Category: England

Introduction

Published in 1722, Daniel Defoe’s ‘Moll Flanders’ is a picaresque novel that tells the story of a woman and her struggles for success and survival in 18th-century England society, where key elements include wealth and money. The full title of the novel is ‘The Fortunes and Misfortunes of the Famous Moll Flanders.’ Daniel Defoe is regarded as the first authentic novelist and one of the earliest writers to adopt the novel form. Born Daniel Foe, his father, James Foe, was a butcher and candle maker. Defoe initially studied at Newington Green to become a Presbyterian Minister. In 1684, he married Mary Tuffley, and later changed his name to De Foe or Defoe to appear more aristocratic. In 1702, during the reign of Queen Anne, Defoe was arrested for writing ‘The Shortest Way with The Dissenters,’ a satire on religious intolerance, and spent three years in Newgate Prison. He belonged to the middle class and his family was committed to Puritanism. ‘Moll Flanders’ is not as well-known as ‘Robinson Crusoe,’ his first and most popular novel, which was published before ‘Moll Flanders’ in 1719. Defoe is renowned for both his novels and his journalism, and he remains one of the most important moralists writing about family and family life in the early 18th century. ‘Moll Flanders’ incorporates elements of romance, picaresque, Puritan narrative, and crime narratives. Defoe divides the narrative into three parts: Moll’s childhood and early love affairs, her attempts to find domestic and economic security through marriage, and her career as a thief. In essence, the novel explores the challenges of achieving a good life in late 17th and early 18th century England, with its main character, Moll Flanders, embodying the aspirations and struggles of Early Modern England. Moll dedicates her life to attaining wealth and higher social status, exemplifying the values and attitudes of her time. Half of the novel revolves around Moll’s endeavors to secure her future through marriage. Additionally, the novel contains elements of romance, such as the search for lost relatives, social ascent, and the theme of incest.

Marriage and Wealth in Early Modern England Society

In the 18th century, most jobs required significant physical strength, leading to men predominantly occupying these roles. Household chores were time-consuming, with no convenience foods or labor-saving devices available. Consequently, most married women did not work outside the home, as they were occupied with organizing household tasks and managing servants. However, life was challenging for spinsters, who often worked in occupations such as spinning, dressmaking, and midwifery. Unfortunately, many women were relegated to domestic service. Moll, a lower-class character, moves among wealthy families, exposing their vanity and superficiality.

Money represented capitalism and mercantilism during this period. Although successful female traders existed, societal constraints limited their opportunities. Women were expected to bask in the glory of their husbands’ success, reinforcing the notion that marriage was a woman’s primary avenue to financial security. Consequently, women often evaluated their worth and relationships based on monetary considerations. Moll’s actions reflect this mindset, as she measures people and relationships solely by their financial potential. England’s hierarchical social structure allowed for upward and downward mobility. Marriage was a crucial determinant of a woman’s social and economic standing. Moll enters into multiple marriages in pursuit of financial stability, mirroring the prevailing societal norms. While many women aspired to marry for financial security, not all found such stability, as widowhood or abandonment left them vulnerable. A wife’s legal and financial autonomy was severely limited, with her husband controlling family property and decisions. Moll’s desire to attain gentility highlights the societal emphasis on wealth and status. Her aspirations contrast with those of her peers, who envision a life of luxury and social prominence. Moll’s journey reflects the harsh realities faced by women navigating the marriage market, where financial considerations outweigh personal qualities.

Crime and Moll Flanders

Crime was rampant in Early Modern England, with over 200 offenses punishable by death. Executions were frequent, and the government resorted to deporting convicts to British colonies to address prison overcrowding. Publications on crime and criminals proliferated during the early 18th century, reflecting growing concerns about lawlessness. Moll discovers that immorality and criminal activities offer financial rewards and social acceptance unavailable through traditional means. Money empowers her to engage in illicit activities, and she becomes adept at thievery, collaborating with experienced criminals, and mastering the art of theft. Despite her criminal exploits, Moll earns a reputation as a skilled thief, exploiting her notoriety to her advantage. However, her criminal activities eventually catch up with her, leading to her arrest and imprisonment.

Conclusion

‘Moll Flanders’ offers a window into the socioeconomic realities and moral dilemmas of Early Modern England. Moll’s relentless pursuit of wealth and status reflects the societal emphasis on material success and social mobility. Her actions, while morally questionable, underscore the challenges faced by women in a patriarchal society where financial independence is elusive. The novel highlights the interplay between crime, gender, and social order, illustrating how economic necessity drove individuals to engage in illicit activities. Despite her criminal endeavors, Moll’s story serves as a poignant commentary on the enduring quest for security and belonging in a rapidly changing world.

References

1. Blewett, D. (1981). Changing Attitudes toward Marriage in the Time of Defoe: The Case of Moll Flanders. Huntington Library Quarterly, 44(2), 77-88. doi:10.2307/3817523
2. Defoe, D., & Blewett, D. (Ed.). (1989). The Fortunes and Misfortunes of The Famous Moll Flanders. England: Clays Ltd, St Ives plc.
3. Garthine, W. (2003). Crime, Gender, and Social Order in Early Modern England. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
4. Jacqueline, E. (1998). Women in Early Modern England 1500-1700. London: UCL Press.
5. Keith, W. (2003). English Society 1580-1680. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
6. Susan, D. A., & Amussen (Ed.). (1993). An Ordered Society and Class in Early Modern England. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
7. Scheuermann, M. (1993). Introduction. In Her Bread To Earn: Women, Money, and Society from Defoe to Austen (pp. 1-11). University Press of Kentucky. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt130jjs6.4

Gulliver’s Travels is a famous satire novel that was written in the 18th century by Johnathan Swift. Swift uses Gulliver to play a role that helps us understand the differences and similarities between the Lilliputians and the Brobdingnagians and their emperor and king respectively. This undermines the subculture of aristocratic England. The Lilliputians are very aggressive and violent little miniature beings. In the novel when they find Gulliver they automatically assume that he’s a threat to them so they tie him up and shoot him with little tiny arrows. They also have many civil wars amongst themselves over the most ridiculous things such as which end you should crack an egg on. These civil wars have resulted in the deaths of many Lilliputians.

The Brobdingnagians are almost the complete opposite of the Lilliputians. They are very kind huge giant people who seek peace. In fact, when the king of the Brobdingnagians hears that gunpowder and other things have been invented to aid in the slaughtering of men he is shocked by the savagery of the countrymen. The Brobdingnagians also have very few laws but the laws they do have are relatively simple and east to follow. In Lilliput, Gulliver begins as a prisoner because he agrees to be confined but he could very easily break loose if he wanted to. Once the emperor of Lilliput realizes how good of a weapon Gulliver would be against Blefuscu he releases Gulliver. He is exploited by the emperor to wipe out the Blefuscudian people but he refuses to do so. In turn, the emperor turns on him and accuses him of treason because he didn’t want to help fight with them. Gulliver then seeks refugee with the Blefuscu people and they actually help Gulliver because of the fact that he didn’t want to hurt them.

In Brobdingnag, Gulliver is still exploited but as an entertainer this time. The first man he lives with makes money by forcing Gulliver to put on a show for the people that come to see him. What this man does to Gulliver is seen as an anomaly to the Brobdingnagians because they were trying to protect Gulliver. Noticing this, the king buys Gulliver from the man that found and exploited him and treats Gulliver like he should be treated. The differences between the Lilliputians and the Brobdingnagians is mostly based on their conditions and formation of living. Gulliver was a “man mountain” in Lilliput but becomes a dwarf in Brobdingnag. The emperor of Lilliput and the king of Brobdingnag are not comparable in size so the difference in their mental attitudes is understandable.

The emperor of Lilliput is ridiculous. In order to hold a position in the court you need to be a skilled rope dancer and learn to jump the highest without falling. Appointing the court this way doesn’t assure that the most qualified or skilled person gets the job but the person that is the best at some arbitrary task. Furthermore, the emperor is extremely warlike. Gulliver declares that the Lilliputian army possesses “the best military discipline I ever beheld” (Swift, p. 41). The king of Brobdingnag on the other hand is much more peaceful and caring. Gulliver expects the people to be violent because they are so massive but they are the complete opposite. The king is amazed at Gulliver’s stories of England. In the end he tells Gulliver, “I cannot but conclude the bulk of your natives to be the most pernicious race of little odious vermin that nature ever suffered to crawl upon the surface of the earth” (Swift, p. 164-165). Swift uses these two rulers in Gulliver’s Travels to show how much he hated the vices that politicians had of England during the 18th century.

Introduction

The history of Ice Hockey in England was a topic that interested my since I played Ice Hockey for most of my life. Ice Hockey is my passion and is what I would like to build a career in. The history of the game has strong roots in England and will be analyzed in this paper along with the future of hockey in England.

When you think of Ice Hockey, the first thing to come to mind is often Canada, many believe that Ice Hockey is a Canadian born sport since it is extremely popular amongst the people in North America. However, the game has roots in Field Hockey played in Great Britain and Lacrosse by the early Native Americans of the United States the Mi’kmaq which was derived from the game of hurling from Ireland. Hockey was brought to Canada by British soldiers in the mid-1800’s where a square wooden block was moved with a stick or “hurley” to place the block into the opposing teams net. The early games of hockey included two stone nets that were frozen into each side of the ice playing surface and the first recording of a puck being used was in Canada in 1860.

The first recorded hockey game was in 1875 in Montreal’s Victoria Skating Rink between two teams of McGill University students. In 1877 the McGill University Hockey Club was formed, and the rules of the game were organized due to the violent reputation that the game was forming. In the early 20th century, sticks were beginning to be manufactured, shin pads and chest protectors were starting to make up the modern required equipment for playing the game, and arenas were being developed across Eastern Canada. Meanwhile, the first game of European Ice Hockey would be played ten years after the first recorded game of hockey, this game was played between Oxford University and their rival Cambridge in St. Moritz, Switzerland. There is however discrepancy between the actual date of this game, since this game was not recorded. The first documented game would occur in 1895 between the rival universities and Oxford would win the game 6-0. The beginning of organized hockey in London began in 1903 with a five-team league based out of Prince’s Skating Club in Knightsbridge and Hengler’s Ice Rink in the City of Westminster.

In 1914, the British Ice Hockey Association became the governing body for Ice Hockey in Britain, later being replaced by Ice Hockey UK in 1999 with the rise in popularity of the sport. In the 1980’s, the British Hockey League was becoming extremely popular especially in Northeast England and Scotland in which their respective teams were at the top of the standings. The popularity grew in the 1990’s with the addition of teams in Sheffield and Manchester who drew crowds in large arenas as big as 17,000 fans. The league lost popularity in following years and folded and was replaced by the current Elite Ice Hockey League and during the 2010’s began to rise as the top tier professional hockey league in Great Britain while Ice Hockey became the fastest growing indoor and winter sport in the United Kingdom.

There are currently three leagues that make up the three-tiered system of professional hockey in Great Britain. The second and third-tier league is named the National Ice Hockey League which is split into two regions Northern England and Southern England and utilizes a promotion and relegation system between the two divisions. The third tier or the second division of the National Ice Hockey League is made up of 24 teams divided by geographical location, fifteen teams in the South and nine in the North. The first division makes up the second tier of the professional structure and included 18 teams total divided geographically, eight teams in the South and ten teams in the North. Lastly, the first tier is the Elite Ice Hockey League and it made up of 10 teams with each country in Great Britain represented, this is the only sport to have representation of teams from all four nations.

Team Great Britain was a founding member of the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) which was founded in 1908. Team Great Britain first competed in international competition in the early 20th century, they would win the IIHF European Championship in 1910, receive a bronze medal in the 1924 Olympics and be promoted to the top group of the Ice Hockey World Championship in 2018. Recently, the Under 18 and Under 20 British hockey teams were promoted to the B Group in the first division of the IIHF World 18 and Under Championship.

The Guardian Newspaper in England analyzed the differences between the National Hockey League and the Elite Ice Hockey League and how these differences influence the culture and attendance of the sport. In an interview with the Elite Ice Hockey Leagues Chairman Tony Smit, he discussed how the NHL can bring in tens of thousands of fans every night, he stated, “How do they bring in 20,000 fans every game?’ Is it the quality of the hockey? Of course. But is it also the giant hot dogs and beer? Both. I knew from day one I had to change the game itself. But equally important were the off-the-ice trimmings: the videotron, the fan-cam, the dizzying lights, the changing room video stream, the player meet-and-greets, and the merchandise.” He argues that, “Unlike Canada, or Sweden, or even Kazakhstan, Ice Hockey isn’t embedded into our sporting culture, though it once held the potential to be.” Although Britain has such strong roots in the game of Ice Hockey, their country does not embrace it like the United States have.

In the United Kingdom, Ice Hockey has received very little coverage. Most of the little coverage they receive is through the newspaper. In July of 2018, the Elite Ice Hockey League agreed on a two-year deal with FreeSports, a British free-to-air sports channel. This deal entailed one live game every two weeks, a pre-season preview show, highlights, and live coverage of the playoff final. Most of the other coverage is handled by local newspapers and local radio stations who will cover the local team.

In 1938, the National Hockey League (NHL) competed in the first international series ever played by a professional sports organization in the United States and Canada. The Detroit Red Wings and the Montreal Canadiens competed in Earls Court and Brighton in an exhibition series. This was the first of many NHL games played oversees with more games being played in 14 other countries across Europe. The last NHL game played in London occurred on September 30th, 2007 in a series played by the Anaheim Ducks and the Los Angeles Kings. BritishIceHcokey.co.uk analyzed the NHL’s return to London specifically, if and how this could happen. Writer Lucy Gordon talks about how the NHL could be successful in a return to the NHL she says, “NFL and NBA games are played in London on a yearly basis nowadays, so why can’t NHL games follow suit? Well, the big issue, in reality, with this proposition, is the size of the stadia. They’re simply not big enough at the moment to cope with the demand of, say, the Tampa Bay Lightning coming over here to play the Detroit Red Wings. That really leaves just one option – the O2 in London. This wouldn’t be ideal with fans in the north, but it can hold 20,000 spectators, and other top sports have been held there.” As of now, the biggest issue that arises for the NHL in Britain is the amount of space. If they cannot put more people into the stadium, they simply cannot make money. This is an issue for the NHL because they will not make money from doing this. However, they have built rinks across the United States on baseball field and football fields. They could build a larger rink for a more successful team in the Elite Ice Hockey League and utilize that as a site for NHL exhibition matches or friendlies against teams in Great Britain. Another option could be to expand the Winter Classic or Stadium Series game oversees, both the NBA and NFL have expanded to London and have been successful why not the NHL? Stamford Bridge alone holds over 40,000 occupants and has held more than 80,000 people. Especially with the popularity of European Soccer fans might be interested in a change of scenery with an NHL rink on a football pitch.

With the increasing popularity of Ice Hockey in Great Britain, the NHL could expand their European market by focusing on Great Britain. With so much potential for growth in stadiums, media, marketing, and youth development, the NHL could find a lot of success in growing the market of ice hockey, especially in England.

This analysis will offer me a better understanding of the history of one of the most influential sports in English history and a better understanding of what semi-professional and professional sports outside Cricket and Football look like.

References

1. Gordon, L. (2019, March 28). Will the NHL Global Series Return to Britain? Retrieved February 20, 2020, from https://www.britishicehockey.co.uk/post/will-the-nhl-global-series-return-to-britain/
2. Ice hockey in the United Kingdom. (2020, January 21). Retrieved February 20, 2020, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_hockey_in_the_United_Kingdom#National_Teams
3. Moshakis, A. (2018, September 23). Get your skates on: the rise of British ice hockey. Retrieved February 20, 2020, from https://www.theguardian.com/global/2018/sep/23/get-your- skates-on-the-rise-of-british-ice-hockey

Introduction

The Criminal Justice System (CJS) in England and Wales is the major public service set up with the aim to deliver justice to all those that have been effect by crime, to achieve this effectively the CJS consist of multiple government agencies that have been tasked to “ deliver justice for all by convicting and punishing the guilty and helping them to stop reoffending, while protecting the innocent”, (Gardside,2008), other gaols of the CJS include the rehabilitation of offenders, preventing other crimes, and to provide moral support for victims.

The CJS consists of several interdependent components and is comprised in three main parts Law enforcement in the form of the police, Courts including the prosecution and defence and Agencies for detaining and supervising offenders such as prisons and probation agencies. Nevertheless, some of the services that are offered by the Criminal Justice System are available from a range of voluntary groups including victim support and Restorative Justice (RJ), (CPS, 2010).

Restorative Justice (RJ) is an approach to justice in which it brings victims, offenders and the community affected by a crime together in a meeting in an attempt to deal with the after effects of a crime or conflict and try to find a way forward and attempt to repair the harm caused, (Crown Prosecution Service, 2017 and Gov.UK, 2015).

Restorative Justice sees crimes as something more than just breaking the law and the crime causes harm to people, relationships and the community and the use of Restorative Justice is a way for the harm to be repaired by all parties involved, (Centre for Justice and Reconciliation 2020).

Restorative Justice is an approach to criminal justice that emphasises on restoring the victim and the community rather than just punishing the offender/s the principles Restorative Justice use are to work with all that are personally involved most importantly are the victim and the offender but this does also include the family’s and the wider community. The use of this process helps reduce crime, violence and bullying it improves human behaviour, strengthen civil society, provide effective leadership restore relationships and repair the harm caused by the crime.

Restorative Justice brings those harmed by crime and those responsible for causing the harm together in a controlled meeting that has been arranged and a trained mediator has worked with both parties in advance, to communicate thus allowing all involved to be part of the of the repairing of the harm caused and to find a positive way forward for all parties involved with the aim to reduce future reoffending,(Wachtel, 2013). The process of Restorative Justice is increasingly being used in Schools, Children services, Workplaces, Hospitals, Communities and the Criminal Justice System, (Gov, UK, 2015). However The use of Restorative Justice can be an extremely challenging for the offender/s as it allows them to see the impact of their crimes and the effect this has had on their victim/s, nevertheless this process can provide the victim with the vital information they need to be able to move forward as Restorative Justice empowers the victim to communicate with their offender/s in order to achieve this potential life changing opportunity.

LITERATURE REVIEW

The Criminal Justice system has the overwhelming task of dealing with the constant and ever growing challenges of lowering the crime rates while enduring to uphold and maintain the public’s confidence in the criminal system (Brooks, 2017,). Restorative Justice could just be the answer the system is looking for as Brooks (2017) states that Restorative justice can lower offender rates by up to 25 percent. However, although this process is popular with the political process in Britain, it comes with its disadvantages as it is primarily only directed at the less serious crimes and youth offenders. On other hand, Marshall (1999) suggests that by using Restorative Justice with the more serious crimes there can be a lot of advantages in terms of the victim benefits, this process should only be used hand in hand with the criminal justice system and not as a substitute.

For many of the victims of crime seeing the offender held answerable for their offences by the use of the judicial system providing the victims with a level of closure thus allowing them to be able to move on from the crimes they have been a victim of is often enough. However, this is not the case with all victims of crime and the judicial process is not enough by itself, (Wright 2012). Restorative Justice is a process that provides the victims a voice that the Criminal Justice system often denies them, (Robb,2012).

Restorative Justice is a process by way of offering victims the opportunity to have their say in the outcome of the offence/s and to have an input into the punishment of the offender providing ways to improve and transform the way the victim’s needs are met, this process also allows the offender to face up to the consequences of their actions and the impact these have had on others, (Ministry of Justice, 2012).

Restorative Justice is a process set up to address some of the failings including the limits and failures of the criminal justice system, (Zehr, 1990).

“Crime is a violation of people and relationships. It creates obligations to make things right. Justice involves the victim, the offender, and the community in a search for solutions which promote repair, reconciliation and reassurance. (Zehr, 1990: 118).

Victim satisfaction plays a critical and substantial part in police-victim encounters and this can play a primary and essential role in the willingness of victims to co-operate. With this in mind the victim’s willingness plays an extremely significant part of the process that allows Restorative Justice to continue to work successfully on behalf of the victim/s, (Aihio, 2017). It was suggested by Camp and Wemmers, (2013) that victimology studies have revealed that procedural justice such as Restorative Justice does continue to make a difference to the victims of crime in the terms of how the criminal justice system deals with the cases as they go through the system.

For the purpose of this research project the definition of satisfaction that will be used is “the Fulfilment of one’s wishes, expectations, or needs, or the pleasure” (English Oxford Living Dictionary’s, 2019). The Restorative Justice movement is a societal programme that is looking to work with and alongside the current punitive measures that are used by the Criminal Justice system, (Johnstone and Van Ness, 2007).

Restorative Justice (RJ) is as defined by the Ministry of Justice is “The process that brings those harmed by crime, and those responsible for the harm, into communication, enabling everyone affected by a particular incident to play part in repairing the harm and finding a positive way forward” (Ministry of Justice, 2014 p3). However, the term Restorative Justice has been used as a way to reference the fact Restorative Justice has a large range of approaches and not one single practice (Brooks, 2017). Although a jointly recognised and concise definition of the term has yet to be established T, F Marshall’s (1996) definition appears to encompass the main principles of Restorative Justice and is perhaps one of the most used, “Restorative justice is a process whereby all parties with a stake in a particular offence come together to resolve collectively how to deal with the aftermath of the offence and its implications for the future” (p. 37; cf Braithwaite, 1999, p. 5). However, this quote suggests that the topic possibly becomes problematic to debate due to the large range and variety restorative Justice has to offer, (Brooks, 2017). For the purpose of this dissertation this is the definition for Restorative Justice that will be used.

Restorative Justice was a fairly fresh idea in the field of criminology in the 1980’s nevertheless it was also a recent, new concept that has not been seen and used in the United Kingdom (Daniels, 2013). Crawford and Newburn (2002) likewise states that Restorative Justice has been renowned as maybe one of the most extremely influential developments in crime control in today’s society. Restorative Justice is a process that was introduced to concentre mainly on the victim and the process of the Criminal Justice System as Christie (1977) states that the objective of Restorative Justice is for the offence to belong to the victim just as equally as it does to the offender Christie, (1977), cited that, “Not only has he or she suffered, lost materially or become hurt, physically or otherwise …but above all he has lost participation in his own case. It is the Crown that comes into the spotlight, not the victim. It is the Crown that describes the losses, not the victim. It is the Crown that gets the chance to talk to the offender, and neither the Crown nor the offender is particularly interested in carrying on that conversation. The prosecutor is fed up long since. The victim would not have been. He might have been scared to death, panic-stricken, or furious. But he would not have been involved. It would have been one of the most important days in his life. Something that belonged to him has been taken away from the victim. (1977: p7-8).

Christie (1977) states that the victim is the one that constantly misses out twice once as the victim of the original offence but then furthermore as a victim of the Criminal Justice System as there is an extremely improbable chance of being paid compensation for their loss. Furthermore, they play a very small role in whatever legal proceedings that follow nevertheless the use of Restorative Justice hands back this right and power back to the victims of crime.

Restorative Justice was originally introduced during the 1970s to manage low level crimes including burglary and other property crimes, however there was a confusion by the victims that Restorative Justice was about forgiveness, (Zehr, 2014). Zehr, (2014) also suggests that some victims do not have any understanding or belief in Restorative Justice as they are of the opinion that the fundamental destination of this process was to encourage or to persuade them to forgive their offenders.

Applications

Restorative Justice practices does in large rely on voluntary cooperation of all parties involved this limits the options available as if one or all parties involved are unwilling to take part than the matter must be dealt with by the formalities of the Criminal Justice system. Restorative Justice is largely centred around the restoration of both the victim/s and offender/s of crime this is achieved by returning the offender back in the community as a law abiding citizen and for the victim providing them with the closure they need to move on with their life after the crime, and to help the wider community as a whole, (Marshall,1999).

Newburn (2017) states that Restorative Justice measures are primarily aimed at just the youth offender/s rather than the adult offender/s also that Restorative Justice is only primarily used for the less severe crimes. Notwithstanding there are cases of successful Restorative Justice outcomes in relation to the more severe crimes, conversely if this is the case why is Restorative Justice not being offered on a larger scale and across all levels of crime. However, the reason for holding back Restorative Justice is solely put done to just two types of crime these are corporate crime and Domestic Violence, it is considered that these crimes are inappropriate to work with Restorative Justice.

The definition of Domestic Violence as stated by Victim Support is ‘Any incident of threatening behaviour, violence or abuse (psychological, physical, verbal, sexual, financial or emotional) between adults who are or have been intimate partners, or intimately related within a family or domestic setting, regardless of gender or sexuality. Domestic violence involves abuse of power and control by one person over another and typically escalates in frequency and severity over time”, (Victim Support 2003, p.2).

Liebmann (2007) p. 268 states that nevertheless, many victims of domestic violence end up not taking the matter further and returning to their abusive situations, so prosecution does not deliver a resolution for everyone. However, Collins (2017) points out that the primary concern for domestic violence cases and the use of Restorative Justice is intimate partner violence this is a crime in which violence is caused by a partner against their current or former partner.

Despite these concerns raised by Collins (2017), the Restorative Justice Council states that Restorative Justice can have many major benefits for victims that have been affected by all crime types in certain circumstances. However, the council must ensure that the victims safety is maintained throughout the criminal process if indeed this is the cases and Restorative Justices is suitable for all crime types why is it not used in more cases of all crimes that a victim/s has been affected, this is the aim of the questions put forward in this dissertation.

Restorative Justice can be accessed at any point of the Criminal Justice System there are currently five identified points where the offender/s may be referred to a Restorative Justice Programme there are as follows, Police (Pre-charge), Crown (Post-charged), Courts (pre-sentence), Corrections (post-sentence) and Parole (pre-revocation).

Impact

Victim support states that for Restorative Justice to work effectively with offenders and victims. RJ can only take place with the agreement of all those involved mainly the victim/s and the offender/s, conversely there are many things that must be taken into account before any such meeting can be held. One of the most significant considerations to take in terms of RJ is the offender must have taken responsibility for their actions and the harm they have inflicted, even if this has taken place the individual in charge of the case may feel that Restorative Justice is not safe or suitable for all stakeholders involved, and finally Restorative Justice still may go ahead even if a direct meeting is not acceptable this can take place for example by communication by letter.

Gaudreault, (2005) indicates that many studies have shown that victims would be prepared to take part in Restorative Justice programmes if they had been given the opportunity to do so as seen in Gavrielides, (2018) found in his study that amongst the victims they surveyed 85 percent had never been offered the chance to take part in any such programme.

Effectiveness

“Restorative Justice can be a real force for good both for the person harmed and the offender”, (Rt Hon Lord Justice Fulford, Senior Presiding Judge, 2015-16). Government research indicates that Restorative Justice provides an 85 percent of victim satisfaction rate and a further 78 percent said they would recommend Restorative Justice to others in the same situation and a 14 percent reduction in reoffending rates after Restorative Justice. An advantage of Restorative Justice could lead to savings to our courts and the criminal justice system of £185 over two years, (Restorative Council, 2016).

The house of commons Justice committee states that Restorative Justice should be made available at any point of the criminal justice system, however despite the Crime and Courts Act 2013 allowing pre-sentence Restorative Justice to take place the victims commissioner found that this was not the case and it was only being offered at certain stages of the criminal justice system, (The House of Commons, 2016,).

The 14 percent in the reduction of offender rates proves beneficial as the Home Office and Ministry of Justice 2015 states that the cost of re-offending is to cost the UK taxpayer an estimated £9.5 Million to £13 billion per year.

Restorative Justice can be highly successful in servicing the needs of both the victim and the offender. Nevertheless, this is limited as such programmes are scattered and in turn are isolated from the mainstream Criminal Justice System this means that the actions of both are pulling in opposite directions, (Marshall,1999).

One limitation of victim offender mediation is the commitment on behalf of the offender to change their ways and to stop committing crime this can be seen in the lack of follow up support provided to the offender, (Marshall,1999).

Umbreit, Coates, and Kalanj, (1994), suggests however that victims and offenders who took part in Restorative Justice programs received better outcomes than those who did not participate.

Hill (2002) suggests however, that one of the main reasons for the small amount of victims taking part in Restorative Justice was that victims refused to use Restorative Justice this was mainly for two reasons one was due to a lack of interest and the other was due to misunderstanding of what the process entailed

Introduction

What is restorative justice?

Restorative justice is the process to involve those who have a stake in a specific offence and to collectively identify and address harms, needs and obligation, in order to put things as right as possible (Howard Zehr)

It brings those who have been harmed by crime and conflict into communication with those responsible for the harm, in order to repair the harm in a positive way. The program aims to get offenders to understand their actions and take responsibility for them, to understand the harm they have caused to the victim, and to give them the opportunity to redeem themselves, discouraging them from causing any further harm. 85% of victims who go through Restorative Justice are satisfied with the experience.

What are the steps of restorative justice?

Either the perpetrator or the victim of the crime can ask for restorative justice, this process can take place at any point in the criminal justice system.

The first step would give the victim the opportunity to talk to a restorative practitioner about how the crime had impacted the, how they are feeling about it now, and what they want to happen next. Both the victim and the perpetrator would need to give consent for restorative justice to take place.

Once both parties agree they will be prepared for a meeting, will meet each party separately to discuss what they would like to say, these meetings will continue until they are fully prepared for the Restorative Justice Conference.

The meeting will take place and each party is able to have support with them, whether it be a family member or a friend, they sit in a circle and ground rules are set, these include no breaks, interruptions or stopping the process until it is finished. The person who committed the crime will receive a set of questions from the facilitator, and then the victim will be asked the same in order to open a dialogue between the two.

The last step is a follow up to determine that both parties were satisfied with the outcome of the process.

Restorative justice in the police.

Marshall (1996) states that restorative justice was used for the first time in 1979 by the Exeter Youth Support Team, they began to offer victim-offender “meditation” and contacted their local police force for referrals. It was not until the late 1990’s however, that restorative justice was formally introduced into the English police force by Sir Charles Pollard who had imported the idea from Australia in demonstrating police-led restorative conference. From April 1998, after being trained in restorative cautioning, officers in Thames Valley were told that ‘all police cautions, were meant to be restorative in nature’ (Hoyle, et al., 2002). Evaluation showed that there were some changes in practice and culture were evident, the process of cautioning was also improving. Restorative cautioning declined in Thames Valley after a change in leadership and Richards (2010) explains how even in Australia, officers were stripped of their facilitation duties, even with the positive research findings.

It was not until the late 2000’s that restorative justice re-emerged within the English police forces as an explicit policy, introduced as the Youth Restorative Disposal. However, early studies were showing that the victims and offenders were not able to make decisions collectively or open a harm-focused dialogue (Rix, et al. 2011).

The biggest development would be related to introducing a broader government governmental strategy surrounding restorative justice. There have been significant resources being invested into the expansion of Restorative justice since 2012. The Ministry of Justice released several action plans after the European Unions Victims’ Directive was implemented. These action plans stated the intent to make restorative justice a service generally available to the public across England.

Ministry of Justice (2015) declared that English force were now required to share information of victims with local restorative justice services, and the use of restorative justice was now authorised at the pre-sentence stage and by probation. Whilst restorative conferences are rare, street restorative justice is common. It would often involve police dominated, informal dispute resolutions with little contact between the parties.

Context

Restorative justice implementation

In 2010, the use of restorative justice within the UK police forces is increasing at a significant pace. Restorative justice is…now being utilized as a problem-solving tool by Neighbouring Policing Teams (Shewan 2010). Restorative practices are widely used across most forces in the UK, research has shown how restorative justice can be integrated into police practices when they respond to community calls when they require service. If restorative justice can be implemented as a service that police officers can refer, it changes an individual’s perception of the role of police officers within the implementation of restorative justice.

Greater Manchester has been at the forefront of restorative justice and its use within the police force, following its successful eight-week trial, the greater Manchester police force made the decision to role out restorative justice across the force. There was a training team established and started in 2010. This was key to the success of the implementation of RJ and allowed officers to make the informed decisions and act at the victims’ best interest. The training helped to ensure that restorative justice was not used inappropriately, there is certain, careful consideration that needs to be taken when it is needed for certain situations, such as sexual offence or domestic violence.

In 2013 restorative justice use accounted for 16% of all solved crimes, just over 8000. The benefits were clear, improved efficiency, reduced reoffending rates, reduced costs and increased satisfaction of the victims. With an estimated £700,000 saved in a period of 12 months.

Restorative justice in action

The restorative practices are embedded with the forces and officers that refer to practice in relation to the levels. Level 1 is referred to street restorative justice, this was on the spot responses to a minor offence, usually for out of court disposals. Level 2 would be where the officers will use a face to face conferencing meditation, messages are delivered to both parties by a trained facilitator, this level of restorative process is used for more serious or persistent offending. Level 3 is for the most serious and complex offenses; it is usually conducted after sentencing and the offender is serving a custodial sentence. These are often led by experienced specialists. Restorative justice should operate at aa scale with specified standards, to be effective in meeting the needs of the victims and offenders. It should be integrated with other interventions such as drug treatment, employment and housing support. The action plan consisted of Access, providing high quality and easy access to restorative justice. Awareness, making the public and the criminal justice system aware of restorative justice. Capacity, making restorative justice facilitators available across the country. Evidence, to understand the impact on victims, offenders and the community.

To improve access an amendment was made to the crime and courts bill to allow the courts to defer sentencing in order to allow for restorative justice. Awareness has yet to be raised in both the public and the criminal justice system. Capacity was strengthened by training more than 18000 police on restorative justice. The youth justice boards are also building their capacity to deliver restorative justice to the public alone. Evidence was provided by evaluations that commissioning bodies would have the responsibility to undertake as they develop their programmes. The most recent report provided shows an account on the thematic issues, but does not provide a detailed account of the restorative justice practice and the effects it has on each sector; youth, adult, out of court and pre/post-court.

Restorative justice and community resolutions

Both RJ and community resolution have been shown to be able to reduce bureaucracy, achieve efficiency savings, at the same time as delivering on performance targets (Shewan 2010).

While the formation of restorative justice has evolved in order to improve its efficiency, there were a number of challenges highlighted due to the blurring of boundaries between the community resolutions and restorative justice.

Community resolution was defined by the Sentencing Council as: “An informal non-statutory disposal used for dealing with less serious crime and antisocial behaviour where the offender accepts responsibility. The views of the victim (where there is one) are considered in reaching an informal agreement between the parties, which can involve restorative justice techniques.”

Level one, from the above statement, seems to have been redefined from ‘street restorative justice’ to ‘community resolution’ due to the lack of interaction during an incident and the parties involved. These boundaries between the two had extended beyond practice and included how officers were recording what they were doing in terms of restorative justice in communities.

There have been several strategies brought forward to attempt to distinguish the differences between restorative justice and community resolutions. An out of court disposal team was created to determine the most appropriate outcome for every case, seeing as one centralised team would be making all of the decisions, the benefits that were already showing before the teams’ creation would increase significantly.

Evaluation

Delivery and quality

Evaluating and monitoring restorative justice is more consistent, that being because of funding being provided by PCCs. Data provided on the delivery and quality seemed to have been collected by force, or by providers reports carried out every three months. There were regular meetings to monitor performance started by the OPCC in order to monitor the data output.

There were 73% of forces that reported monitoring the delivery of their restorative practices through statistics, yet, 56% said they had used detailed research and around 36% preferred the methods of observation to monitor the delivery of the practices.

There were 55% of forces that had reported their provisions had been subjected to an external evaluation, the Restorative Justice Council, however, were the ones who were carrying out most of the external evaluations. There was only around 38% of forces who received an internal evaluation.

Reoffending statistics

The use of RJ by police officers and working with partners such as schools and YOTs is enabling the police to see that it is contributing toward a reduction in the frequency and severity of re-offending (Shewan 2010).

There is a significant lack of data in relation to the reduction in reoffending from those who had gone through with restorative justice. There seemed to be incidents where forces still had to track down who had gone through this practice, the figures that were recorded were more than likely personal views on whether the individuals were going to be less likely to reoffend. Senior officers reflecting on positive outcomes that they had seen from previous candidates of restorative justice.

There were many who reported that they were looking for the figures in order to collect more significant data in terms of reoffending.

Satisfaction

The impact of restorative practice across police forces in the UK brought about a number of questions, these focused on the satisfaction of the offender, the victim and whether the public had gained confidence in the practices. There were benefits of using restorative justice to improve police-community relations borught up, as well as improving services to victims and the communities.

Restorative practices, in relation to victim satisfaction, was highly praised, over 90% of the victims who went through with the practice were highly satisfied with the outcome. Some victims had even came forward saying that they felt more able to cope with what happened to them due to the increased happiness and content they felt after using the service.

There was less feedback in terms of the offenders, many just noted that it was not something they felt the need to measure, but for the few that did, they highlighted the practice for “empowering offenders to take responsibility for their actions and behaviour, as well as encouraging them to resist reoffending.

References

1. Leanne Fiftal Alarid & Carlos D. Montemayor (2012) Implementing restorative justice in police departments, Police Practice and Research,
2. MoJ. (2013) Code of Practice for Youth Conditional Cautions. Online. Available from: https://dera.ioe.ac.uk/15646/2/code-practice-youth-conditionalcautions%5B1%5D.pdf
3. NPCC. (2017) Charging and Out-of-Court Disposals: A National Strategy. [Online]. Available from: https://www.npcc.police.uk/Publication/Charging%20and%20Out%20of%20Court%2 0Disposals%20A%20National%20Strategy.pdf
4. Restorative Justice Council, 2014. Restorative justice and policing (pages 10-12)
5. Shewan, G. (2010) A Business Case for Restorative Justice and Policing. [Online]. Available from: https://restorativejustice.org.uk/sites/default/files/resources/files/The_business_case_ for_restorative_justice_and_policing.pdf

In the summer of 1940, the German Air Force attempted to win air superiority over Britain (South) and the English Channel by attempting to destroy the Royal Air Force aircraft and the British aircraft industry. This would eventually be known as the Battle of Britain, and victory over the Royal Air Force was perceived by the Germans as an essential victory if they were to build any momentum to mount an invasion of the British Isles.

To start talking about the pre-war build up we must go as far back as 1931 and to the other side of the world, when Japan embarked on their first move in their expansionist bid to gain land in South East Asia to secure more territory for their ever so growing population and to gain supplies of oil and rubber. Their first activity was in the invasion of Manchuria (an area in North East China which has a long history of changing control between Russia, China and Japan). However, the Japanese were also very interested in the British’s oil and rubber territories of Malay and Burma. Around this time the enforcers of keeping world peace were the League of Nations, the precursor to the United Nations. England still had the largest navy in the world built to defend the huge British Empire. The English, after the First World War, were not in the mood for war. But Germany had other ideas, as Germany was ruled by a fascist dictator, Hitler, who was determined to not only get the lands back Germany had lost in the First World War, but to rule the whole of Europe, based on an ideology of race.

As for England’s entry into World War II, The British had plans for their first troops to land on friendly French territory by 9th September. What the English did not know was that Hitler and Stalin, the Russian dictator, had an agreement to attack Poland simultaneously, both from opposite sides one from the West the other from the East and share to the spoils. The Russians invaded on the 17th of September. The Poles resist manfully but are no match for the German Blitzkrieg techniques and by the 6th October this battle is over while the British army is still in France. During this period September/October 1939 the English are expecting the Germans to bomb London as a precursor to a main land invasion. The bombing does not happen and after a few months many of whom who fled due to the fear of a bombing return to their homes. England now ‘stands alone’ as the only nation in Europe or indeed the world who is willing to stand up and face Hitler’s obviously excellent military machine.

Now on to probably most known Battle from this war the Battle of Britain. This is considered a low point for England having been thrown out of continental Europe by the Germans who are now prepared to invade England which is as difficult for them as it is for the English to land forces in Europe because of the 20-mile-wide sea ‘moat’, known as the English Channel. The Battle of Britain and the Blitz Perhaps better described as the Battle for Britain with Germany’s plan to eliminate the Royal Air Force, claim all territory, and destroy all morale that England has left. Something interesting to note is that Hitler to begin had no plans for invading England, as a matter of a fact he would have preferred to strike a deal with Britain before he’d invaded Poland; that if Britain would ignore his plans to dominate Europe he would not strike at either England or the British Empire. Anyways back to the topic, the Battle of Britain started on 13th August 1940 and lasted until October 31, 1940 when Hitler saw the Luftwaffe had not achieved the air supremacy necessary for an invasion. Daily life for civilians were dog fights or aerial battles between British and German aircraft. In those days they were quite visible from the ground being between only 1000 to 5000 feet above your head. Darkness was not uncommon because of ‘Black Outs’ almost every day. Thirdly, having to sleep or at least trying to sleep in a fortified part of your house. This did not stop until 17th September when Hitler postponed the invasion and on 12th October, he abandons all thought of invading England. In the aftermath of that battle Germany did not accomplish what they had intended to. Both sides lost heavily during the Battle of Britain, but Germany lost more this showed that Germany was not as strong as they say they are. More than 1700 Luftwaffe (German Air Force) planes were destroyed, which included 2662 German casualties, no military loss for Britain.

It was August 14, 1941. Pearl Harbor was not too far in the distant future. With Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill already working together to make a plan to foil the Nazis. The pair were drafting what’s now known as the Atlantic Charter, which was an agreement between the two world powers about how the world should and would look after the war was won. The two leaders issued their joint declaration on this day in 1941. Churchill’s main motivation for attending the secret meeting was to get the United States to join the war. But Roosevelt refused to discuss the United States joining the war. At the same time, he hoped that the Atlantic Charter would help to convince Americans they should back the move. “However, public opinion remained adamantly opposed to such a policy until the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941”, writes the Office of the Historian. This was a huge turning point for England. But also, the end for any major event involving them solely as they were pretty much just backup for the US for the rest of the war. Until D-day which I won’t talk about this much because it could be an essay all by itself. The thing England did do was design a plan to storm German territory, although it did result in many casualties it did help win necessary land.

England played a major role in World War II, although it may not seem like it. The whole country helped defeat Germany, whether it was civilians or the military. The military did not fall into the traps Germany had set up. Among other things I did not mention they defended their empire in Asia from the Japanese and simultaneously defend England, Europe, Egypt and the Middle East against Hitler’s Germany who was determined to conquer the whole of continental Europe from the Atlantic to Moscow. As for civilians they never gave up on their military, they never lost hope through the tough nights from the Battle of Britain.

This essay will critically evaluate changes of Public Health England and how it has historically shaped and developed over the centuries. It will highlight key political drivers, policies and practice in public health in England and internationally. This will be achieved by discussing historical events in public health, improvement of framework, the setting up of the National Health Service and establishment of Public Health England and organisations working closely with.

Historically Public Health was not recognised. Industrial revolution at the beginning of 18th century affected people as there were poor living condition, massive poverty, not access to a clean water, bad sanitation and lack of medical services.

In 1831 severe cholera outbreak occurred in United Kingdom and in 1832 the medical community started an investigation on protentional causes of cholera. There were many theories but very little understanding of disease. Most people thought it was spread by miasma a bad smell. In 1842 Edwin Chadwick published report “The Sanitary conditions of the Labouring Population of Great Britain”, which explored the link between poor living conditions and diseases. The Government did not payed an attention upon this issue, they followed policy laissez faire, but they were forced to act in 1848 when epidemy of cholera returned.

First Public Health Act 1848 was published. It was a first important step in history of public health, to improve public health as that time they were loads of issues around diseases, which was associated with a poor living conditions, vaccinations and this is where role of the public health began with instruction of public health act and had an influence for other countries such as United States.

It was not compulsory, and it was funded by a council and not by a government. General Board of Health has been entrenched by Public Health Act with limited powers and not enough funds (Baggot, 2011). In 1854 John Snow published his findings about the spread of cholera, however it took a time to his theories to be accepted by nation as people did not believed scientist. Snows endorsed findings were a big step to sanitation improvement.

In 1875 came into a force the second Public Health Act following recommendations of the First Act which set clearer framework for Public Health. New framework was set for next 50 years (Baggot, 2000).

New liberal government was elected in 1906 and took an action to improve public health. Liberal welfare reforms were introduced Some of the reforms were not compulsory and councils ignored them and many children in need were affected. The 1906 Education (provisions of meals) Act, (Stewart, 1999) was introduced to provide a free meal for children. In 1907 under Education Act, medical school inspections took a place and they were compulsory. In 1911 National insurance scheme was introduced and old age pensions.

Government structure was reinforced by establishment of The Local Government Act in 1929 which put an end to Poor Law in England and Wales. It meant transferring power to county authorities and quality improvement in hospitals. It was a big progress of public health.

In 1941 commission was set up by government to look at what needed to be done after the war. Sir William Beveridge was in charge and in 1942 and he created Beveridge report which was built on strong foundation with an aim for healthier Britain. His recommendation for setting up welfare state came into consideration, which meant that state should take responsibilities for a welfare of the nation.

In 1945 Clement Atllee leader in power of Labour government promised to tackle beverages report.

In July 1948 the National Health Service was created and it was biggest Health and Social reform in history of Britain. Doctors, nurses, health professionals and hospitals came together for very first time which saw death rates go down and people started to live longer (NHS Video). The main individual behind of creation of National Health Service was Aneurin Bevan who created welfare state for everybody to receive treatment at the point of need free of charge.

Margaret Thatcher, the leader of Conservative government, in 1979 promised to do more on improvement of public health and underlined also an importance of prevention. Following year Black report was published and stated that in health there are inequalities between rich and poor people and an aim was to close those gaps. Importance of promoting health has been formed in the Ottawa Charter in 1986 at the First International Conference on Health Promotion (Ewless L., 2005).

Health improvement was recorded in governments strategy of health for England in 2004 which concentrate more on individuals and choice how to live was promoted (DoH, 2004).

Public Health became in 2013 Public Health England under Department of Health, which outline the quality of life and increase life expectancy and pays an attention on inequalities in health to understand and reduce them. It brought more clearer structures, more clearer functions in terms of protecting the public and trying to improve publics behaviours around some issues about smoking, alcohol use, drug use.

Focus of Public health gone from the responsibility of the state to the responsibility of the individual. It is everyone’s responsibility to improve our lifestyles.

World Health Organisation (WHO) was established in 1948 with an aim to fight against diseases and epidemics across the world and is working in partnership with Public Health England to improve and tackle public health issues. It set health standards and guidelines and deal with these issues internationally (WHO, 2007). As an example, loads of investments are put in to research and technology for immunisation, vaccines and their development where in 18th century as mentioned above people did not believed the scientist and they been fearful as they believed god. Epidemics of smallpox was not under the control until Edward Jenner created a vaccination against smallpox in 1796 and in 1967 worldwide campaign has been started by WHO to eradicate smallpox. In comparison 18th century throughout now there is more cures for different diseases and people are more educated about what is causing them, and it help for prevention across the countries and worldwide.

Changes of public health were beneficial in the United Kingdom and across the world and there is till more to be done as with a new population and with changing circumstances we are facing to a new issues and problems. They are many areas in public health that need to be focus on such as population control, terrorism, drug misuse and natural disasters. According to David Gauke, secretary of state for work and pension, fourth industrial revolution is starting with giant challenges and opportunities (Department for Work and Pensions and Rt Hon David Gauke MP (2017).

Great importance in public health play a role some of the famous people such as Jamie Oliver who introduced healthy food and nutrition of the food at schools and introduced healthy policy for public for a healthier lifestyle (Scriven & Garman, 2007).

Obesity is currently a problem that causes serious health problems, especially in adolescents because it is a nutritional disorder presented by some factors such as psychological syndromes, anxiety, depression and the quality of life that each person has.

In England, many young people are obese, especially adolescents who seriously compromise their health with diseases such as two different types of diabetes, heart diseases and certain types of cancer. In Ecuador, more than a quarter of the population is overweight and are more likely to develop diseases. Obesity in Ecuador and England is presented by the form of nutrition that people have. However, in England, people are more prone to be obese due to the processed and unhealthy food they consume while in Ecuador, despite being mostly natural food, obesity is still a problem because the consumption of high-fat and medium-salt products has been increasing, being thus dangerous to the body.

Therefore, England and Ecuador have taken the necessary preventive measures to combat the problems of obesity through television programs that aim to educate on how to take a healthy diet to reduce the levels of obesity and mortality in individuals, doing campaigns mainly in social networks and conferences that help teenagers to raise awareness about the consequences of eating unhealthy food and how it could affect them.

In conclusion, the aspect that most impressed me is that today individuals do not take prevention about the food they consume and the consequences of how it could affect their body. Thus, a singular similarity between the people of both countries is that by living in a globalized world it is easier to obtain packaged and mostly processed products. In addition, the aspect that could surprise a foreign person with respect to Ecuador would be the attention provided by the authorities towards a social problem such as obesity in adolescents, since several organizations and ministries inside and outside of Ecuador have worked together to eradicate this social issue.

Bibliography

1. Exchange, N. (27 de 07 de 2017). Nutrition Exchange. Recuperado el 26 de 05 de 2018, de Obesity: https://www.ennonline.net/nex/8/tacklingoverweightandobesityinecuador
2. Roberts, M. (11 de 10 de 2017). BBC news. Recuperado el 26 de 05 de 2018, de Health: http://www.bbc.com/news/health-41550159
3. Boix, L. (25 de 05 de 2016). El telegrafo. Recuperado el 26 de 05 de 2018, de El telegrafo: https://www.eltelegrafo.com.ec/noticias/sociedad/4/medicos-britanicos-dividen-criterios-sobre-las-grasas
4. expreso, E. (12 de 10 de 2017). El expreso. Recuperado el 26 de 05 de 2018, de Alimentación: http://www.expreso.ec/actualidad/obesidad-sobrepeso-alimento-dieta-erikaalvarez-oms-inec-salud-YX1761427

An art movement is a tendency or style in art with a specific common philosophy or goal, followed by a group of artists during a restricted period. But there is no fixed rule that determines what constitutes an art movement. The artists associated with one movement may adhere to strict guiding principles and those who belong to another may have little in common. Art movements are, usually, simply a historical convenience for grouping together artists of a certain period or style so that they may be understood within a specific context. These movements are named by art critics or historians and their titles are often sarcastic nicknames from a bad review. One of the major art movements in England and its art is the Renaissance.

The English Renaissance was a cultural and artistic movement in England dating from the late 15th to the early 17th century. It is associated with the European Renaissance, which is usually regarded as beginning in Italy in the late 14th century. The English Renaissance is different from the Italian Renaissance in several ways. The dominant art forms of the English Renaissance were literature and music. Visual arts in the English Renaissance were less significant. The great paintings produced in England were created by imported artists. The Church remained the dominant patron of the arts until the arrival of Hans Holbein at the court of Henry VIII. In the 17th century, Rubens and Van Dyck worked in the courts of James I and Charles I. England was very slow to produce visual arts in Renaissance styles, and the artists of the Tudor court were mainly imported foreigners until after the end of the Renaissance.

One of the most famous paintings of the Renaissance is ‘Portrait of Henry VIII’ by Hans Holbein the Younger. The artist, originally from Germany, had been appointed the English King’s Painter. The painting has been described as a work of propaganda. The king stands on an elegant rug with an elaborate tapestry in the background. The king wears lots of fabric. This display of wealth is designed to show the king’s power. This formal clothing might cost as much as a ship. Henry VIII recognized the power of the image Holbein created and encouraged other artists to copy the painting and distributed the various versions around the realm, giving them as gifts to friends and ambassadors. Major noblemen would commission their copies of the painting to show their loyalty to the king.

The Renaissance found its special embodiment in the art of England, and the works of art created at that time have their own unique style and perfectly reflect the spirit of that era.

The federal system made England much stronger as it let the king keep order and keep in control his land, and he also had full control of his people, making it easier for him to get the people to do what he wanted them to do.

Firstly, feudalism was the best way for kings and lords to keep control of their land/territories. Feudalism was a system in which everyone in the kingdom had a direct loyalty and obligation to the king. There was no concept of freedom. Every person was born into a harsh and cruel system they had to obey and had no control over. The king owned everything in his kingdom: he owned the land, people, animals, rivers, and water, he owned anything that was on his land. His job in this system was to look after all the people that lived there. In return, all the people in his kingdom did whatever he wanted and never questioned his word or thoughts. This meant the king’s word was law and no one would question him making decision making efficiently, and this benefited the federal system greatly.

To help the king achieve his goal of looking after all of the people that lived in his kingdom, the king appointed lords. The king ordered each of his lords to look after the people and the resources of the land in a large section of his kingdom. The bigger the area the lord was appointed to, the more important they were. This made the kingdom stronger as it meant the king could focus on better defense and attack strategies to protect his kingdom and people from invaders.

Each lord had the job of making sure the area they controlled was safe, productive, and loyal to him and the king. He organized where and how they would live, what they did on the farms, and who would be trained as a knight, he controlled every aspect of the peasants’ life. One of the many ways a lord gained control over the land he had been given by the king was through building castles. Once the castles had been built, the lord turned his attention making the land and all its resources as productive as possible. This was again accomplished through the feudal obligations between all people in the feudal system.

Lastly, the other central aspect of the feudal system in England was the unification of all the people in the kingdom through religious faith. Everybody in the kingdom had to be Christian. The king believed that he had been given his kingdom by God and that in return he had to serve God by making sure all his people were Christian. This benefited the system by giving everyone the same goal, making them do the jobs the king wanted them to do as they were told this would make them go to heaven.

Thus, as we can see, feudalism made England stronger, and the above arguments are proof of this.