Through these three artworks, viewers can perceive the sociopolitical and cultural influencers of Enlightenment society. Specifically how art was able to interpret and propagate Enlightenment thought.

Works Cited

1. Bryson, Valerie. Feminist Political Theory: An introduction. 2nd ed., New York, Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
2. Cottingham, John G. Western Philosophy: An Anthology. 1st ed., Wiley-Blackwell. 1996.
3. Israel, Jonathan I. Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy and the Making of Modernity 1650-1750. 1st ed., Oxford. 2002.
4. Neidleman, Jason. Rousseau’s Ethics of Truth: The Sublime Science of Simple Souls. book 12, 1st ed., Routledge, 2016.
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8. Tauchert, Ashley. “Mary Wollstonecraft and Jane Austen: ‘Rape’ and ‘Love’ as Feminist Social Realism and Romance”. Oxford, 2003, pp. 144-158.
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10. Tong, Rosemarie, and Tina Fernandes Botts. Feminist Thought: A More Comprehensive Introduction. 5th ed., Routledge, 2017.
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12. Ziff, Jerrold. “’Backgrounds, Introduction of Architecture and Landscape’: A Lecture by J. M. W. Turner.” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, vol. 26, no. 1/2, 1963, pp. 124–147. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/750572.