Category: Electricity

Electricity Is the Most Important Invention: Essay Introduction

The contemporary world and its society are known for the highly developed technologies that make people’s lives easier and simpler. The number of useful and sophisticated inventions grows nearly every day. The scientists work on new ways of studying the world we live in, exploring its resources and using them to improve our quality of life.

This process began centuries ago, yet its most active stage was launched in the middle of the nineteenth century, and one of the major moving forces of the rapid technological development was the reception and application of electricity.

Electricity Is the Most Important Invention: Essay Main Body

The period of time when the scientists of Europe first started using electricity to create powerful engines and high functioning mechanisms gave a push to such processes as industrialization, urbanization, and globalization; it made a massive impact on the world’s society, its way of living, and habits, it produced massive cultural, political and economic changes.

There is a common misconception that electricity actually may be an invention, but it is one of the natural forms of energy, it has always existed on our planet so it could not possibly be “invented”. The most influential and powerful invention was the discovery of electricity and of ways of using it for various technologies.

Historically, some of the first encounters humans made with electricity date back to Ancient Greece, when people first discovered the rubbing fur and amber together created the attraction between the two surfaces and also lighter objects, which occurred due to static electricity (Atkinson, 2014). This cannot be called a discovery because the reasons or practical use of this phenomenon were not understood.

The more recent interest towards electricity started to form in the 1600s when William Gilbert, inspired by the writings of ancient Greeks created his own work about magnetism, he also was the one who introduced the term “electrical” (Bellis, 2014). After that, such scientists as Descartes, Fermat, Grimaldi, Hooke, Von Guericke and Gray developed the knowledge about electricity.

In 1747 came Franklin’s theory of positive and negative electric charges (History of Electricity from its Beginning, 2012). This theory was followed by Faraday’s discovery of electric induction and the work of electric currents. Finally, the geniuses of Edison and Tesla brought light to all the average households and made the first hydroelectric engines and plants possible (The History of Electricity, 2014).

Ever since electricity and its qualities and possibilities were discovered the speed of technological progress in our world has been growing. The discovery of electricity became the necessary basis for the occurrence of multiple other sciences and inventions that are constantly used and are of crucial meaning in the contemporary world.

The modern society, its life and well being depends on electricity wholly. We cannot imagine our lives without cell phones, computers, the internet, coffee makers, toasters, washing machines, and microwave ovens, and all of these devices work due to electricity, but we often forget that more crucial needs of ours are fulfilled with the help of this discovery (Electricity, women and the home, n. d.).

For example, light in our cities, streets, and homes is electricity, water in our taps is running because of electrical pumps. The impact of electricity on the society of the world and its lifestyle is hard to overestimate. Today it is responsible for our survival.

At the beginning of the nineteenth century at least eighty percent of the population of our planet lived in rural areas and worked in agriculture, the appearance of electric engines created many workplaces in the cities and enforced the process of urbanization. In the modern world, the majority of people live in or close to urban areas.

This is how electricity changed our social geography. Besides, electricity has made an impact on the taste of our food, our education, our medicine and communication (Valdes, 2012). Electricity in hospitals helps to save millions of lives every day. The internet and cell phones have speeded up the world’s communication massively, changed the way people interact with each other. Electricity gave us new modes of transportation too – trams, trains, and trolleybuses function due to electric power.

Basically, the major electric generators are responsible for human life support. Besides, such huge inventions as nuclear power and space exploration are possible because of the discovery of electric power. Electricity and the knowledge of its current, its qualities and effects, its structure and capacities are the discoveries that influenced our world, changed it, shaped it into what we know today. Every human-made object we can touch or see today was made with the help of electricity one way or another.

Our culture and art also depend on electricity a lot, for example, some of the most ancient paintings and manuscripts are preserved with the help of refrigerators working from electricity. The modern mass media such as radio and television exist because of electricity. The music is written, played and delivered to the audiences today with the help of electricity.

Electricity Is the Most Important Invention: Essay Conclusion

Finally, neurosurgery works through the understanding of electric impulses human brain sends to the body making it function. Electricity constantly penetrates humans, this world, and every aspect of life; this is why its discovery can be considered the most influential and important invention.

Reference List

Atkinson, N. (2014). Who Discovered Electricity? Web.

Bellis, M. (2014). History of Electricity. Web.

Electricity, women and the home. (n. d.). Science Museum. Web.

History of Electricity from its Beginning. (2012). Scholz Electrical. Web.

The History of Electricity, (2014). Code-Electrical. Web.

Valdes, C. (2012). Electricity: How it Changed the World Forever. Web.

The pollution through fuel use, technology and many other aspects of civilized life has brought about many changes that humanity was not ready for, including a lessening of resources used for energy. But there are many ways to generate energy using clean sources, and one of them is wind power. It is thought to be one of the cleanest ways and has been used for some time (Dell, 2004).

Energy is the force that runs everything present in the world. The law of conservation of energy states that no energy can be made out of nothing or destroyed, as it can only be converted. Energy changes states and cannot be produced out of emptiness, as some processes have to take place to bring it out (Lawson, 2001).

Due to this fact, humanity must use a source of energy to its advantage, and nature is the one that provides these sources (Niele, 2005). Unfortunately, the planet is seeing a major depletion in natural resources and fossil fuels which are the established source of energy that must be greatly counted, due to the decreasing numbers.

The conversion of wind energy into electricity is accomplished through building wind turbines, a simpler way of building windmills and of course ship’s sails. Windmills and sails are used as a more private energy source; whereas wind turbines can be build industrially and in greater numbers. This will allow for widespread access and a much higher energy output.

The most basic way that a wind turbine works is by using the kinetic energy of the wind and turning it into electricity that can be used by humans. It is applied as mechanical, thermo and any other form of energy, which can be used in the agriculture and other places.

Wind turbines are considered a renewable source of energy and the sun has great connection to the wind. The sun rays warm up the air masses, causing warmer air to rise, and as it cools down in the upper layers of the atmosphere, it sinks, thus causing a cyclical nature of air masses (Morris, 2006).

In the modern times, there has been an enormously significant increase in the use of wind power. Electricity produced using wind was estimated to be more than 2.5 per cent of all energy produced by humans in the world. The larger a wind turbine is, the more energy it will convert. The power of the wind generator depends on the area that the turbine covers and its height above ground.

Some of the most common wind turbines are above 100-115 meters in height. The wind masses that are closer to the ground are much slower than those that are above one kilometer, but the wind above 100 meters is already considered to be much faster and better flowing.

The rotary vane also plays an important role in converting wind into energy, as the greater the area, the more wind will hit the surface, thus turning the rotor at a higher rate of speed. The two factors of the wind turbine, which are height off the ground and area that it covers, are interdependent. The higher it is, the larger the area, and also, the space close to the ground can be used for other purposes.

The wind generator starts to produce electricity when the wind is higher than 3 meters per second and turns off when it is greater than 25 meters per second. This is a safeguard that will make sure the wind gusts or particularly strong winds do not damage the mechanism (Morris, 2006).

The most common design for the wind turbine is one that has three rotary vanes or blades. The efficiency of the turbine also depends on its position relative to the ground. The ones that are vertical or perpendicular to the ground are used in areas where the wind is not as strong. They are thought to have a complete absence of noise and are more durable, used for more than 20 years without any particular maintenance.

But a widespread use has seen wind turbines that are horizontal. These are built in areas with strong surface winds. The highest wind speeds can be observed near the shore lines, but it is more expensive to invest in, by 1.5-2 times. Also, there are offshore wind electrical stations that are built 10-12 kilometers out in the sea. Some of them are built on stilts while some are free floating.

The use of wind on shore and off is said to be one the most useful types of generating energy, as the amount of wind and its energy are higher than those of all rivers on the planet by 100 times. The strength of winds higher than 7-14 kilometers is stronger by 10-15 times than those on the surface of the ground.

There is a strong consistency of the currents and they practically do not change over the course of the year. The ecological safe use allows building turbines even in the highly populated areas without any damage to the agriculture or people (Morris, 2006).

With all the advantages there are also some disadvantages, but the positives highly outweigh the negative sides. One benefit of wind power is its cleanest conversion and/or production of energy. The amount of wind power is a renewable source. It is quiet, safe for people and animals, as well as for the planet.

Wind turbines do not need any fossil fuels and the work of one wind generator with the power output of 1 mega watt allows saving 29 thousand tons of coal or 92 thousand barrels of oil, in 20 years. The use of the same powered wind generator decreases yearly air pollution in the atmosphere by 1800 tons of CO2. The durability and almost needless maintenance is another great advantage.

The fact that they can be built on mountains and on the sea, allow for widespread usage, as the territory covered by water is enormous. This provides for minimal interaction with human populations and all other living things. Even in places where the vanes are susceptible to icing, there is no damage to the generator, on the contrary, it has been shown to increase the power output (Ghosh, 2011).

Some of the disadvantages that have been registered are the process of manufacturing, assembly and technical, as well as economical difficulties. Sometimes, it is costly to build in remote areas with no particular guarantee that the wind strength will be adequate. The fact that weather is unpredictable and can change from time to time, means that it cannot be relied on steadily.

It is extremely difficult to regulate energy flow, making electrical production unreliable and destabilized. This inconsistency increases the cost of energy converted by the wind generators, which is a factor important for many populations and countries.

In case there is some maintenance or replacement needed, the repair cost is quite significant. There has also been supposition that a great amount of wind turbines can influence the speed and flow of wind over large areas and lead to a change of climate or weather shifts (Morris, 2006).

Some of European countries have been using wind power for several years. For example, wind turbines in Germany have produced 8% of the total electricity in year 2011. Denmark was able to generate 28% of power and is thought to be of the highest productions.

Also, wind turbines are used in countries such as China, the United States, Spain, India, United Kingdom, France and Canada, but many other countries worldwide as well. Even though the cost is sometimes higher than expected and some problems include reliability risk, the future looks rather promising.

Humanity has reached an age where clean energy has become a key to the survival of the planet and humanity. There is constant work on the better management and upgrades to the wind generators, so it is evident that the future will greatly use the available resource (Ghosh, 2011).

Currently, there are technologies that have already proven to be important in clean energy production. The sun and wind have shown great potential and has brought positive results. It is much more beneficial to people and environment, but it must be used with great care. It is evident that more safety procedures and preventative measures would have to be established, so that the risk is minimal to people, economy and stability of nations.

References

Dell, R. (2004). Clean Energy Cambrigde, United Kingdom: Royal Society of Chemistry.

Ghosh, T. (2011). Energy Resources and Systems: Volume 2: Renewable Resources. New York, NY: Springer.

Lawson, J. (2001). Conservation of Energy. Manitoba, Canada: Portage & Main Press.

Morris, N. (2006). Wind Power. North Mankato, MN: Black Rabbit Books.

Niele, F. (2005). Energy: Engine of Evolution. San Diego, CA: Elsevier.

The main points of this article are to offer the reader with an awareness of the generally dangers of electricity, and to provide some insight into the physiological effects of electrical shock on the human body. The main part of the article will centre of attention on the physiological effects of electrical shock on the human body. Electric power is a main form of energy world-wide. It helps us in living enhanced, but it is still a hazard in our everyday life. The human body uncovered to the electromagnetic field is presented as a thick conducting cylindrical scattered of the length L and radius a, placed vertically on the ideal ground.

When a human touches a large ungrounded metal object (like a car, truck, etc.), the total impedance between the entity and ground can be signified by a series combination of circuits equivalent to the electrode, skin and increase impedances, impedance between the feet and ground, and body impedance. Electric accidents’ figures, especially on work-related accidents, demonstrate the extent of the problem: electrocutions are the second causation for deaths at the workplace after falls from height. Actions for preventing occupational accidents have been taken in the various countries. The EU structure Directive for protection and health at work provides several requirements. Electricity has long been recognized as a grave workplace hazard, revealing employees to electric shock, electrocution, burns, fires, and explosions.

An electric shock can happen upon make contact with of a human’s body with any resource of voltage high enough to cause sufficient current flow through the muscles or hair. The least current a human can feel is thought to be about 1 milliampere (mA). The current may cause tissue damage or fibrillation if it is adequately high. The discernment of electric shock can be different depending on the voltage, duration, current, path taken, frequency, etc. Current entering the hand has a entrance of perception of about 5 to 10 mA (milliampere) for DC and about 1 to 10 mA for AC at 60 Hz. Shock perception declines with increasing frequency, eventually disappearing at frequencies above 15-20 kHz.

An electric shock can effect in anything from a minor tingling sensation to immediate cardiac arrest. The severity depends on the following:

• The amount of current flowing through the body,
• The current’s path through the body,
• The length of time the body remains in the circuit, and
• The current’s frequency.

This table shows the general relationship between the amount of current received and the reaction when current flows from the hand to the foot for just 1 second.

Cardiac effects

Current can result meddling with nervous control, especially over the heart and lungs. Repeated electric shock which does not lead to death has been shown to cause neuropathy. When the current path is through the head, it appears that, with enough current, loss of awareness almost always occurs swiftly. The effects of electricity on the human heart are usually the most serious considerations when dealing with electricity, because this is how most fatalities of accidental electrocution die. Note that currents less than 5 mA are usually imperceptible, and currents above 100 mA are the lethal currents.

Currents in excess of 6 A can cause severe burns and connected trauma; currents above 20 A can physically dismember the body. Currents between 100 mA and 1 A are the most dangerous to the heart, and voltages between 50 V and 240 V are those that can readily produce these currents, if the skin is wet. According to Ohm’s Law and the low 1 kS value of the resistance of the skin, a 50 V source produces only 50 mA through the body, which is throbbing but usually not deadly. However, if the voltage is 120 V, the current becomes 120 mA; at 240 V, the current is 240 mA, both of which are right in the range of the currents nearly all dangerous to the heart.

Other issues affecting lethality are frequency, which is an issue in causing cardiac arrest or muscular spasms, and pathway, if the current passes through the chest or head there is an increased probability of death. From a main circuit or power division board the spoil is more likely to be internal, leading to cardiac arrest.

Burns

Burns are the most ordinary shock-related injury. An electrical accident can effect in an electrical burn, arc burn, thermal contact burn, or a combination of burns. Electrical burns are in the midst of the most sombre burns and require immediate medical attention. They occur when electric current flows through tissues or bone, generating heat that causes tissue damage. Arc or spark burns result from high temperatures caused by an electric arc or blast near the body.

Thermal contact burns are caused when the skin touches hot surfaces of overheated electric conductors, conduits, or other energized equipment. Thermal burns also can be caused when clothing catches on fire, as may happen when an electric arc is produced. In addition to shock and burn hazards, electricity poses other dangers. For example, arcs that result from short circuits can cause injury or begin a fire. Extremely high-energy arcs can spoil equipment, causing fragmented metal to fly in all directions. Even low-energy arcs can cause sadistic explosions in atmospheres that have flammable gases, vapours, or burnable dusts.

Freeze

When a person receives an electrical shock, occasionally the electrical stimulus causes the muscles to contract. This “freezing” effect makes the person powerless to drag free of the circuit. It is tremendously dangerous because it increases the length of exposure to electricity and because the current causes blisters, which diminish the body’s resistance and increases the current. Longer exposures at even quite low voltages can be just as dangerous as short exposures at superior voltages. Low voltage does not involve low hazard. In addition to muscle contractions that cause “freezing,” electrical shocks also can basis reflex muscle reactions.

These reactions can result in a wide range of other injuries from collisions or falls, including bone fractures, bruises, and even death. If a person is “frozen” to a live electrical contact, shut off the current instantly. If this is not possible, use boards, poles, or sticks made of wood or any other no conducting materials and safely push or pull the person away from the contact. It’s significant to act speedily.

Preventing Electrical Hazards

Nearly all electrical accidents result from one of the following three factors:

• Unsafe equipment or installation,
• Unsafe environment,
• Unsafe work practices.

Insulation

Proper insulation is required for Preventing Electrical Hazards. An insulator is any material with high resistance to electric current. Insulators-such as glass, rubber, mica, and plastic-are put on conductors to put off fires, shock, and short circuits. Before employees get ready to work with electric equipment, it is always a good idea for them to check the insulation before making a connection to a power source to be sure there are no exposed wires.

Subpart generally requires that circuit conductors be insulated to prevent people from coming into unintentional contact with the current. Also, the insulation should be suitable for the voltage and existing conditions, such as moisture, temperature, gasoline, oil, or corrosive fumes. All these factors must be evaluated before the proper choice of insulation can be made. Conductors and cables are marked by the manufacturer to show the maximum voltage and American Wire Gage size, the type letter of the insulation, and the manufacturer’s name or trademark. Insulation is often colour coded.

Guarding

Guarding of live parts may be accomplished by position in a room, vault, or similar enclosure reachable only to qualified persons; use of eternal, substantial partitions or screens to exclude unqualified persons; location on a suitable balcony, gallery, or podium elevated and arranged to exclude unqualified persons; or elevation of about 8 feet. Indoor electric wiring more than 600 volts and that is open to unqualified persons must be made with metal-enclosed equipment or enclosed in a vault or area controlled by a lock. In addition, equipment must be marked with proper vigilance signs.

Grounding

The “ground” refers to a conductive body and means a conductive connection, whether deliberate or accidental, by which an electric circuit or equipment is connected to earth or the ground plane. By “grounding” a tool or electrical system, a low-resistance path to the earth is calculatedly created. When properly done, this path offers suitably low resistance and has sufficient current carrying capability to prevent the build-up of voltages that may cause a personnel hazard.

Safety equipment for electric hazard prevention

• Eyewash units- Eyewash device used to irrigate and flush eyes exposed to a chemical substance. Performance needs such as surge rates and distances to the eyewash are recommended by ANSI Standard Z358.
• Safety shower- It is a unit people use to soak their entire body with water to remove a contaminant. Performance needs such as surge rates and distances from the shower to the hazard are recommended by ANSI Standard Z358.1.
• Splash-proof goggles- Goggles providing shield against splashes. Usually, these goggles have an indirect venting system to avoid fogging. These goggles are not gas tight.
• Safety glasses- Both the lenses and the frames must be ANSI approved, and side shields must be worn in the presence of flying objects such as machine-shop work where impact may arise from the side.

The control of electrical hazards is an imperative part of every safety and health plan. The measures optional in this article should be of help in establishing such a plan of control. The duty for this plan should be delegated to individuals who have a complete knowledge of electricity, electrical work practices, and the proper standards for fixing and performance. Everybody has the right to work in a safe milieu. Through cooperative efforts, employers and employees can learn to identify and remove or control electrical hazards.

References

1. Dennis K. Neitzel, The Hazards of Electricity – Do You Know What They Are?. 2008. Web.
2. WILLIAM F. BARRY, C. FRANK STARMER, ROBERT E.WHALEN, and HENRY D. McINTOSH. 2008. Web.
3. Safety Electrical Hazards. 2008. Web.
4. Personal Protective Equipment. 2008. Web.
5. Electrical shock hazard protection. 1993. Web.

Introduction

Over the years, the world has witnessed substantial progress in connecting people to reliable electricity supplies. However, some regions are still lagging in electrical services delivery. Although Nigeria has the largest population in Africa, it is one of the world’s most underpowered countries. Nigeria’s actual electrical consumption is 80% below expectations, which means that the power production by far does not meet national demands and needs (Akanonu). Given that electricity use and access significantly influence a country’s economic development, it is crucial to address electricity scarcity issues. This paper discusses the challenges of electricity supply in Africa and provides recommendations on how the continent can solve these issues. Addressing its electricity scarcity problems can help regimes within the continent achieve energy security.

Energy Poverty in Nigeria

Energy Poverty

Energy poverty is a multidimensional concept caused by a combination of complex factors such as the physical availability of energy sources, low incomes, and high energy costs. The energy development index defines energy poverty in sub-Saharan Africa by two measures: inadequate electricity access and dependence on traditional cooking fuels such as dung, charcoal, and firewood (Njiru and Letema 4). The quantity of energy used in a household per month is an indicator of energy poverty.

Although the energy demand in Nigeria is high, the country is still energy poor. According to Akanonu, Nigeria’s electricity demand is about 4-12 times the actual amount of electricity produced and distributed on the grid. Experts attribute the unmet energy demands to the country’s large population and limited electricity production (Akanonu). This demand-supply gap has led to energy poverty, which negatively affects the citizens. When electricity supply is not easily accessible, citizens are forced to seek other energy alternatives such as charcoal, kerosene lamps, and candle. Kerosene is not only toxic but also expensive, inefficient, and hazardous.

According to a report published by the World Economic Forum, inhaling kerosene fumes is equivalent to smoking two cigarette packets a day (Lucey). About two-thirds of adult females with lung cancer in African countries are non-smokers (Lucey). It is postulated that lung cancer in this population demographic is caused by inhaling toxic fumes such as kerosene fumes and wood energy sources. Therefore, increasing access to clean energy is not only an economic issue but also a health one.

The best way to ensure sustainable energy is to increase clean energy consumption at the household level. Unfortunately, many African countries have failed to meet these demands due to a multitude of factors. The factors that prevent household access to clean energy include lack of infrastructure, poverty, lack of human resources, political corruption, and disasters (Lucey). This paper will focus on inadequate infrastructure, poverty, and lack of human resources.

Inadequate Infrastructure

There is a multitude of literature examining the effects of poor infrastructure on electricity access. A study conducted by Stern et al. showed that regions that invest in rural electricity infrastructure have lower poverty rates and higher incomes. For example, in Egypt, electricity infrastructure has significantly contributed to its economic growth (Stern et al. 87). Electricity infrastructure includes wire networks, dams, towers, and turbines. They are essential parts of affordable and reliable electrical power systems and support the continuous generation of electricity.

Unfortunately, Nigeria is characterized by slow load growth and inadequate baseload capacity, and insufficient distribution systems. The majority of the available high-voltage transmission infrastructure was constructed during the colonial and post-colonial eras. Hence, most of the available infrastructure cannot accommodate modern grid uses, such as integrating alternative energy sources. Most developed countries meet their energy demand by supplementing electrical energy with renewable energy. This approach is achieved through integrating variable renewable energy sources and electrical grids. Considering the state of Nigeria’s electrical grids, this strategy cannot be applied.

The country’s distribution and transmission systems are in a deplorable state due to inadequate funding and lack of maintenance. Although the installed systems have a generated capacity of 6114 MW, only 3300 MW is produced. In hindsight, the country needs an excess of 10 000 MW to satisfy its electricity demand (Ebhota and Tabakov 314). The poor state of the nation’s electrical infrastructure makes it hard to convey power from generation sites to consumption points. Unless the transmission and distribution systems are in optimal conditions, the power supply will be limited. This deficit means that the country needs to invest in electric infrastructure, including smart meters, advanced distribution systems, buried power, and new poles, to adjust to new challenges and support the systems’ resilience and reliability.

Poverty

Poverty can influence a household’s access to energy and consumption. There is a direct relationship between poverty and energy consumption. The energy poverty matrix points out that “households that spend more than 10%-15% of their income on energy per month or year are generally energy poor” (Njiru and Letema 5). It is estimated that an average African household spends at least 13% of its income on fuel (Njiru and Letema 6). Due to limited electrical energy, families opt for unhealthy energy forms, which are typically expensive (Njiru and Letema 6). For example, over the years, the costs of wood fuels have been continuously increasing. Eventually, due to the costs of alternative energy sources, people are trapped in a vicious poverty cycle.

Natural disasters can also affect the industry’s ability to generate and distribute petroleum products, including kerosene, gasoline, and diesel, among others. These disruptions can cause kerosene shortages, leading to hiked prices. According to Stern et al., the return on investment for biomass fuels is low, which is why the industrial revolution was crucial (88). The course led to the shift from biomass to fossil fuels which maximized energy supply and, consequently, production and economic growth. Electrification in rural areas is expensive given that most of these regions are far from the national grid center (Njiru and Letema 6). Because of the distance, it becomes uneconomical to distribute energy to these regions. Additionally, most rural people cannot afford the initial installation costs and accessories.

Taken together, the above findings show that energy consumption is generally expensive for people living in Sub-Saharan Africa. Alternative energy sources such as biomass fuel and petroleum products are costly due to variable factors in the energy market. Nevertheless, electricity is cheaper but has high installation costs, which may not be affordable for low-income households. A study conducted by Onat showed that high electricity prices and low-quality energy supply are among the primary causes of electricity theft (165). Electricity theft is malpractice involving the illegal consumption of electricity. It involves by-passing meters that read the energy consumption of a particular household.

Arguably, the low quality of energy supply is the main reason for electricity theft in Nigeria. The Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN), which later became the National Electric Power Authority, is poorly run and managed (Ebhota and Tabakov 314). The authority is characterized by poor workmanship, low-quality materials, and corruption. It has low standards for foreign and local contractors, which has affected the country’s quality of energy supply. Ebhota and Tabakov postulated that cable thefts, power thefts, and pipeline and transformers’ vandalization stem from the authority’s poor running (312). People in Nigeria have resorted to stealing equipment from the hydro-electrical plants due to energy poverty and mismanagement of the electrical facilities by relevant authorities.

Lack of Human Resources

Africa has long depended on foreign aid to stimulate its local economies. However, the over-dependence on foreign aid comes with debilitating effects. Although vast, foreign aid has failed to meet the continent’s development needs with respect to human and physical capital. The former is considered one of the most critical assets in any economic sphere. It is directly linked to economic growth because the workforce is an essential factor in aggregate production. Unfortunately, the energy industry has failed to address human resource issues and how they affect the electricity supply. The industry heavily depends on the foreign workforce to solve its technical challenges. Most African countries look up to developed states for answers to local problems.

For example, the continent is lagging in science and energy technology. The latter involves using advanced technological systems to locate, evaluate, harvest, and transport primary energy sources, such as hydro-power and fossil fuels, into secondary energy services, such as electricity. With technological innovation, energy companies can reduce the financial cost of electricity supply, increase service quality per given price, and reduce political or environmental impacts. While most developed countries have now standardized advanced electrical management systems, Africa is still using infrastructure developed in the pre-colonial era.

Interestingly, the continent has vast academic and research institutions established to resolve such problems. These institutions have received a considerable amount of investment to facilitate development processes. One of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) is to increase global access to clean and affordable energy. The SDG heavily invests in academic and research institutions as a strategy of expediting their global energy goals.

Unfortunately, despite the heavy investments, Africa is still lagging in scientific research, with only one percent of international research generated from Africa (Duermeijer et al.). This issue is problematic because higher institutions are responsible for producing a country’s refined workforce. Unless the higher institutions change their approach to education and research, Africa will continue depending on the foreign human resource for local problems.

Economic Impact of Lack of Electricity in Africa

As previously mentioned, a country’s electricity has a significant impact on a country’s economic development. The study by Stern et al. demonstrated that electricity use and access are strongly connected to economic development. The authors attributed the economic growth to an increase in GDP rates due to high electricity consumption. Electricity enables or powers the production of services that improve people’s livelihoods and quality of life. Typically, electricity shortages affect industrial processes since most companies cannot produce goods unless they have a constant electricity supply.

Although electricity accounts for a small share of a company’s production costs, it is critical in the manufacturing process. The Stochastic Frontier Analysis model postulates that electricity’s elasticity is almost three times more than its share of inputs (Onat 168). From the model’s perspective, electricity’s marginal revenue product is three times the labor and capital contribution at the margin (Onat 169.). Accordingly, electricity blackouts increase labor costs but reduce the manufacturing exports/output at the company. It leads to loss of production, which can affect the internal or external financial firm’s welfare. Therefore, it can be surmised that at the organizational level, electricity shortage can reduce supply shift output, which can lead to losses in productivity and corporate revenue.

Electricity shortages are also said to reduce job creation and employment. A study conducted by Ou et al. showed that living in a region with unreliable power supplies can minimize employment probability by 35% – 41% (Onat 170). The authors pointed out that electricity scarcity disrupts business activities, thereby decreasing entrepreneur incentives in SME businesses. According to the authors, reducing such incentives can lower a company’s employment rate. Another mechanism of how electricity shortage causes unemployment relates to supply and operational efficiency. As mentioned earlier, electricity supply disrupts a company’s production processes, forcing cut-downs in labor costs.

Africa can compete with other countries by adopting innovative technology. African governments should invest in a “skill revolution” to optimize their human capital. As indicated above, higher institutions and research centers are underperforming with respect to producing a skilled workforce and intellectual assets. These institutions should nurture people’s curiosity to enable young professionals to develop deep thinking, new mindsets, and creative imagination. This way, the continent will produce professionals equipped with the skills required in the next industrial revolution. African governments should also collaborate and develop growth-enhancing policies. The governments should prioritize eliminating trade obstacles, political instability, insecurity, and corruption. This strategy will improve intra-regional trade, which may bring economic benefits to upcoming start-ups.

Bioenergy Technologies

Governance

Africa has a tremendous social market to facilitate access to grid electricity and power each household with safe, clean, and affordable energy solutions. Nigeria is particularly advantaged due to its natural endowment in oil, hydro-power, solar, and gas. The country is the largest gas and oil producer in Africa and 13th in the world (Ebhota and Tabakov 316). Additionally, it has abundant biomass resources that can be utilized for electrical production. The country has the capacity to meet its domestic electrical demands and even produce surplus energy.

However, the government has failed to utilize available resources to solve the current energy crisis. Good governance plays a critical role in promoting energy security. As indicated by Dahunsi et al., the government can improve energy security by developing and implementing effective policies (10). Therefore, the government should implement policies that create a favorable investment environment in the energy industry. It should invest in electrical infrastructure that integrates renewable energy sources, for instance, wind, and electrical grids. In part, the country’s energy crisis is caused by low efficiency in energy conversion (Ebhota and Tabakov 315). Through good governance, the Nigerian government can reduce inefficiencies in energy production, transmission, and distribution.

Conclusion

The sufficiency of sustainable energy supply is of great importance for countries that cannot meet their local energy demands. Despite having the capacity to produce surplus electrical energy, Nigeria still has a sizeable demand-supply energy gap.

The country is characterized by resource limitations (electrical infrastructure) and inefficiencies in electrical production and supply. Poor governance, inadequate electrical infrastructure, and high electricity costs are the main factors influencing energy scarcity. To increase its energy security, Nigeria should develop policies that encourage a favorable investment environment in the energy industry. It should also invest in infrastructure that allows for the integration of renewable energy sources with electrical grids. This way, it will optimize natural resources to supplement the generated energy.

Works Cited

Akanonu, Precious. “How Big Is Nigeria’s Power Demand?” Energy for growth, 2019. Web.

Dahunsi, Samuel Olatunde, et al. “Bioenergy Technologies Adoption in Africa: A Review of Past and Current Status.” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 264, 2020, pp. 1–16. Web.

Duermeijer, Charon, Mohamed Amir, and Lucia Schoombee. “Africa Generates Less Than 1% of the World’s Research; Data Analytics can Change That.” Elsevier Connect, 2018. Web.

Ebhota, Williams, S., and Pashat, Tabakov. “The Place of Small Hydropower Electrification Scheme in Socioeconomic Stimulation of Nigeria.” International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies, vol. 13, no. 4, 2018, pp. 311-319. Web.

Lucey, Katherine. “3 Ways to End Africa’s Energy Shortages.” World Economic Forum. Web.

Onat, Nevzat. “Electricity Theft Problem and Effects of Privatization Policies on Distribution Losses of Turkey.” Celal Bayar University Journal of Science, vol. 14, no. 2, 2018, pp. 163–176. Web.

Njiru, Christine. W., and Sammy C Letema. “Energy Poverty and Its Implication on Standard of Living in Kirinyaga, Kenya.” Journal of Energy, vol. 2018, 2018, pp. 1–12. Web.

Stern, David I., et al. “The Impact of Electricity on Economic Development: A Macroeconomic Perspective.” International Review of Environmental and Resource Economics, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 85–127. Web.

Purpose

Inadequate supply of electricity due to electricity blackout has resulted in many problems in schools. This memo has been written to identify the problem and find out solutions that can be used to aid in solving the issue. The overall cost incurred in an attempt to solve the problem has also been calculated. Finally, the benefits that result from the solution found have been used to complete the paper. The issue of electricity blackout has been on the front line, giving researchers the work to find ways to solve the problem.

Problem

The problem of electricity blackout in schools has caused chaos in the various departments of the school. There has been reduced performance in most students, parents, board of management, and the staff at large. Poor performance has resulted in a misunderstanding between the students and their parents, as a significant drop in students’ grades has been recorded (Ray, 2020). Students have been forced to retire to their dormitories earlier than the usual time due to darkness, thus reducing their private studies’ ample time. Immoral behaviors have also been recorded to happen every time there is an electricity blackout. Stealing among students is practiced almost, and school equipment such as sockets has been damaged.

Access to electrical devices, such as computers, which are essential gadgets in academics, has also become a problem since they use electricity. The setting of exams has been delayed, causing detriment to the school programs, affecting smooth learning in schools. Evaluation of students’ performance and acquiring of academic results have also been delayed since all these activities require electricity for them to take place. Access to Wi-Fi has also been delinquent to many students since they cannot access online learning, which has been put in place to help curb the spread of COVID-19. In matters dealing with school finance, it has been not easy to trace some funds due to the manual record-keeping system, thus delaying some school activities.

In mixed boarding schools, boys are observed to have been taking the opportunity when there is insufficient electricity to get into girls’ dormitories, where they end up engaging in immoral behaviors. This results in an increase in unwanted pregnancy and the spread of sexually transmitted diseases among students, resulting in a high percentage of girls dropping out of school. Drug usage has also been taking place late at night when there is no electricity, and many innocent students have been influenced to join in using drugs by their peers during the nights.

Solutions

The school has come up with solutions to help reduce this problem of an electricity blackout. The school board of management has decided to buy generators that would take over and produce light whenever there is an electricity blackout. The generators should be accompanied by CCTV’s input, which could help reduce theft and observe the students who destroy the school property. Furthermore, bright torches should be given to every class representative by the school to ensure that there is a power blackout, the lamps and torches are turn on immediately.

Cost

The generators are estimated to cost around 800 dollars together with their bulbs. The labor that is required in inputting the generators to place is about 50 dollars. Finances are necessary for buying CCTVs for all classes, and pavements range from $20-30 dollars. The cost of purchasing lamps and torches is 10 dollars. The transportation cost used to bring all the equipment to school is estimated to be 5 dollars. The total amount required to help solve these problems is around 890 dollars, and by providing these necessities, there will be remarkable improvements in every field.

Benefits

Finding solutions to electricity blackouts will result in proper and smooth learning of programs in schools. Students’ performance will improve since they will be able to do their private studies even when it is late at night. Wi-Fi will be accessible, thus giving the students and the staff enough time to do their research. Online learning will also be accessible to all students, thus reducing the spread of the COVID-19. There will be reduced loss of items by students since the CCTV will help maintain the security of their goods. Electrical gadgets such as computers will be utilized maximally, giving the students a wide range of exposure. Nevertheless, there will be quick exams and fast release of students’ results, thus reducing their anxiety. Finance records will be retrieved quickly, and there will be no delays in running the school activities example, the supply of books.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is seen that electricity is crucial in schools since it is the one that decides whether the school is going to continue learning or it is going to terminate its activities. As observed above, electricity plays a crucial role in students’ performance, parents’ reaction toward their children, and the implementation of duties by both the staff and the non-teaching staff. Addressing the issue of electricity blackout in schools, results in everything changing from worse to the best.

Reference

Ray, C. (2020). What has been taken, what has been given? Seminars in Interventional Radiology, 37(04), 337-338. Web.

Introduction

The introduction of electrified tools has altered virtually every aspect of humanity’s life. This essay will use the logical appeal method to illustrate the status of the use of electricity as an innovation that has had the largest impact on humanity. The emergence of electrified tools/systems can be called the most impactful innovation because it has boosted industrial productivity, increased the quality of life by making household chores less time-consuming, and made more transportation options available.

Electrification and Industrialization

Industrial development is among the key contributors to humanity’s development and survival, and electrified tools’ rapid growth has played a crucial role in it. Humanity’s knowledge of electricity generation and utilization became more complex in the 19^th century, promoting the Industrial Revolution (Erenoglu et al. 11). The latter’s economic importance for humanity cannot be overstated as industrialization gave rise to mechanized and more cost-effective manufacturing, eventually increasing people’s access to affordable consumer goods (Erenoglu et al. 12). Electricity’s contributions to industrial progress are still enormous today, and countries’ power generation potentials are inseparable from their economic health. According to the econometric analysis of the BRICS countries, the production and use of electricity promote industrial production while also facilitating sustainable or green economic development (Yu et al. 1). Therefore, the innovation being discussed has had an enormous influence on humanity in terms of economic systems’ development, changing each consumer’s experiences.

Electricity’s Impacts on Housework and the Quality of Life

Electricity has made electrified domestic appliances possible, reducing the amount of household work to be done manually and impacting the quality of life. Without the innovation’s emergence and popularization, housework would still involve a range of effort-intensive activities, such as wood collection for space heating or manual laundry. In the U.S., the annual residential use of this resource exceeds 1.5 trillion kilowatt-hours, being dominated by heating and cooling equipment, including tools for food preservation (U.S. Energy Information Administration). According to residential energy research, residential electricity consumption levels are directly related to citizens’ life satisfaction scores, with this link being universal for families with any income level (Wu et al. 14). In low-income rural households, access to electric appliances reduces the burden of the most effort-consuming household chores, including fuel collection and preparation, on women, enabling them to devote time to other activities (United Nations 4). Considering the well-established link between electricity, household chores, and subjective life quality, the selected innovation is among the most important inventions in terms of impacts on humanity.

Electrification and Transportation

The introduction of electricity has diversified transportation, enabling thousands of people in large cities to use rapid transit systems instead of relying solely on cars, which has implications for personal time management. The instrumentalization of electricity has made it possible to construct modern metro railway systems that serve millions of passengers daily and might be utilized for freight transportation as well (Singh and Gupta 453). The innovation’s enormous influence on people’s everyday life and the opportunity to achieve their destinations in a less time-consuming way can be noted. As opposed to reliance on personal transport, which creates parking space scarcity and congestion, the use of electrified mass transport helps to convey more passengers without wasting too much space (Singh and Gupta 453). This can reduce the traffic congestion issue and enable individuals to be in the workplace on time and choose between several transportation options, which represents a huge positive impact on society.

Conclusion

To sum up, the introduction of electrified tools represents the most influential innovation in human history due to the ability to revolutionize almost every aspect of life and make it more efficient. The innovation has made the mechanization of mass production possible while also reducing the burden of housework on people, causing increases in perceived life quality. Transportation has also benefited from the innovation as efficient metro railway systems have become accessible.

Works Cited

Erenoglu, Ayşe Kübra, et al. “History of Electricity.” Pathways to a Smarter Power System, edited by Ozan Erdinc and Akin Tascikaraoglu, Academic Press, 2019, 1-27.

Singh, Monika, and Sanjay Gupta. “Urban Rail System for Freight Distribution in a Mega City: Case Study of Delhi, India.” Transportation Research Procedia, vol. 48, 2020, pp. 452-466.

U.S. Energy Information Administration. “Electricity Explained: Use of Electricity.”EIA, Web.

United Nations. Systematic Review of the Socio-Economic Impacts of Rural Electrification. UN Publications, 2021, Web.

Wu, Yidong, et al. “The Effect of Building Electricity Consumption on Residents’ Subjective Well-Being: Evidence from China.” Buildings, vol. 12, no. 6, 2022, pp. 1-17.

Yu, Zhongdong, et al. “The Effects of Electricity Production on Industrial Development and Sustainable Economic Growth: A VAR Analysis for BRICS Countries.” Sustainability, vol. 11, no. 21, 2019, pp. 1-13.

Magnetism and electricity are closely related because in most instances, both of them work concurrently to produce the desired product or technology. In other words, magnetism is another form of electricity. For example, an electric field is created by an electric charge that is stationary. The latter is capable of producing static electricity. In addition, when an electric charge moves from one position to another, a flowing electric current (electricity) is generated. It is common knowledge that magnetic power causes the flow of electric charge and eventually generates electricity.

Importance of magnetism interdependence with electricity

A magnetic field is easily created around any permanent magnet. It is interesting to mention that this magnetic field creates or generates an electric charge. There are two main mechanisms through which the relationship between magnets and electricity can produce desired results. To begin with, the nucleus refers to the centre of an atom. Electrons (that generate electricity) usually move around the centre of an atom (Moliton 106). Thereafter, a magnetic field is created as electrons continue to move around the atom, bearing in mind that these electrons usually possess either positive or negative charges. Moreover, when the electrons themselves spin on their own axis, an electric field is generated. In fact, electrons in this case are regarded as little objects that are charged and therefore, as they move around the nucleus, electric charge and current are created. The latter explains the importance of interrelationship between magnetism and electricity.

As already mentioned, when electric power or charge flows, it generates electricity. There are myriads of products or technologies that rely on the relationship between electricity and magnetism. Various sources of electricity exist. These include nuclear energy, sun, wind, water, and coal among others. However, the most important issue here is how the relationship between the two aspects can be used in the most productive way (Moliton 81).

Our daily lives make use of electromagnetism in various ways. Electromagnetic principles have been applied in the microwave ovens, table clocks and other home appliances that we interact with on a daily basis. In fact, the ability to turn on or off electric appliances is made possible by the influence of electromagnetism (Bloomfield 61).

Heavy objects can be easily moved using the technology derived from electricity and magnetism. For instance, an iron core can be used to make strong electromagnets. An electric current is then allowed to flow through the iron core using a conductor tied around it. The electromagnet can be modified to produce any desired strength. The only determining factor is the amount of electric current allowed to flow through the conducting material. It is also possible to initiate and terminate the flow of current. These two actions can lead to the formation of an electromagnet and also the loss of energy depending on the work that is being carried out. Hence, it is possible to move very heavy loads from one point to another (Bloomfield 39).

The electromagnets are powered through the circuit connected to a source of electricity. The latter process energizes the electromagnets. As a result, the scrap metals or heavy metallic loads are then attracted by the magnets and transported to the desired position. Once the metallic load has been transported to the right place, electricity is switched off from the source leading to loss of energy of the large magnet. Therefore, the metallic load eventually detaches itself from the magnet.

The second application of the relationship between electricity and magnetism is in the movement of electric trains. There are two ways through which an electric rail engine can be supplied with electric power. First, an overhead power source can be integrated in the rail system in order to provide the required source of power. Alternatively, electric rails can be used to supply electric power. The required amount of power is regulated by an onboard transformer. This is similar to the working principle of a substation that runs on wheels. In addition, the driver can regulate the amount of power supplied to the train.

There are axles on the electric train that should be provided with power. The traction motors are electrified so that the axles can move. It is important to note that the engines have wheels that are directly connected to the axles. These wheels are responsible for the forward push whenever the axle wheels have been supplied with electric power. Any source of electricity can be used to provide energy for moving the train. For instance, hydroelectric power, windmills and diesel engines can be used to generate electricity needed. The third rail, battery or overhead lines can all be used to transmit electric energy. During the working process, the metal track releases an electric charge that is also magnetic in nature. This takes place in the metallic wheels in the engines that usually move along the railway line. Thereafter, the electric motor receives the electric energy from the engine’s wheels. As a result, it drives the electric motor. The latter is then adjoined to the wheels of the train. This is made possible via a mechanized drive arrangement. When the locomotive’s motor is being turned by the electric current, the gears are consequently moved. As a result, the engine’s wheels are rotated causing the eventual movement of the locomotive along the rail track.

To sum up, it can be seen that the relationship between electricity and magnetism has several benefits in our daily lives. The future inventions will continue to rely on this type of interdependence to produce even better products.

Works Cited

Bloomfield, Louis. How Everything Works: Making Physics Out of the Ordinary. Oxford: Wiley, 2007. Print.

Moliton, André. Basic electromagnetism and materials. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2007. Print.

Introduction

Electricity is one the most important sources of energy in the world. Almost every electronic device in every household depends on electricity. As such, mobile phones, computers, refrigerators, heaters, and bulbs and other major house appliances rely on electricity (Bloomfield 399). Electricity is a secondary source of energy. This source of energy has several primary sources, which includes water, oil, geothermal, nuclear, coal, and wind. The principle of electricity depends on the flow of electric charges (Bloomfield 362). Flowing electric charges are referred to as electric current.

Magnetism can be generated from electricity application (Bloomfield 351). The source of magnetism is current and magnetic moments. When electric current flows in a conductor, it creates a magnetic field. The relationship between the two is called electromagnetism. This term refers to the generation of magnetism due to electric current. Similarly, magnetic field leads to the generation of electric current when a conductor cuts the magnetic field. To date, several individuals have assisted in the discovery and usage of electricity and magnetism. These include Maxwell, Ampere, and Faraday (Parker 56). Thomas Edison made a major contribution when he invented light bulbs.

AC generators and motors

Most of the machines operate with the aid of motors and generators (Bloomfield 374). Their roles can be interchanged, a motor can be used as a generator, and a generator can work as a motor. Motors are devices that convert electrical energy to mechanical energy, while the generator converts kinetic energy into electrical energy. This is the case in industrial applications. Conveyor belts, rollers, and grinding machines utilize the rotating power from a motor. Generators are used in areas where there is no electricity (Bloomfield 388). Generators use sources of fuel such as diesel and oil to produce electricity. The generated electricity can be used as a source of energy or used as a backup source. During generation of electricity, magnetism plays a great role in generators. With respect to AC motors, current is supplied to the windings leading to a production of a torque on the windings. Torque is simply a rotating force, which is required to drive various shafts in machines for their operation. Given that AC current is used, the motor spins at the same rate of recurrence with the sine wave. The term is referred to as synchronous motors. However, these motors are not commonly used and this leaves room for the use of induction motors. Induction motor coils are supplied with current indirectly as opposed to the case of synchronous motors. The current is induced in the coils with the help of magnetism (Bloomfield 382). An AC motor consists of commutators, brushes, coils, and permanent magnets. The magnetic field is generated around the Stator coils and the magnetic field experiences counter force from the magnetic field of permanent magnets. This in turn rotates the shafts of the machines for their operation.

AC generators consist of two permanent magnet coils and brushes. The coils are placed in between the two permanent magnets. The mechanical energy is supplied to the coils. Thereafter, the turning of a coil in a magnetic field generates emfs at both sides of the coil. The two emfs are constructive leading to a sinusoidal voltage. This technical explanation is in accordance with Faraday’s law. The rotation of the coils causes changes in the magnetic flux in the coils hence generating voltage.

Magnetic recording

In the computing world, storage of information is very important (Bloomfield 392). The safety of the stored information is of concern. Memory space required for storage of information should be considered when choosing the method of storage. Magnetic storage involves the storage of information on a magnetic medium. The major magnetic storage medium is the hard disk drive. It is used for storage of both video and audio information. Other magnetic storage mediums include magnetic stripes, magnetic tapes, and floppy disks (Bloomfield 392). The operation of the analog magnetic recording utilizes both electricity and magnetism. Initially, the recording magnetic tapes are empty and in demagnetized state. The writing heads are supplied with an energy, which is relative to the information being recorded. Thereafter, the tape is made to rotate at a constant speed. The combination of the two leads to the magnetization of the tape, hence the recording takes place. When information has been stored, it can be accessed via redheads. The operations of magnetic recording require the use of electric current on the read and write heads to create magnetization on the magnetic medium for storage.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it should be noted that electricity is one the most important sources of energy in the world. The evidence of the presence of electricity is seen in phenomena such as lightning, radio waves, electromagnetic radiation, and static charges. Almost all technologies and mechanisms used in the operation of most devices utilize both electricity and magnetism. Applications range from generators, motors, relays, refrigerators and magnetic tapes. As such, electricity and magnetism plays a great role in human life.

Works Cited

Bloomfield, Louis. How everything works: making physics out of the ordinary. Hoboken: Wiley, 2007. Print.

Parker, Steve. Electricity and magnetism. Milwaukee, Wis.: Gareth Stevens Pub., 2007. Print.

Abstract

The objective of this experiment was to investigate the relationship between the electric potential (V) and the electric field and hence, determine the electric field pattern and strength E between a pair of parallel conductors.

The experiment was such that two setups were arranged. The objective of the first setup was: to trace electric field patterns on a separate grid akin to the one embedded in a tray of water bound within two charged parallel conductors. The difference in the second one comes with an inclusion of a ring in between the conductors. For the sake of analysis, a data of RMS (V) at six regular intervals between conductors were recorded and then plotted.

From the analysis, it was established that the results concurred with the theoretical to a greater degree. It was established that the electric field lines: point away from positive to negatively charged conductor, they emerge and enter a conductor normally and, they cut equipotential lines at right angles. It was also established that a computerized plot of RMS versus distance (x) gave a linear relation with the gradient equivalent to electric field strength E (57.30V/m). Using other approaches of calculations, the results gave consistent results with discrepancies of 5% and 8% for the average E and the two-pin probe respectively. With regards to the second setup, E within the ring was minimum (0.5V/m) though theoretically, zero is an ideal result. The uncertainties could have been as a result of experimental errors courtesy of impurities within in water. This can be minimized in future experiments by the use of purified water.

Objective

The objective of carrying out this experiment is to investigate the correlation between the electric potential (V) and the electric field and hence, determine the electric field pattern and strength (E) between a pair of parallel conductors.

Procedure

In the first set-up, a pair of parallel charged conductors 12 cm apart from an AC source was placed in a water tank and, with the aid of a digital multimeter (DMM), the root mean square voltage (RMS) was traced at regular intervals on a grid placed inside the water tank to establish six equipotential lines on half of the tank. This was achieved by selecting a reference fixed location and varied locations using a pair of probe. Equipotential lines synonymous to the ones traced on the grid were traced on a separate grid for analysis. These were later to be completed on the other half owing to the symmetry of the pattern. A graph of RMS (V) against x (the distance between the reference point and the equipotential lines) plotted for analysis. The directions of the electric field lines were established by the aid a two-point probe. This was achieved by taking note of the positions of the red and black probes where the DMM records maximum reading.

The second setup and procedure was similar to the previous one with the difference being an inclusion of a ring between the conductors. The objective was to deduce the pattern traced by the inclusion of a neutral conductor.

Experimental data

Table 1 of the position of the equipotential lines (x) and RMS (V)

Results

From the graph, the electric field strength between the two parallel conductors can be obtained from the linear fit connected by the equation y = mx + c. The gradient (m) gives the actual electric field strength (E_actual) i.e. m = 57.30V/m.

Alternatively, the average electric field strength (E) can be obtained by obtaining the quotient of potential difference between the plates and the separating distance between the plates. Thus;

E = (7.09 – 0.001)/ (0.12 – 0.00) = 59.075 V/m

Percentage error between the two values is obtained from the expression (59.075 – 57.30) / (57.30)* 100= 3.1%≈ 3%.

The electric field strength as obtained by a two-pin probe is calculated from the formula (V₂-V₁) / (d₂-d₁) where: (V₂-V₁) is the maximum potential difference between the probes and, (d₂-d₁) is the distance separating the probes. Therefore, picking the highest point on the grid (0.285V): E= 0.285/0.005 = 57 V/m. Picking the lowest point (0.238V): E= 47.6V.

Percentage error in E obtained by a two-pin probe is given by: (E_maximum– E_minimum)/ (2*E_actual)* 100 = (57-47.6) / (2* 57.3)* 100= 8.2%.

On the diagrams 1 and 2, you notice that the field lines are cutting the equipotential lines at near normal (perpendicular). Comparably, the field lines enter and emerge from the neutral conductor at near normal. Moreover, the electric field lines point away from the positive conductor towards the negative conductor.

In reference to the second set-up, the E within the ring can be obtained from the expression: (V₂-V₁) / (d₂-d₁). Thus, taking points within the ring, the average E= (3.13- 3.12) /0.02= 0.5V/m. Outside the ring, taking any two consecutive points but on different equipotential lines (e.g. 5.94V and 4.48V), you get E ≈73V/m.

Discussion

In this lab, the objective was to investigate the relationship between the electric potential (V) and the electric field and hence, determine the electric field pattern and strength E between a pair of parallel conductors. From the results obtained from the first part of the experiment, it is evident that the electric field strength (E) as obtained from the three alternative methods gave near consistent results were it not for discrepancies accrued in the course of the experiment. The actual E as obtained from the computer linearized fit gave (57.30 V/m). Calculations as obtained from the average E gave an error of 3% which is within the expected margin of error (5%). However, the two-point probe gave a big error of 8% which is beyond the expected margin. The errors could have been as a result of non-uniform charge density between the conductors owing to the immobile minerals in water. This brings one factor to the fore that determines the magnitude of E which is basically the permittivity of the medium (Becker 3). In future experiments, this error can be minimized by the use of purified water free of mineral elements.

The experimental analysis drew a correlation between the separations between charged conductors and potential difference. The two are connected by a linear equation (y=mx+c) where: the gradient (m) is proportionate to the electric field strength. From the analysis, the preciseness of E increases with the increase in the number of contact proportions between the charged conductors.

On focusing on the electric field patterns, the diagrams (1 and 2) reveal that the lines point away from the positively charged towards the negatively charged conductor. Moreover, they emerge and enter a conductor at right angles. On observing the relationship between the equipotential lines and the fields, it is evident that the two cut perpendicularly against each other. With respect to the first setup, the electric field lines, which are presumed to be uniform for parallel conductors, did not exhibit the same. This is attributed to the experimental error derived from the degree of permittivity of the medium (Becker 4). The second setup gave almost consistent results were it not for uncertainty regarding experimental setup with the focus being on the immobile impurities. This is so because within the ring E is expected to be zero but not 0.5V/m as obtained from the experiment. Expectedly, E anywhere outside the ring is predicted to be uniform (≈73V/m) and, greater than at the center.

Conclusion

The objective of performing this experiment was to investigate the electric field pattern of a pair of parallel charged conductors and, consequently determine the electric field strength of the same. Conclusively, the objective was met. This is so because it was established that: the electric field lines point away from a positive charge towards a negative charge, they emerge and enter a conductor normally and, they cut equipotential lines at right angles. Also, it was established that electric field strength within a neutral ring placed inside electric field is zero.

Work cited

Becker, Joseph. Physics 51-Electricity and Magnetism. Carlifornia: San Jose State University Press, 2003. Print.

Introduction

Electricity is a wide topic used to illustrate the actions of electrons and protons. The subsequent flow of the electrons forms the current we use to energize everything around us. It is important to realize that electricity did not just come to be. Many dedicated men committed and sacrificed themselves to bring electricity to the form that we know it today.

To many people, electricity is ranked among other basic things like food, water, and breathing air. However, most of us take this important invention for granted.

From the powering of radios to refrigerators, electricity brings about many positive things in life. However, these benefits do not come without their own risks. Electricity has the potential of causing instant death if it is not handled in the right manner.

Although electricity has become part and parcel of most households, there is risk that the world will not be in a position to produce enough electricity for its population in the near future. This might have serious ramifications in the lives of all those affected. There is need to understand the history of electricity, its present benefits and uses, and its future if we are to appreciate this important invention. (Bocco, 2010)

History of Electricity

Pre Discovery of Electricity

According to Diana Bocco (2010), “The history of electricity goes back more than two thousand years, to the time the Ancient Greeks discovered that rubbing fur on amber caused an attraction between the two.” (Bocco, 2010) By the turn of the 17^th century, there were numerous electricity-related discoveries that scientists had arrived at.

Among these were electrostatic generators and the separation between positive and negative currents. By this time, physicians had also come up with a formula to identify which materials were insulators or conductors.

As early as 1600, physicians like William Gilbert had come up with terms like electric to refer to the energy that certain materials emit when rubbed against other materials. This clearly shows that even before the invention of electricity there were other discoveries that pointed to the existence of electricity. (Gavin Electrical, 2007)

Discovery of Electricity

Although many people believe that Benjamin Franklin was the sole inventor of electricity, current research done on the matter has proved otherwise. Nearly all inventions take hundreds of years to arrive at perfection. On top of this, nearly all inventions come by through the concerted efforts of different inventors.

The invention of electricity was therefore wrought from limitless efforts from different people. For a long time, lightening has fascinated the human race. As time progressed, this fascination led Greek scholars like Thales to observe that rubbing amber against fur could generate an electric charge. Soon after this, a German physicist Otto Von Guericke tried to generate electricity in 1650.

Almost 80 years after Otto Von’s discovery, another English physicist by the name of Stephen Gray discovered that some materials had greater potential to conduct electricity over others. Almost two decades after Gray’s invention, Benjamin Franklin proved beyond doubt that lightening and the spark produced by rubbing amber against fur material that the Greek physicist Thales had earlier invented were related.

According to historians, Franklin tied an iron spike to a kite that was made of silver and flew it in a storm. In one of her works Diana Bocce (2010) observes, “The kite experiment helped Franklin establish a relationship between lightening and electricity, which led to the invention of the lightning rod” (Bocco, 2010)

This is considered one of the greatest milestones towards the invention of electricity. In 1786, Luigi Galvani observed that a metallic knife being exposed to the leg of a dead toad would form some kind of a reaction. This made him believe that the frog’s leg must be a source of electricity.

However, six years later another Italian scientist by the name of Alessandro Volta disagreed with this theory. He instead pointed out that the source of energy was not Galvani’s frog but rather the steel knife and the tin plate where the frog had been placed.

According to Volta, “when wetness comes between two different metals electricity is produced”. (Gavin Electrical, 2007) Using this knowledge, he designed the first documented electric battery. Volta’s electric battery was the first ever source of dry current (DC) known to man. (Bocco, 2010)

Following Volta’s invention, it was now possible to produce electricity that flowed in a steady manner. Before this, the only electricity available was the one that dislodged itself in one flash or shock. Through Volta’s efforts, it was now possible to tap electricity from one place to another using a piece of wire. This was a big contribution toward acquiring the science of electricity, as we know it today.

Following his enormous contribution, scientists decided to name the unit used to measure electrical potential Volt in honor of Alessandro Volta. In 1827, George Simon Ohm fine tuned Volta’s ideas and came up with a new electrical law commonly known as the Ohm’s law. Scientists trying to come up with electrical circuit analysis used this relationship later. (Gavin Electrical, 2007)

Post Discovery of Electricity

Despite earlier scientists doing much of the groundwork, the year 1830 was a turning point in the invention of electricity. In that year, an English scientist by the name of Michael Faraday began generating electricity on a commercial scale. Through his own creation and taking on the ideas of those before him, Faraday was able to produce the electro magnet.

Through his intellectual work, Faraday was able to come with technology that has been used to manufacture electric motors and transformers. This came after he realized that magnetism could be used to transmit electric current.

Measured by modern standards, Faraday’s dynamo or the electric transformer was crude by all standards and gave out only a small fraction of electric current. However, this formed a strong basis through which generation of electricity is based. (Bocco, 2010)

After Faraday’s invention, there was a lull of close to 40 years before the next major invention came out. This came in 1879 after an American Thomas Alva Edison built the first ever-practical Direct Current generator. Edison was also able to build the phonograph and a well-formed telegraph. Together with his friend Joseph Swan, a scientist from Britain, Edison was able to invent the first light bulb.

The two scientists later on set up a manufacturing company to produce and sell light bulbs. This brought on a revolution in electricity invention since prior to this electric lighting was only by the means of crude arc lamps. In September 1882, Edison took his invention further by erecting streetlights in one of New York streets.

Although this was a major breakthrough in the invention of electricity, it received great criticism from the general population and fellow scientists who viewed Dry Current to be containing major shortcomings. However, Edison was not discouraged and he continued working on towards making his invention a major success. (Gavin Electrical, 2007)

At the same time that Edison was trying to erect streetlights in New York City, an industrialist by the name of George Westinghouse was also taking a keen interest on electricity. Together with Nikola Tesla, they set up a manufacturing plant for the production of Alternating Current (AC). Through their concerted efforts, Westinghouse and Tesla were able to convince the American population and the world at large to drop the use of DC in favor of AC.

Through this adoption, it was now possible to transmit large amount of electricity, which had hitherto been impossible by using only dry current. Another major contributor to the development of electricity was James Watt. The Scottish inventor is credited for inventing the steam-condensing engine. As a token of appreciation for his efforts, the electric unit of current was named Watt in his honor. (Bocco, 2010)

Contrary to popular belief, Benjamin Franklin and his kite theory did not discover electricity. Way before Franklin could fly his kite or Edison came with his light bulb, electricity was still in existence. Throughout the history of humankind, electricity has always been in existence. A good example of this is lightening, which is a surge of electrons between the earth and the clouds.

When someone touches something and gets shocked, it signifies a form of inert electricity. It is therefore imperative to note that the invented electrical devices do not necessary translate to the presence of electricity.

These devices are merely artistic inventions meant to collect and store electricity. Even before the invention of electricity, as we know it today, the Greeks had already discovered it. Greek philosophers had long discovered the existence of static electricity. All these scientists and philosophers played a great role in defining electricity, as we know it today. (Bocco, 2010)

Electricity Today

Benefits and Uses

Electricity forms a basic part in the life of each one of us. One thing that makes electricity readily available is that the resources used to make it are varied. Today, nearly all form of transport relies on electricity to function. From commuter trains to individual cars, electricity is needed to run them. Most cars being made today solely rely on electricity to spin the wheels that in turn moves the vehicle.

Apart from this new breed of vehicles, even the traditional models that rely on gas to power them still need electricity to launch the engines, control it and give energy to other supplementary parts. This shows that without electricity, the human race would not be able to move from one point to another using the available means of transport.

Apart from transport, nearly all home appliances require electricity to power them. From home heating systems, computers, transistor radios, TVs, and many other home appliances all require electricity to power them. On top of lighting, electricity is needed to facilitate communication. This is done through powering computers, mobile phones, fixed telephone lines, and most importantly in transmitting signals.

On top of this, the high-speed optical cables that have helped in connecting the world through high-speed internet require electricity to give out the signal used at every end of the cable. In the absence of electricity, the world would revert to the era of letter writing, lighting fires or even waving flags to pass across messages. (Iowa Public Television, 2004)

Industrial manufacturing, which is the driving force of every nation solely, relies on electricity to drive almost every part of the industry. This means that without electricity the manufacturing industry would halt. Another area where electricity is highly required is the entertainment sector. Today, MP3 players, hand held radios; Ipod’s are all regarded as part of life. All these appliances require electricity to operate.

Whether they are plugged to a source of electricity or powered by battery, they all consume electricity. This shows that without electricity human life would be devoid of entertainment. In rural areas, electricity is needed to bring about the much needed infrastructure development. All these uses prove that electricity is essential in the production and progression of any country. (Iowa Public Television, 2004)

Risks

Just as the uses of electricity are numerous, it also poses many risks if not handled carefully. Healthy Working Lives (2010) states that “harm can be caused to any person when they are exposed to ‘live parts’ that are either touched directly or indirectly by means of some conducting object or material”. (Healthy Working Lives, 2010)This can happen if one touches the live wire or if they are exposed to a material that is considered a good conductor of electricity.

In reality, voltages going beyond 50 are considered dangerous to human live. In average, electricity is considered to cause close to 1,000 deaths in America alone. This happens through electric shocks or burns caused when someone is exposed to live electric cables. On top of this, operating defective electrical equipments can cause fires. This can in return cause death or destroy property that becomes hard to replace.

In order to avoid these risks, it is important to understand how electricity operates, how to direct it, the risks that it contains, and one can avoid and control these risks. However, the benefits of using electricity by far outweigh the hazards. This makes the usage of electricity a necessity in the life of each person. On top of this, taking the necessary precautions can effectively reduce the hazards posed by electricity. (Healthy Working Lives, 2010)

Future of Electricity

The modern electrical supply system depends largely on the transmission network. The problem that this system poses is that the network was not made with the capacity to carry its current load. Due to increased demand, it has not been possible to update the infrastructure.

As the Iowa Public Television website (2004) suggests, this has left the current system “at the risk of experiencing power interruptions and outages from time to time”.(Iowa Public Television, 2004)In the coming days, the mode of transmitting electricity is most likely to undergo major transformations. In the coming days, many organizations will consider rationalization and the use of alternative energy sources to solve the power crisis. (Iowa Public Television, 2004)

Rationalization

According to a recent article by Pargman (2010), “labor rationalization will be replaced by energy rationalization in all activities and at all levels”. (Pargman, 2010) This is partly due to the rising cost of energy. In the recent past, there have been calls by bodies opposed to scientific and technological advancements to reduce the usage of electricity since it is viewed as a threat to people and their environment.

These calls to adopt rationalization of energy are not only being made by environment conservatives but also by governments worried about by the inability of the current energy production to meet demand.

Contrary to what many people think, rationalization is not meant to reduce the cost of electricity. Although reduction of cost might be a long-term goal, rationalization of consumption does not necessarily reduce the total consumption. On the contrary, it means using electricity in the best way possible to reduce wastage.

This is also meant to reduce the negative effect that electricity has on the environment. Although at a lower scale, rationalization of electricity is meant to reduce the high rates that organizations and individuals have to pay to access this important commodity. According to researchers, Britain spends more than $500 per year.

The electrical devices used by the British people are also estimated to release close 1.6 million tones of carbon monoxide in to the atmosphere. Most of these costs and emissions come from the home front and hence the need for rationalization by individuals. By rationalizing electricity, the world will be conserving sufficient power for the future. (Pargman, 2010)

Alternative Energies and their Benefits

As the production of electricity becomes more threatened, the world is slowly turning to the use of alternative energy. This alternative source comes from renewable sources like the sun and wind. Unlike the usual electricity, renewable energy produce clean energy compared to the one produced by fossil fuels. Unlike other sources of energy, alternative energy produces no known hazards to the environment. These hazards include toxic and radio active waste products, which are present in nuclear power.

According to ABS Alaskan (2008) “In addition to the lack of emissions and waste products, no valuable resources are “used up” with renewable resource power generation.” (ABS Alaskan, 2008) In fact, the materials used in the manufacture of alternative energy, which are usually solar and wind power, are free.

On top of this, despite the magnitude of the usage, these raw materials would never run out. Unlike electrical generators that produce much noise and use expensive diesel, the alternative sources of electricity do not produce any noise and are free. Given the increased usage of electricity and the inability of the available raw materials to cope with the demand, the world will soon turn to the use of solar energy. (ABS Alaskan, 2008)

Conclusion

The history of inventing electricity has been a long journey. Many scientists participated in this journey and their overall efforts gave rise to the current form of electricity. It is hard to point an exact date as the time when electricity was invented.

However, 1752 was a turning point in the invention of electricity when Benjamin Franklin proved that lightening and static electricity that the Greeks had earlier invented was one and the same thing. When a breakthrough was arrived at, the world opened its arms to a new level of operation. Today, electricity forms a basic part in the life of everyone. From transport to communication, the world would be hard to be run without electricity.

However, the future of electricity looks uncertain due to the increased demand and the reduction in supply. This has made the world to turn its attention to the use of alternative energy. Compared to nuclear power, alternative or renewable energy provides more benefits. Electricity has definitely made life more comfortable compared to the olden days.

References

ABS Alaskan. (2008) Alternative Energy Information. Alternative Energy Information and its Benefits. Web.

Bocco, D. (2010) Who Discovered Electricity? Web.

Gavin Electrical. (2007) History of Electricity. Web.

Healthy Working Lives. (2010). Electricity. What are the Risks from Electricity? Web.

Iowa Public Television. (2004) Electricity. Web.

Pargman, D. (2010) Life After Oil. Death of Rationalization. Web.