This paper examines the movement of enlightenment and then whether the existing state of affairs requires a reformation or whether it is adequate. The present state of affairs is examined by analyzing the socio-economic state prevalent in various states and in the conclusion, it has been determined that dew dawn of enlightenment is required for the betterment of the common man.
The basic definition of enlightenment is that of a movement thaws started in the 18th century against the traditional doctrine and it was done to enforce intellectualism and philosophy. This movement also resulted in the removal of the power of the then extremely powerful church. As a result of such a movement, the common man became more important and as a result, there was complete restructuring in the order of things. The moral code of behavior was replaced by a doctrine of reason and logic; hence arts and trade greatly flourished during this period.
If the order of the world of todays was observed, it could be seen that though we live in a democratic system in which we have the right of choice more than ever- yet we are still bound as we were during the era of the church in certain ways. When certain nations are attacked by others without the consent of the entire world, the law of supremacy comes into play. The new world order can be perfectly explained by the neo-colonial system in which one nation asserts itself on the rest of the world. The common man though is much more enlightened in a lot of ways than the common man was ever during the 18th century, yet still faces a lot of exploitation-exploitation which is done in the name of protection and sovereignty.
Burdened by a number of taxes amongst many other issues, the common man allows the government a free hand which results in certain unfavorable policies getting implemented. In certain nations, dictatorship still exists. An example of such a nation is that of the isolated one; North Korea, where people cannot dare to voice an unfavorable opinion about the dictator as a result of massive oppression. The common man has lived for decades in such a system and hence, it is way past time that enlightenment was allowed to flourish in the spirit that it was allowed to during the 18th century.
In todays world, certain establishments with vested interests have taken charge of major economic forces allowing the exploitation of the oppressed. As a result, many African nations, after decades of oppression by the colonial states, continue to face exploitation at the hands of certain companies. Such companies favor the better off and as a result, the divide between the richest and the poorest is on a rise around the world.
More and more people continue to fall below the poverty line while some flourish at their expense. Nations like Pakistan, India, and even the United States have been found on the list of some of the most corrupt nations in the world. The so-called politicians, who are chosen by the people, continue to exploit the people and oppress them while the common man suffers. Debt is taken in the name of development and the funds squandered by these same politicians. In a way, the church has been replaced by many others; the politicians and certain religious clergy who incite hatred against other races.
The world of today is caught in a situation of mass hysteria where the common man suffers as rising fundamentalism has resulted in a number of people dying every day as a result of a certain suicide attack. The situation has become so appalling that it has become something of a norm in a country like Pakistan where such attacks are thought to be a normal situation. And yet, the ruling government continues to remain unscathed while the common man suffers.
Fundamentalism is the new face of the church which used religion as a means to gain power and influence over the common and. In todays world, in the name of religion, hatred and violence are being taught and as a result, the entire world faces threat from the perverse ideology of a few. While the coffers of such people get filed by the donations of millions, many get killed as a result of their teachings.
Therefore, it can be said that todays world might have much more enlightened in certain ways but the common man is still not free from the oppression of a few who do so in the name of development and sovereignty. Many suffer as a result of the actions of the rulers who come into the office on the votes of these people and yet continue to act in their own interests.
Therefore, according to me, enlightenment has not been achieved in its true spirit and what is required is that the political and social order be structured by the actions of the common man himself. Greater transparency is required along with a complete breakdown of those demonic forces which in the face of their own interests continue to exploit the common man.
Enlightenment might exist somewhat but it is clearly insufficient as long as there is oppression, mass inequality, corruption amongst some of the vices. While one cannot expect these to be eradicated completely it is essential that the common man learn to step up for himself and fend for his own basic rights which are and continue to be exploited.
References
Bronner, Stephen Eric(2004) Interpreting the Enlightenment: Metaphysics, Critique, and Politics.
Brown, Stuart, (2002). British Philosophy in the Page of Enlightenment.
Buchan, James(2003) Crowded with Genius: The Scottish Enlightenment: Edinburghs Moment of the Mind.
It has been argued that if Locke is the idealist of the enlightenment, then Voltaire is the realist. This statement is totally true. Although the works of these two philosophers overlapped, they differed a lot in the ideology of some issues.
Both of these people were philosophers during the enlightenment era in Europe which occurred sometime during the eighteenth century. During this era there were movements which were lead by intellectuals who believed that scientific knowledge and information should be incorporated into the human beliefs as an aid of understanding the universe in a better way (Palmer 8).
According to the philosophers, people should abandon traditional and religious beliefs and embrace this new idea. Locke was among the enlightenment philosophers in England and used this idea to fight for equal rights for all people in the society. He believed that every man was equal and that no one should be treated in the society.
Despite his fight for human rights and equality, he did not advocate for the rights of women and slaves in the society and neither did he believe in democracy (Delaney 18). Through his works people referred to him as an idealist. Idealism is a doctrine that reality is based in the mind of an individual and has a relationship with the mind structure. Idealism relies mainly on the ideas rather than the ideal situation and is related to metaphysics therefore contrasting with materialism and realism (Creatorix.com 2010).
Voltaire on the other hand has been referred to as a realist. Realism entails an ideology which acknowledges the object world with reality which people perceive to be true when they are in contact with them (Creatorix.com 2010). In his works and literature Voltaire believed that one did not need to follow traditions or religion to believe in God but rather one needed to have a reason to believe in God.
According to him, it was evident in the mind of people that there is a more powerful and intelligent being who is eternal thus one does not need faith to believe in this because it is a fact. He developed mixed reactions to the bible and as a result of the skeptical attitude of his works and ideologies, he was separated from Unitarians and biblical-political writers like Locke (Nosotro 2010).
In his book Second Treatise of Government Locke talks about the various aspects of life and politics. He states that for the proper understanding of the origin of political power, one must understand the origin of mankind in the state of nature (Locke 14). During this period no one had control over the other but each one of them was a judge of what the law required. In this state every individual is equal since they are all born indiscriminately with similar advantages and disadvantages.
Since each individual interpreted the law in his own way, there are instances where one might breach the ideals of another person and even if there was a universal judge his decisions may be biased. This is the point where the state of nature which seemed to be so ideal starts to fail (Locke 15). Although Locke fought for equality, he did not consider the rights of serfs, women and children.
As a matter of fact chapter four and sixteen of his book entitled slavery and conquest respectively posed a lot of confusion since the latter advocated for the justification of slavery and the former talked about the rights of conquerors. He was therefore seen by other scholars and intellectuals as being a supporter of the slave trade. Others say that he was a hypocrite since he talked about equality yet he does not consider the rights of the slaves and women.
Voltaire idea of realism is brought out in his book Candide; or the Optimism in which the protagonist, Candide, was always optimistic in his life even thought he faced a series of misfortunes in his life as a result of the evils of the world. He faced prosecutions, murder, earthquakes, tsunamis and death of his loved ones (Voltaire 18).
Voltaire uses this method to bring out the evils which people are currently facing in the world. His work is different to that of Locke since he is advocating for a change which will improve the lives of everyone in the society unlike the Locke whose works only focused on a specific group in the community. Voltaire worked hard to bring the light to the people of France and free them from the oppression they were facing.
He was against the religion which was being practiced in France at that time especially Orthodox Christianity thus introduced his idea of natural religion. In this religion it is believed that the Lord is the creator of nature which evolved with time and lead to the emergence of man. In this respect therefore, man was not created directly by God (Voltaire 21). This is a notion which up to the present moment scientists and pagans believe in.
As it is seen the works of Voltaire on were mainly against religion and the fact that religion gave the leaders (kings and emperors) the divine power to rule other people and in return the leaders would protect the church.
Through his works people started to demand for democracy, equality and freedom from their leaders. According to people, these factors were necessary values for the development of the society since they will lead to better political systems based on democracy, economic development, capitalism, and religious tolerance (Ayer 44).
Enlightenment in the 21st Century
The 21st century needs the concepts of equality and democracy to be embraced so that the world can become a better place to live in. This is because we need to filter the negative effects of the twentieth century that were diminishing these concepts.
That is why we need to apply the ideas of John Locke who preached for human equality and embracing of the scientific knowledge. Although the world people may think that there is equality in the world, traces of oppression are still present in some parts of the world. People are still being discriminated on the grounds of skin color, race, ethnicity, gender and religion.
Societies have become enlightened over the years especially the African states in the 21st century. Most of the African states were colonies of European countries but gained their independence in the second half of the twentieth century. However the leaders who took power became dictators and took over all power and control of the state. This has lead to civil wars in many African states over the years.
Sudan for example, has been in war for the last couple of decades. The country has been divided into two, the northern part composed of Muslims and the southern part composed of Christians. This division came about as a result of political and religious difference between the people of the north and the south.
Development is mainly found in the north with the southern people being oppressed. The people of the south therefore had been fighting for the country to be divided into two different states so that they can enjoy their rights and freedom as a sovereign state.
In January 2011 the people of Southern Sudan held a referendum which if passed will lead to the division of the country into two different states. The referendum was passed as majority of the people voted in favor of the proposed constitution (Tehrant Times 2011). They now have a chance of having a country which will give them absolute rights and freedom, something which they have been dreaming of for a long time.
Conclusion
Locke and Voltaire works in philosophy have changed the perspective of life in many different ways. Before their works, many people who were oppressed did not know about their rights. Now, thanks to their works many people have realized that they need their freedom so that they can exercise their rights. In the 18th and 19th century, slave trade was abolished and most colonies got their independence like in America and France (where the monarch was overthrown).
From there people have also been fighting for equality and human rights in the society. At the present moment, women and the gay community all across the globe are fighting for their rights and equality in the society. This struggle will continue even in the future all as a result of the enlightenment.
Works Cited
Ayer, Johnson. Voltaire. New York City: Random House, 1986.
Creatorix. Glossary. Web.
Delaney, Tim. The March of Unreason: Science, Democracy, and the New Fundamentalism. New York:Oxford University Press, 2005.
Locke, John. Second Treatise of Government. Ed. Richard Cox. Maryland :Davidson, 1982.
Nosotro, Rit. Locke and Voltaire-A Tale of Two Exiles. Hyperhistory. Web.
Palmer, Robert. The Age of the Democratic Revolution. Surrey, England :Ashgate, 1964.
The enlightenment period also popularly referred to as the age of reason denotes an explosive era in human history stretching from around the year 1600 to the year 1800; a period in which the West experienced great contributions and changes in its history. This period barely stretched over duration of two centuries, yet within such a brief period, what is now referred to as the modern era was inaugurated. Theological considerations that had previously dominated the intellectual of Western civilization between Augustine and the Reformation were radically and permanently disrupted by the enlightenment, giving rise to a completely new course for scientific thought and action. In the course of the enlightenment, people were able to break away from medieval mentality by adapting a completely new understanding of the human being. During this era, humans replaced God on the historical arena and human reason replaced divine revelation as a more reliable path in seeking the truth. A philosophical revolution that had begun with Rene Descartes, John Locke and other philosophers between 1596 and 1650, brought together enlightenment scientists, theologians and philosophers alike, in a combined effort to devise systems that would approximate or lead to the truth. During this age of reason, the church lost its earlier dominance in Western culture as enlightenment thinkers sought for better and more sensible foundations that would replace traditional authority and religious belief as the bases for political order and social morality (Grenz 60-63, p. 70).
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
One of the most famous enlightenment philosophers who made tremendous contribution to society during this period is Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 -1778). Rousseau is famed for making popular contributions to political and social theory through a famous essay, The Social Contract, which he wrote in 1762, and in which he addressed fundamental questions of political legitimacy and social justice. Other famous works of his are The New Heloise novel written in 1761, Emile, an educational theory book in 1762, and an extraordinarily influential and very original autobiography, The Confessions (1764-1770) among other works touching on music, language, botany to name but a few. Because of such a large and wide range of output, Rousseau received an enormous, though very controversial reputation during his time, and his ideas have continued to powerfully impact on society ever since. His life story is dotted with remarkable events such as the death of his mother soon after his birth, his relationship with a much older woman, and his life in the fashionable Paris society where his opera performances became a source of enlightenment for leading thinkers living during the enlightenment era (Dent 1-2, 8, p. 10).
Jean-Jacques Rousseau is well known for formulating the popular sovereignty theory, as a radical response towards the inequalities, social conflicts, and divisions that were a common characteristic of Western society. The sovereignity theory subsequently led to the disfiguration of European societies and states during the 18th century. Like his earlier counterparts, Rousseau tried to resolve a long-running and deep-seated problem that had characterized Western political theories; the problem that revolved around the continuous tension between the craving for individual freedom, and an autonomous need for collective authority and social order. Through his theory of social contract, Rousseau attempted to make a reconciliation between liberty and order by proposing that sovereign power be conferred to the larger community rather than concentrating power on the state as proposed by Thomas Hobbes, or the strong representative assembly proposed by John Locke. According to Rousseau the state was a non-sovereign executor of the decisions made by a sovereign community (Jones, p. 25).
Rousseau proposed that the state was supposed to be a tool for expressing the general will of its citizens. Unlike other enlightenment philosophers like Voltaire and Montesquieu who advocated for constitutional checks and other balance for state sovereignty, Rousseau was strongly in favor of radical rather than complete transformation of the political and social order with the utmost goal of creating a system of government founded upon liberty, popular sovereignty and equality. Through his concept of general will, Rousseau supposed that individuals should willingly surrender their rights to their respective communities rather than yield to the state; and that the legislative authority should be a community organ that every individual is subjected to while at the same time participating in the lawmaking process. Equality in society was one of his most favored ideals. His ideal state comprised of interdependent equals who according to Rousseau were supposed to be politically and economically independent (Jones, pp. 27-29).
Jean-Jacques Rousseau made great contributions to society through his works addressing political and social themes, language and music, religion and war, botany, education, novel, prose and poetry as well as his autobiographical works, self-explanation and disclosure (Dent, p. 21). His works radically criticized both modern European society and the enlightenment culture as well, including the philosophies that proposed it. Despite several attempts especially during the 20th century to distribute his works among various academic disciplines, Rousseau had a very clear imagination that united his philosophical, pedagogical, historical, political and literary writings and strongly affirmed the relationship between his works and the suffering human being. His ideas led to fundamental changes to political culture especially in the period preceding the French Revolution (Porter, p. 9).
Eleven years after the death of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, his political philosophy especially his general will and popular sovereignty concepts became major inspirations for revolutionaries during the 1789 French Revolution. Over the span of centuries, his intellectual legacy has had a long-term influence upon socialist, liberalist, anarchist, democratic and to some extent totalitarian schools of thought (Jones 25). Though for many centuries Rousseau has also widely been blamed for many things, his contributions to literature and political theory have tremendously helped to bring change to modern culture and life. His works have invited emulation from prospective writers, and also created a romantic movement in literary writing, that has persisted to modern times (Porter, pp. 12-13).
Enduring legacy, political implications and contributions of the enlightenment period
Since the enlightenment, individual choices and actions of ordinary individuals have overtaken political control in determining the general well-being of human beings. Through the dramatic changes that occurred in societies during the enlightenment, human beings have inherited a heritage of scientific experiment and rationalism. But enlightenments most enduring legacy has been the co-ordination of those forces that exist beyond reasonable planning and organization in an attempt to improve the well-being of human beings. For individual choice to produce stability in society, the enlightenment philosophers had to clearly explain how institutions such as marriage, family, sexual morality and parenthood could be sustained without divine retribution or threats of subsequent legal punishment (Jordan, p. 127).
It was only in the enlightenment period of the 18th century that the scientific discipline gained a cultural significance in Western society than at any other time in history. During this time, science began to build up recognition as the core intellectual system that other systems were supposed to refer to. Scientific knowledge may have existed earlier than this period but the enlightenment philosophers have received credit for helping to establish the scientific discipline in the Western culture during the 18th Century. The enlightenment has also been referred to as the age of pedagogy during which a more intellectual system of transmitting knowledge to coming generations was discovered in a way that had not existed before. Rousseaus work, Emile for example, displays a new system of learning that helped to stimulate a kind of curiosity that would make people more independent and critical towards an already established belief system. Enlightenment also witnessed the coming to birth of the famous encyclopedia system of classifying knowledge into various comprehensive disciplines such as natural history, languages, history as well as other particular disciplines. But the most famed technology during this period is the printing press, the new human invention that enabled the processing of new ides into readable material that was subsequently distributed worldwide in large quantities (Fitzpatrick 10, 217-219, 350, 366).
The enlightenment theory of societies constructed out of individual choices of the ordinary people, has over the centuries given rise to principles such as autonomy, individual liberty and mobility. These individual choices have given rise to reformed institutions within social-service organizations (Jordan 147-153). Also closely linked with the age of reason or enlightenment period is the birth of republicanism especially in countries such as France, Britain and America. France and America went through revolutions while Britain experienced a reform movement. The concept of liberty became a very common political feature during this period. Feminism also began during this period when enlightenment thinkers began addressing womens role in history, their nature, sexual difference and the aspect of womens intellectual equality with their male counterparts. Contributions to historical writing were tremendous during this period and the enlightenment is said to have paved way for the incorporation of history into university education (Fitzpatrick 207, 457,621).
Conclusion
Under the illumination of reason, society went through tremendous cultural and social transformation during the enlightenment period, giving rise to very intense and long lasting effects that saw the birth of modern Western society. The enlightenment has indeed made an enduring legacy on the socio-political of many nations all over the world (Grenz 61, 71; Jordan 127).
Works Cited
Dent, N.J.H. Rousseau. London: Routledge, 2005.
Fitzpatrick, Martin. The Enlightenment World. London: Routledge, 2004.
Grenz, Stanley J. A Premier on Postmodernism. Grand Rapids: Wm.B.Eerdmans Publishing, 1996.
Jones, Tudor. Modern Political Thinkers and Ideas: An Historical Introduction. London: Routledge, 2002.
Jordan, Bill. Social Policy for the Twenty-First Century: New Perspectives, Big Issues. Cambridge: Polity, 2006.
Porter, Dennis. Rousseaus Legacy: Emergence and Eclipse of the Writer in France. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.
Nathan the Wise is one of the best known plays by the German writer Gotthold Ephraim Lessing that touches upon the religious issues, the conflicts, which may happen on the religious field and during the discussion of Christianity, Islam, and Judaism, and the characters, who have to cope with different situations in order to prove their positions and their points of view.
This story is a kind of pursuit for the desirable truth; people are so bothered with the idea to find out whose standpoints are correct, and whose ideas have to be improved. In order to achieve success in life and help the other to follow your example, it is necessary to adopt your mind to current conditions and, at the same time, not to lose own peculiarity and uniqueness.
Nathan the Wise is regarded as the best representative of the Enlightenment, the movement of intellectual change, and deals with one of the brightest ideals of this movement, unalienable rights; these rights imply certain laws, which cannot be violated, religious tolerance that has to be supported, and the idea of being free in ideas, interests, religion, and words.
The age of Enlightenment is considered to be one of the most intellectual movements in our history: free from feudal obligations, scientifically developed, and attentive to human understanding of this world, the Enlightenment came in order to provide people with a chance to live in accordance with own demands and interests and be able to comprehend each of these demands.
Lessings Nathan the Wise should be regarded as a kind of enlightenment for each reader because it helps to open human eyes, explain them that unity is their power, and enlighten some new ideas to lead for changes. None should omit to make use of the reasons/ Given him by God, in things where it belongs (Lessing, 4:1, 39). This phrase by Patriarch proves that the described in the play times required thorough obedience to Gods wishes and following his hints from ordinary peoples side.
These lines underline the fact that not each person is eager to forget own interests and scarify own demands in order to follow Gods directions. This inability to create friendly society promotes the author to develop a new way that can unite people, show them the right way, and prove them that they are actually free, because for that period of time Not all are free that can bemock their fetters (Lessing , 4:2, 43).
Nowadays, the Enlightenment ideal of religious tolerance is taken for granted by many people: revolutions, which aim at proclaiming the separation of state and church, offering an agreement to divide people of believers and heretics in order to punish the latter and encourage the former.
This sweet illusion yields to sweeter truth/ (For to a man a man is ever dearer/ Than any angel) you must not be angry/ To see our loved enthusiast exercised (Lessing, 1:1, 4). Nathans dialogue with Daya shows the reader how Nathan treats to religion and how strong his faith in renunciation.
He cannot accept the idea that people are less important in comparison to God and angels and that religious truth cannot become an external possession. Religious tolerance becomes the central theme in this play and makes Nathan takes considerable steps in order to demonstrate own interests, own truth, and own faith. He is a Jew, and nothing and even no one can change this truth.
In spite of the fact that he never was and will be a traditional Jew, he cannot change his faith. This faith comes from his fathers, and to change or to forget about it is similar to renunciation of his past and his roots: there dwelt in east a man/who from a valued hand received a ring/ of endless worth (Lessing, 3:2, 32).
The Enlightenment ideal of unalienable rights under analysis speaks about the right of word and the right of thought as well as their freedom. However, Lessing himself creates numerous contradictions within his characters and demonstrates how miserable human rights and freedoms can be.
At the beginning, Nathan admits that needs must belongs to no man: and a devis (Lessing, 1:1, 8), however, within a short period of time, he proves Templar that we must, and will be friends. Despite my nation/We did not choose a nation for ourselves (Lessing, 2:2, 23).
This change of mind may serve as a good characteristic that introduces the features of human enlightenment, possible revolution of mind, and comprehension of the situation. First, Nathan denies the idea of must for people. He cannot accept the truth that peoples actions are obligatory, and they have nothing but to follow the already established rules.
But still, one situation, when Templar saves the life of Nathans daughter, changes Nathans perception of this world and the duties, which are inherent to all people. On my opinion, our life is too short and full of unpredictable situations, and it turns out to be useless to proclaim something really serious and great in order to change the idea under other conditions.
The ideal of religious tolerance is perfectly described in the Nathans story about the ring, and the fathers duty to present this ring to one song only, he loves most of all. With time, two more rings were created: nor cost nor pains to make them like/ Quite like the true one.
This the artist managed/ The rings were brought, and een the fathers eye/ Could not distinguish which had been the model (Lessing, 3:2, 32). The point is that this ring serves as an analogy to religions, which exist in the world. People have the right to choose, but still, cannot decide which religion is more important and which one should be the ruling one no one will answer this question, because nor pains are left.
Religious tolerance is not an easy concept to comprehend, however, Nathans story provides the reader with a chance to realize that it is useless to create boundaries, rules, and other obstacles in order to find out the truth, because the real truth is everywhere and nowhere at the same time.
Nathan the Wise opens a new vision of the ideal of religious tolerance, human rights, and freedom. People have all chances to behave in accordance with own principles and interests, however, they should be very careful, because such abilities usually confuse people and promote some hasty steps, words, and thoughts.
Usually, people want to be free in order to achieve truth and use it in their lives, but still, they have to comprehend that dry truth is vexing (Lessing, 3:2, 31), and real truth has cost& tears of blood (Lessing, 3:3, 38). This is why it is necessary to thing at first whether any kind of truth is worthy of human sacrifices and hopes.
Works Cited
Lessing, Gotthold, Ephraim. Nathan the Wise: A Dramatic Poem in Five Acts. Trans. By William Taylor of Norwich. Cassell & Company, 1893.
The Enlightenment is the broad term applied to the intellectual developments of the eighteenth century, as articulated by a relatively small number of thinkers and writers primarily in Western Europe. The Age of Enlightenment centered on France and two of the major philosophers who contributed to this age of Enlightenment were Voltaire and Montesquieu. The others were Diderot, Rousseau, Hume, and Kant. Voltaire and Montesquieu were confident that the reforms they suggested were both reasonable and practically feasible (Kagan et al, chapter 18). The concept of deism, for example, allowed thinkers to accept new rationalism without having to deny the existence of God in an outright manner. Voltaire and Montesquieu opposed and rejected the views of the Roman Church which they believed was irrational and oppressive (Fitzpatrick, 83). But these philosophes sought religious toleration concerning all European faiths. The philosophes also affected the areas of justice, economics, and political thought.
The philosophes believed that by obeying rational laws society and human relationships could be improved. This belief was the foundation stone for the subject called social science. During the Age of Enlightenment, Beccaria proposed reforms in the areas of criminal justice and punishment. In the realm of Economics, Adam Smiths works questioned the trade practices of the time and laid the foundation for the Industrial Revolution. His 1776 Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations is commonly described as the founding document for laissez-faire (hands-off) economic policy. This work was instrumental in raising a debate over economic progress versus individual well-being in Western society. Many French economic reformers advocated agricultural reform. In the realm of politics, the government was the focus of a lot of investigation and criticism. Enlightenment thinkers did not stop with mere criticism of corruption in the government and church. Montesquieu provided the outline of a system that would create a new balance in governing the state. Montesquieu admired the British constitution and the concept of the aristocracy. He tried to incorporate it in his presentation of the ideal government. Rousseau was a radical, who believed society was more important than the individual because only within a properly functioning society could an individual life a moral life. Overall, many philosophes were fundamentally monarchists, though of course, they believed monarchies should be reformed.
Many revolutionary ideas of the Enlightenment reached Eastern Europe in the form of Enlightened Absolutism. The rulers of Prussia, Austria, and Russia tried to follow certain Enlightenment principles. But these rulers could not accept the philosophes rejection of war as irrational. Frederick II (the Great) of Prussia, Maria Theresa and her son Joseph II of Austria, and Catherine II (the Great) of Russia implemented some Enlightenment measures but did not create any change to their existing political and social frameworks. Ultimately, the Prussian, Austrian, and Russian empires rejected the Enlightenment ideals towards the end of the century (Kagan et al, chapter 18).
The Age of Enlightenment in England took place through coffeehouses and the newly flourishing press. In Germany, the universities became centers of the Enlightenment. Italian representatives of the age included Cesare Beccaria and Giambattista Vico. From America, Thomas Paine, Thomas Jefferson, and Benjamin Franklin exerted vast international influence (Columbia Encyclopedia, 15622).
Voltaires satire, Candide was the most influential work of the period and reflected the philosophes concerns and general attitudes. The major works that influenced the Age of Enlightenment were the Newtonian worldview, Lockes psychology, Britains wealth and stability, French reform, and the emerging print culture in Europe. The Encyclopedia compiled by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond dAlembert and completed in 1772 contained the views of most of Frances leading philosophes on various subjects. The Encyclopedia helped in spreading Enlightenment ideas throughout Europe.
There were many weak points in the philosophes as well. The four-stage theory of social development proved detrimental to the relationships between the West and other cultures. The philosophes failed to address reforms to help women and had a strong tendency to equate human with male (Kagan et al, chapter 18). Many philosophes including the radical Rousseau held traditional ideas about gender roles and believed that women were physiologically inferior to men and that women should be restricted only within the domestic sphere. However, late in the 18th century, Mary Wollstonecrafts A Vindication of the Rights of Women placed womens rights within the Enlightenment agenda (Johnston, page 1).
Bibliography
Kagan, Donald; Ozment, Steven and Turner, M. Frank (1979). The Western Heritage, Eighth Edition. Prentice Hall, Inc. New Jersey.
The concept of Enlightenment concerning humanistic studies as practiced now in Linguistics, Literature, and History/Society/Culture
Governed by the principle of the one-way movement, the world is spinning around only to approach another stage of its progress. However, the ancient ideas of how the new era must look and what it must be guided by often prove a mistake. Nevertheless, it cannot be doubted that there is a grain of truth in the theories of the past since some of them still prove efficient in modern times. Among these, the ideas of Enlightenment have been also interwoven into the pattern of modern life, yet how they have been implicated might be somewhat different from the suppositions of the ancient philosophers.
It must be admitted that certain subtle issues bring closer philosophy and linguistics, making them an integral part of the concept of the given country and the world in general. Tracking the most peculiar issues of the Enlightenment philosophy manifesting itself in such sciences as linguistics, one will be able to conceive the ubiquity of t5he idea of the Enlightenment and realize what brings the modern world and the old concept of Enlightenment together.
What is Enlightenment, after all? According to Kant, this is freedom and at the same time the complete, utter understanding. As the philosopher himself claims, Nothing is required for this enlightenment, however, except freedom; and the freedom in question is the least harmful of all, namely, the freedom to use reason publicly in all matters (Kant). Therefore, it can be considered that the key idea of Enlightenment is interwoven into the pattern of the modern life since the modern laws presuppose that people enjoy freedom as long as it does not harm the rest of the humankind. Therefore, it cannot be doubted that the ideas of Enlightenment in the vision if Kant has been implemented into the contemporary world long before.
Considering the relation of Kants ideas on Enlightenment concerning the aspects of modern English language, one can see the certain interrelation between the key ideas of the Enlightenment and the sections of English studies. Considering the aspect of linguistics, one can claim with certainty that there is a considerable interrelation between the ideas expressed by Kant and the key aspects of the language studies. Thus, one of the most obvious ideas of the Enlightenment, the issue of freedom and the possibility of thinking before following certain ideas blindly has been put into practice most efficiently.
As Kant claimed, one of the most annoying and invulnerable prejudices of the past was the concept of believing without any proofs needed and following ideas blindly. In contrast to the ancient times, nowadays the modern science presupposes well-grounded theories, preferring the ideas that demand certain proofs to the principles that no one has ever attempted to consider. There is no secret that even in linguistics, the rules and laws of the language are completely logical and based on careful and thorough meditations. Also, the modern fashion of teaching the language offers an opportunity for dialogue between the teacher and the student modern language studies are the dialogue between those learning and those teaching.
This means that one of the core principles of the Enlightenment expressed by Kant the idea of proving the postulates of science has been implemented. Putting it into the words of Pinker, the ear of language and mind has come for people to understand the links between the two integral parts of each persons life the language and the idea of progress. This is the universal grammar that Pinker was speaking about. According to Pinker, the ideas of Enlightenment are also the sphere where the common misconceptions concerning the linguistic issues stem from: as Pinker emphasizes, it is the weaker version , that is, the linguistic determinism that is the reason for the difference in the speakers thoughts (Pinker 57).
Considering how the ideas of the Enlightenment were implicated in the sphere of the English literature, one will inevitably notice that the striving for knowledge is the key issue and the guiding idea for the writers since the thoughts of Kant were sounded. For instance, in Mary Shelleys Frankenstein, the scientists longing for knowledge dominates over the rest of his wishes.
In terms of the traces of the Enlightenment in modern English culture, one can assume that the theory of Kant proves efficient in this sphere as well. According to Pinker, the foundational categories of reality are not in the world but are imposed by ones culture , which means that the modern linguistics possesses a certain speck of the Enlightenment as Kants theory of the world development.
The difference between linguistic competence and linguistic performance
It is quite peculiar that the aspects of linguistics touch upon different spheres of peoples brain work. At certain moments incorporating the linguistic competence and the linguistic performance proves impossible, since they are opposed to each other like theory and practice. The first being the sum of knowledge that the given person possesses in the sphere of linguistics, and the latter meaning the practical application of this knowledge, there can be certain situations when the two are completely incompatible. Hence follow all sorts of puns and play on words; however, sometimes more serious misconceptions can occur, once the purport of the communication has been delivered to the recipient in the wrong and distorted way.
A perfect specimen of this kind of linguistic puns is the book by Lewis Carroll, Alice in the Wonderland. Considering the quotation offered, one can claim with certainty that the situation of the linguistic collision has occurred although the lead characters linguistic competence was impeccable, and the task was completely clear to Alice, she failed to complete it, thus showing the absolute failure of linguistic performance mostly due to the circumstances. It is evident that there is a certain distinction between linguistic competence and linguistic performance, and it must be admitted that such a difference is crucial in the sphere of linguistics. The reasons for such assumptions are evident since the two components play the part of the theory and the practical application in the sphere of language.
There is no doubt that the gap that is sometimes created between the grammatical correctness of a certain phrase and its further acceptability is truly significant. A certain phrase might have no meaning at all, yet follow the grammatical rules completely. Analyzing the example from Alice in the Wonderland that has been provided, one can notice that the grammatical construction if the phrase is given is impeccable; yet its monotonousness and the considerable number of repetitions hinders its acceptance. Also, the phrase contains ten separate elements that have to be analyzed (the ten ones in the given case, to be more precise), which means that the memorizing process will be somewhat slow.
To complicate the matter, the elements are completely the same, which is bound to lose count of the elements in question. The last, but not the least, is the aspect of speed that the phrase was pronounced with. Analyzing the given sentence, one can spot immediately that it lacks any commas, which means that the entire phrase was pronounced without even stopping to catch a breath. Therefore, the issue of Alices linguistic competence cannot be denied the girl identified the given task and understood what was demanded to complete it, yet the very form of the assignment made her fail. It can be considered that in the given case, the conflict of linguistic competence and linguistic performance comes to the forth.
Although the example is taken from a fairy-tale, it must be admitted that the accidents involving the conflict between the two aspects of linguistics occur in reality as well. Considering the modern world and how the two elements of linguistics are opposed to each other in ordinary life, one can suppose that linguistic competence and linguistic performance must be inseparable for successful communication. Indeed, when ideas are communicated to the other person, the addressee should had the basic linguistic competence, otherwise (s)he will not be able to conceive the ideas offered by the opponent.
On the other hand, the linguistic performance must be completed as well. In this case, the problem of comprehensibility is being touched upon. For instance, if one asks a person what the word to bubulcitate means, the respondent will hesitate, which is a clear-cut example of the lack of linguistic competence. In the given case, successful communication is impossible. On the other hand, asking one to stack the words stay, woe, apple, great, cinder, parallel, prune, adequate in an alphabetical order orally, a person is likely to encounter the phenomenon of linguistic performance failure.
In contrast to the previous case, the given assignment does not cause any problems with understanding the task, which means that the linguistic competence in the given case is complete. Yet the linguistic performance is hindered by the abundance of the information that the recipient has to operate with. In both cases, the result will be deplorable, which means that linguistic competence and linguistic performance must be inseparable to make communication successful.
The concept of the monster in Mary Shelleys Frankenstein concerning critical and theoretical texts
Does a beast deserve happiness? Moreover, can a man who created a monster be called a human being? People say that, when being told that most of the world considers Frankenstein the name of the monster, Mary Shelly said that this could be true. Indeed, the crazy doctor who considered himself Dr. Faustus does not deserve a speck of compassion in contrast to his creation and victim, the miserable beast that cannot find the place where he belongs. It seems that the creature feared by everyone is more humane than Dr. Frankenstein himself is.
What makes a monster? Perhaps, these are the ideas and the inclinations that give birth to the most terrifying creature ever living on the earth. Even though the monster created had the terrifying appearance and was practically the lowest of the low, compared to his educated and refined creator, the miserable beast is more humane than the doctor this creature is devoted like a dog and naive like a child, which means that it could not survive in the world of the ordinary.
With his childish approach and the justice of the wild, the creation of Dr. Frankenstein could never live among people yet the beast is still worth being called a human being. It is evident that the monster does not have the desire to destroy he would rather live his peaceful life in a detached place, isolated from the rest of humankind, and stay reconciled with himself and the rest of the world. Yet with the doctor Frankensteins ambitions, the beast is forced to live the life that he hates and follow the orders that he does not understand. Indeed, Dr. Frankenstein is the one worth being called the true monster in the story, with his ideas as disgusting and terrible as the appearance of his brainchild.
Considering the drama that takes place in Frankensteins life through the lens of the theories of Enlightenment, one can assume that the tragedy of the creator and his creation embrace the eternal experience of mankind to cognize the world and bring the knowledge obtained into an integral whole. Considering the idea of Enlightenment as Kant and Foucault explained it, one can suggest that the tragedy of Frankenstein obtains new shades of meaning, once the ideas of Enlightenment are applied to it.
One of the most important issues of the novel is its double name, which makes the novel acquire a double meaning and provides another way to see its hidden ideas. Calling Frankenstein the new Prometheus, Mary Shelly approaches the theory of Enlightenment as Kant and Foucault understood it. According to the Greek mythology, Prometheus, the Titan, created the humankind in comparison to his, Dr. Frankenstein created a peculiar specimen of a human being, which is, of course, less great, yet nonetheless impressive.
Prometheus gives people the knowledge the sacred treasure that only gods can possess; compared to him, Dr. Frankenstein tries to breathe some culture and understanding into the creation of his, yet with little success& The opposition of mind and culture has led to the most dramatic results. As Foucault explained, another society, of another way of thinking, another culture, another vision of the world (Foucault), once collided with the opposing ideas, is bound to subside or die.
Seeking for immortality and power (Shelley 71), Frankenstein was doomed to failure and he seemed to know it as soon as his brainchild opened his eyes and stared at his creator. This is the collision of cultures, the clash of the world visions that makes the novel so tragic. Instead of accepting the new member of society, people start persecuting and tormenting him for people always do so to the ones whom they fear; and the monster, who feels the urge to express his elevated feelings understands the contrast to the high-flown emotions and the miserable flesh of his.
Considering the situation in which the monster was trapped in, one might find certain common traits between Frankensteins creation and the chimpanzees from Pinkers experiment. According to what the results of the test said, chimps were unable to master the skill of either the sign language or the spoken one; this is, perhaps, one of the most impressive evidence of the fact that the universal system (Pinker), which all people belong to, proves effective only with humans. Prometheus failed this time; his brainchild was not perfect enough to become a member of the human race.
Works Cited
Foucault, Michel. What Is Enlightenment? 2011. Web.
Kant, Immanuel. An Answer to the Question: What Is Enlightenment? 1784. Web.
Pinker, Steven. The Language Instinct: The New Science of Language and Mind. London: Penguin, 2003. Print.
Shelley, Mary. Frankenstein or The Modern Prometheus: The 1818 Text. Ed. Marilyn Butler. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1994. Print.
The concept of Enlightenment concerning humanistic studies as practiced now in Linguistics, Literature, and History/Society/Culture
Governed by the principle of the one-way movement, the world is spinning around only to approach another stage of its progress. However, the ancient ideas of how the new era must look and what it must be guided by often prove a mistake. Nevertheless, it cannot be doubted that there is a grain of truth in the theories of the past since some of them still prove efficient in modern times. Among these, the ideas of Enlightenment have been also interwoven into the pattern of modern life, yet how they have been implicated might be somewhat different from the suppositions of the ancient philosophers.
It must be admitted that certain subtle issues bring closer philosophy and linguistics, making them an integral part of the concept of the given country and the world in general. Tracking the most peculiar issues of the Enlightenment philosophy manifesting itself in such sciences as linguistics, one will be able to conceive the ubiquity of t5he idea of the Enlightenment and realize what brings the modern world and the old concept of Enlightenment together.
What is Enlightenment, after all? According to Kant, this is freedom and at the same time the complete, utter understanding. As the philosopher himself claims, Nothing is required for this enlightenment, however, except freedom; and the freedom in question is the least harmful of all, namely, the freedom to use reason publicly in all matters (Kant). Therefore, it can be considered that the key idea of Enlightenment is interwoven into the pattern of the modern life since the modern laws presuppose that people enjoy freedom as long as it does not harm the rest of the humankind. Therefore, it cannot be doubted that the ideas of Enlightenment in the vision if Kant has been implemented into the contemporary world long before.
Considering the relation of Kants ideas on Enlightenment concerning the aspects of modern English language, one can see the certain interrelation between the key ideas of the Enlightenment and the sections of English studies. Considering the aspect of linguistics, one can claim with certainty that there is a considerable interrelation between the ideas expressed by Kant and the key aspects of the language studies. Thus, one of the most obvious ideas of the Enlightenment, the issue of freedom and the possibility of thinking before following certain ideas blindly has been put into practice most efficiently.
As Kant claimed, one of the most annoying and invulnerable prejudices of the past was the concept of believing without any proofs needed and following ideas blindly. In contrast to the ancient times, nowadays the modern science presupposes well-grounded theories, preferring the ideas that demand certain proofs to the principles that no one has ever attempted to consider. There is no secret that even in linguistics, the rules and laws of the language are completely logical and based on careful and thorough meditations. Also, the modern fashion of teaching the language offers an opportunity for dialogue between the teacher and the student modern language studies are the dialogue between those learning and those teaching.
This means that one of the core principles of the Enlightenment expressed by Kant the idea of proving the postulates of science has been implemented. Putting it into the words of Pinker, the ear of language and mind has come for people to understand the links between the two integral parts of each persons life the language and the idea of progress. This is the universal grammar that Pinker was speaking about. According to Pinker, the ideas of Enlightenment are also the sphere where the common misconceptions concerning the linguistic issues stem from: as Pinker emphasizes, it is the weaker version , that is, the linguistic determinism that is the reason for the difference in the speakers thoughts (Pinker 57).
Considering how the ideas of the Enlightenment were implicated in the sphere of the English literature, one will inevitably notice that the striving for knowledge is the key issue and the guiding idea for the writers since the thoughts of Kant were sounded. For instance, in Mary Shelleys Frankenstein, the scientists longing for knowledge dominates over the rest of his wishes.
In terms of the traces of the Enlightenment in modern English culture, one can assume that the theory of Kant proves efficient in this sphere as well. According to Pinker, the foundational categories of reality are not in the world but are imposed by ones culture , which means that the modern linguistics possesses a certain speck of the Enlightenment as Kants theory of the world development.
The difference between linguistic competence and linguistic performance
It is quite peculiar that the aspects of linguistics touch upon different spheres of peoples brain work. At certain moments incorporating the linguistic competence and the linguistic performance proves impossible, since they are opposed to each other like theory and practice. The first being the sum of knowledge that the given person possesses in the sphere of linguistics, and the latter meaning the practical application of this knowledge, there can be certain situations when the two are completely incompatible. Hence follow all sorts of puns and play on words; however, sometimes more serious misconceptions can occur, once the purport of the communication has been delivered to the recipient in the wrong and distorted way.
A perfect specimen of this kind of linguistic puns is the book by Lewis Carroll, Alice in the Wonderland. Considering the quotation offered, one can claim with certainty that the situation of the linguistic collision has occurred although the lead characters linguistic competence was impeccable, and the task was completely clear to Alice, she failed to complete it, thus showing the absolute failure of linguistic performance mostly due to the circumstances. It is evident that there is a certain distinction between linguistic competence and linguistic performance, and it must be admitted that such a difference is crucial in the sphere of linguistics. The reasons for such assumptions are evident since the two components play the part of the theory and the practical application in the sphere of language.
There is no doubt that the gap that is sometimes created between the grammatical correctness of a certain phrase and its further acceptability is truly significant. A certain phrase might have no meaning at all, yet follow the grammatical rules completely. Analyzing the example from Alice in the Wonderland that has been provided, one can notice that the grammatical construction if the phrase is given is impeccable; yet its monotonousness and the considerable number of repetitions hinders its acceptance. Also, the phrase contains ten separate elements that have to be analyzed (the ten ones in the given case, to be more precise), which means that the memorizing process will be somewhat slow.
To complicate the matter, the elements are completely the same, which is bound to lose count of the elements in question. The last, but not the least, is the aspect of speed that the phrase was pronounced with. Analyzing the given sentence, one can spot immediately that it lacks any commas, which means that the entire phrase was pronounced without even stopping to catch a breath. Therefore, the issue of Alices linguistic competence cannot be denied the girl identified the given task and understood what was demanded to complete it, yet the very form of the assignment made her fail. It can be considered that in the given case, the conflict of linguistic competence and linguistic performance comes to the forth.
Although the example is taken from a fairy-tale, it must be admitted that the accidents involving the conflict between the two aspects of linguistics occur in reality as well. Considering the modern world and how the two elements of linguistics are opposed to each other in ordinary life, one can suppose that linguistic competence and linguistic performance must be inseparable for successful communication. Indeed, when ideas are communicated to the other person, the addressee should had the basic linguistic competence, otherwise (s)he will not be able to conceive the ideas offered by the opponent.
On the other hand, the linguistic performance must be completed as well. In this case, the problem of comprehensibility is being touched upon. For instance, if one asks a person what the word to bubulcitate means, the respondent will hesitate, which is a clear-cut example of the lack of linguistic competence. In the given case, successful communication is impossible. On the other hand, asking one to stack the words stay, woe, apple, great, cinder, parallel, prune, adequate in an alphabetical order orally, a person is likely to encounter the phenomenon of linguistic performance failure.
In contrast to the previous case, the given assignment does not cause any problems with understanding the task, which means that the linguistic competence in the given case is complete. Yet the linguistic performance is hindered by the abundance of the information that the recipient has to operate with. In both cases, the result will be deplorable, which means that linguistic competence and linguistic performance must be inseparable to make communication successful.
The concept of the monster in Mary Shelleys Frankenstein concerning critical and theoretical texts
Does a beast deserve happiness? Moreover, can a man who created a monster be called a human being? People say that, when being told that most of the world considers Frankenstein the name of the monster, Mary Shelly said that this could be true. Indeed, the crazy doctor who considered himself Dr. Faustus does not deserve a speck of compassion in contrast to his creation and victim, the miserable beast that cannot find the place where he belongs. It seems that the creature feared by everyone is more humane than Dr. Frankenstein himself is.
What makes a monster? Perhaps, these are the ideas and the inclinations that give birth to the most terrifying creature ever living on the earth. Even though the monster created had the terrifying appearance and was practically the lowest of the low, compared to his educated and refined creator, the miserable beast is more humane than the doctor this creature is devoted like a dog and naive like a child, which means that it could not survive in the world of the ordinary.
With his childish approach and the justice of the wild, the creation of Dr. Frankenstein could never live among people yet the beast is still worth being called a human being. It is evident that the monster does not have the desire to destroy he would rather live his peaceful life in a detached place, isolated from the rest of humankind, and stay reconciled with himself and the rest of the world. Yet with the doctor Frankensteins ambitions, the beast is forced to live the life that he hates and follow the orders that he does not understand. Indeed, Dr. Frankenstein is the one worth being called the true monster in the story, with his ideas as disgusting and terrible as the appearance of his brainchild.
Considering the drama that takes place in Frankensteins life through the lens of the theories of Enlightenment, one can assume that the tragedy of the creator and his creation embrace the eternal experience of mankind to cognize the world and bring the knowledge obtained into an integral whole. Considering the idea of Enlightenment as Kant and Foucault explained it, one can suggest that the tragedy of Frankenstein obtains new shades of meaning, once the ideas of Enlightenment are applied to it.
One of the most important issues of the novel is its double name, which makes the novel acquire a double meaning and provides another way to see its hidden ideas. Calling Frankenstein the new Prometheus, Mary Shelly approaches the theory of Enlightenment as Kant and Foucault understood it. According to the Greek mythology, Prometheus, the Titan, created the humankind in comparison to his, Dr. Frankenstein created a peculiar specimen of a human being, which is, of course, less great, yet nonetheless impressive.
Prometheus gives people the knowledge the sacred treasure that only gods can possess; compared to him, Dr. Frankenstein tries to breathe some culture and understanding into the creation of his, yet with little success& The opposition of mind and culture has led to the most dramatic results. As Foucault explained, another society, of another way of thinking, another culture, another vision of the world (Foucault), once collided with the opposing ideas, is bound to subside or die.
Seeking for immortality and power (Shelley 71), Frankenstein was doomed to failure and he seemed to know it as soon as his brainchild opened his eyes and stared at his creator. This is the collision of cultures, the clash of the world visions that makes the novel so tragic. Instead of accepting the new member of society, people start persecuting and tormenting him for people always do so to the ones whom they fear; and the monster, who feels the urge to express his elevated feelings understands the contrast to the high-flown emotions and the miserable flesh of his.
Considering the situation in which the monster was trapped in, one might find certain common traits between Frankensteins creation and the chimpanzees from Pinkers experiment. According to what the results of the test said, chimps were unable to master the skill of either the sign language or the spoken one; this is, perhaps, one of the most impressive evidence of the fact that the universal system (Pinker), which all people belong to, proves effective only with humans. Prometheus failed this time; his brainchild was not perfect enough to become a member of the human race.
Works Cited
Foucault, Michel. What Is Enlightenment? 2011. Web.
Kant, Immanuel. An Answer to the Question: What Is Enlightenment? 1784. Web.
Pinker, Steven. The Language Instinct: The New Science of Language and Mind. London: Penguin, 2003. Print.
Shelley, Mary. Frankenstein or The Modern Prometheus: The 1818 Text. Ed. Marilyn Butler. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1994. Print.
Enlightenment in history was an era that appeared in the 18th Century, with many people being stakeholders in this significant change. It was a movement that turned out to be philosophical and intellectual. The ideologies of this era focused on the worth of human contentment, the pursuit of knowledge derived via reason and sensory evidence, and principles such as liberty, progress, toleration, fraternity, constitutional governance, and separation of church and state. Among the many philosophers, Kant was one of the main contributors to the enlightenment, being a German philosopher and one of the enlightenment thinkers. His definition of enlightenment is human liberation from his self-imposed inability to utilize his comprehension without leaning on further counsel (Kant 16). I believe that the US Declaration is an effective representation of Kants enlightenment and maturity .
The Enlightenment Era
Kants definition of enlightenment helps comprehend the nonage of society from an individual, giving this definition a foundation on the ability to live under colonialism on a state or individual basis. He perceives this nonage as immaturity that is self-imposed when it emerges from the lack of confidence in the reliability of an individuals intellect without dependence on another counsel (Kant 19). Kant states that society can gain this form of enlightenment by allowing full-time liberty of the social use of an individuals intelligence.
Unalienable rights cannot be abandoned, ignored, or deprived of the human race by any means. They are the elementary sections of humankind, the foundation for ethical associations among people, such as the freedom to express oneself in speech and worship and live. During the enlightenment era, these rights liberated people with the knowledge and comprehension of their rights instead of a slavery mindset. It was also a season of introducing doctrine and indoctrination in that individuals started comprehending their worship rights.
It should be noted that the US Declaration reflects what Kant considers enlightenment and maturity in the philosophical sense. In other words, it is the nature of the positions of the Declaration, and its significance for a society that will identify the maturity of citizens. Here, enlightenment is understood in the sense of self-awareness, the stage of a clear sense of ones own independence. This can be seen in Kants reflections a man may for his own person, &, enlightening himself in matters he ought to know about (Kant 73). Here the philosopher claims that enlightenment results from knowing and feeling oneself. The U.S. Declaration of Independence reflects Kants meaning of enlightenment and maturity with the supporting statement, We hold these truths to be self-evident; that all men are created equal; that their Creator endows them with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness; that to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. (History para 5). Representatives of the United States of America assembled in General Congress to solemnly publish and declare that they ought to be free and independent states, absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown. And in support of this declaration, and with a strong faith in divine providences protection, we mutually vow to each other our lives, fortunes, and sacred honor ( Declaration of Independence: A Transcription para 5). The U.S. began to understand and believe in their worth as equal deserving partners to run their affairs without the interruptions of any other colony, even if it would cost their association.
The message of the U.S. declaration stated that all menblack and white men alikewould be given the unalienable rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Jeffersons prologue not only promises equality but also promises freedom. After the Revolutionary War, this guarantee was not kept because, in the U.S., discrimination against black people was still at its peak, with many losing their lives on matters of policing, among others. Black lives have been treated according to their color, denying them the right to work and co-exist peacefully with the white race. A good example of this would be the death of George Floyd in the hands of the same people who ought to protect him and observe justice. Racial discrimination seems to be persistent more in the U.S. than in other countries affected by independence from their folk.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the enlightenment was an era that involved different perspectives, mainly ensuring that the traditions were neglected and new beliefs adopted. It was how the human race believed in themselves and their intellect. Kants definition says that human beings only self-imposed immaturity when they fail to trust their minds and seek more counsel. Relation to the U.S. declaration of Independence signified enlightenment and maturity as they stopped relying upon the counsel of man-states and the British colonies. The declarations message guaranteed that all people would have equal treatment and be open to freedoms and rights despite their skin color and race. However, after the revolutionary war, this still has not been implemented as black people endured injustice and violence at the hands of their protectors, making the U.S. declaration of independence give all equal rights irrespective of their race, with many being found in the crisis of death.
Similar to many other regions of Western Europe, the Enlightenment era greatly affected the social, cultural, and political aspects of life in Scotland. In particular, the concept of useful knowledge was a significant term that many Scottish thinkers of the 18th century frequently used in their writings and presentations. In the work of most Scottish thinkers of the time, humanitys pursuit of knowledge and its use in practical ways was viewed as a universal possibility in all societies. Among the prominent Scottish thinkers of the enlightenment era, Adam Ferguson, John Millar, William Robertson, and Henry Home, the origin of history, its purpose, and its use in a civil society became a legal aspect.
Within this broad discussion, the thinkers of the Scottish Enlightenment considered the stages of community through theoretical means known as stadial theory or stadial history. This concept, as an innovation, was based on the four stages theory of society. The theory stated that four stages of social development were involved in transforming human communities from savages to civilized societies - hunting, pasturage, agriculture, and commerce. As evidenced by the arguments of the Scottish Enlightenment era, the radial history of knowledge requires a constellation of historical and social conditions to transform societies.
There was a standard view of the types of society that could properly cultivate helpful knowledge and achieve social transformations. A constellation of historical and social conditions was a prerequisite and a necessity for a society to transform. First, as Smith puts it, division of labor was necessary for a society to cultivate practical knowledge properly. Henry Home notes that the division of labor would create a class of people who were able to use knowledge to gain freedom from the luxury and depression of bodily work.
Secondly, it was necessary to possess private property, whose role was to guarantee political stability. Ferguson argues that when society had personal property and settlement, it would invent. This was a form of ingenuity that involved practice and study of both science and arts. Adam Smith further stresses the need for the invention of the art of printing and public discourse as factors that would improve and enhance the communication of knowledge between groups of people.
The Scottish enlightenment era thinkers believed that the social transformation from hunting to commerce was a strict, linear, and unilineal ladder-like process or evolution. Moreover, they believed that the fundamental components distinguishing societies were not based on accidents of race, religion, or climate. Instead, the Scottish thinkers viewed that the psychological, social, cultural, and legal effects of the history of property and sustenance relations contributed to the progress.
According to the radial history of social transformation, all societies, regardless of race, religion, and climatic conditions, must pass through the four radial stages. First, in the hunting stage, a society involves hunting and gathering, and the property only extends to what an individual can carry, making savagery the way of life. Then, a society transforms into pastoralism, which involves the development of animal husbandry and necessitates barbarism. Third, the agriculture stage in radial history involves settlement and the use of land as property for the production of sustenance, which resulted in civilization. The final stage involved turning to commerce, a contemporary way of life achieved initially in Europe.
Borrowing from the radial theory, various Scottish thinkers expanded anthropology in the enlightenment era by studying how human societies exist and the roles individuals and groups assume with time. In his book The Origin of the Distinction of Ranks, John Millar argues that as society progresses, the nature of authority changes in agriculture, subsistence, arts, commerce, and manufacture. In how writings, Millar argues that the natural law dictates the division of domestic duties, identifying the roles of women, children, and servants. Similarly, the progress of manufacturing and arts brought about stability in authority, with a reduced rate of violence and increased diversity of ranks.
Similarly, the stadial history has been applied to explain or provide a background on how modern societies develop, including the existence of empires. For instance, Emma Rothschilds book The inner life of empires attempts to explain the changing social systems and their impacts on individuals, families, groups, and society. Rothschild used the example of the Johnstone family in the British Empire in the 19th century. The family lives on different continents within the British Empire, where they are used as a reflection of the social systems and practices of the time. The radial theory suggested by Smith and other Scottish thinkers of the enlightenment era is reflected in Rothschilds writings.
Back in Europe, the Johnston family witnessed the extent of diversification of roles, such as writers, teachers, scientists, scribes, rulers, merchants, servants, and others. In the Americas, Australia, and Asia, the family lives with different societal role players, including governors, slave owners, slaves, and even criminals. From the writings by Rothschild, it is clear that the idea is to expand the stadial history to show how societies transform beyond the commerce stage suggested by the Scottish thinker as the end of social transformation through knowledge use and acquisition. Rothschilds writings show that societies continue to evolve psychologically, politically, economically, socially, and mentally. Furthermore, it demonstrates the life in the empire when the distinctions between private and public, slavery and servitude, and home and overseas constantly fluctuated.
From this analysis, it is clear that a collection of historical and social conditions is necessary to transform a society continuously. In the early period of social transformations, private and public property, division of labor and roles, and authority were necessary factors to drive the change. Nevertheless, as societies became more settled and commercial, the transformation continued as they expanded to include more roles for different groups of individuals. Rothschilds work raises the views of the 19th century Scottish thinkers like Hume, Smith, Adam, and others to show how the European empires expanded and progressed even after reaching the final stage in the stadial theory.
The morning of a modern person hardly begins with a shower or coffee. First of all, upon waking up, a lot of people pick up the phone and turn on Wi-Fi. Throughout the day, they also read newspapers on the subway, listen to the radio in cars, stumble upon various signboards, watch TV, and still do not understand that mass media is everywhere. The media industry is a modern field of communication between people and delivering meaningful informational products to the audience. It is what information space around society creates every day and every second. The media industry is a contradictory phenomenon of the modern world, a powerful weapon that allows influencing the masses of people and a means that can both strengthen the state system and disrupt it.
The Controversy of the Media Industry
Figure 1
The role of the media industry has long been debated in different countries around the world. Its sphere is a discrepant phenomenon that has both positive and negative sides. As for advantages, it informs people about the news, entertains, educates, and makes users versatile. Well-developed and well-financed social media, which have nothing to do with private or state media, are an essential element and condition for the existence of true democracy. However, many information products created only to profit invisibly affect human convictions, advertise useless goods, and often present false information. Therefore, it would be wrong to evaluate media as only a positive or negative phenomenon. It should be understood in the context of the media industry because it is a product that directly depends on the purpose of its producer.
The Role of Media in Democracy
The power of the media is so significant that it is called the fourth branch of government. Its influence on society turns out to be incomparably more important than the influence of other social institutions. Public service media, which have a strong position in society, play a significant positive role in strengthening and developing democracy. Democracy is directly dependent on the level of education of its citizens, and it is the main task not only for schools but also for the media to enlighten the citizenry. One of the primary political freedoms, freedom of speech, cannot be realized without independent media. Citizens involvement in politics, their competence, the ability to make grounded choices and make responsible decisions depend on their access to information about the activities of government bodies. Non-commercial social media helps people fight dishonesty, forgery, and other phenomena, summarized under corruption or decadence.
The Peculiarities of Commercial Media
While social media contributes to forming an active civic position, commercial one aims to sell goods. It does not care about state affairs, striving to make people buy things they do not even need. The media industry has a decisive impact on what people wear, what books they read, what political and cultural views they hold, and what professions they choose. Its power is as great as invisible: people rarely notice that they are being manipulated, and their decisions are dictated not by their will but by someone elses volition.
While social media contributes to the formation of active civic position, commercial one aims to sell goods.
The negative influences of commercial media on democracy are the rapid spread of fake news and the collection of users personal data, when all consumers movements on sites are fixed. Moreover, as Chakrabarti (2018) claims, one of the most significant demerits of social media is echo chambers, where users can see only viewpoints they agree with, which further drives people apart. Hence, commercial media is contrasted with the national one, which aims to educate citizens.
Thus, the force of mass media extends to almost all spheres of social life. Its role is ambiguous and controversial in the modern world. They educate the real citizens, entertain, enlighten, and give the chance to discover the information picture of the world from different aspects. However, the media products often present false information and mislead their consumers. The media industry debate is not happening at the product level but at the manufacturer level. Information products are created with a specific purpose, and this very purpose is the main reason for the ambiguity of the media industry.
References
Chakrabarti, S. (2018). Hard questions: What effect does social media have on democracy? Facebook. Web.
