Category: Electricity

The main points of this article are to offer the reader with an awareness of the generally dangers of electricity, and to provide some insight into the physiological effects of electrical shock on the human body. The main part of the article will centre of attention on the physiological effects of electrical shock on the human body. Electric power is a main form of energy world-wide. It helps us in living enhanced, but it is still a hazard in our everyday life. The human body uncovered to the electromagnetic field is presented as a thick conducting cylindrical scattered of the length L and radius a, placed vertically on the ideal ground.

When a human touches a large ungrounded metal object (like a car, truck, etc.), the total impedance between the entity and ground can be signified by a series combination of circuits equivalent to the electrode, skin and increase impedances, impedance between the feet and ground, and body impedance. Electric accidents figures, especially on work-related accidents, demonstrate the extent of the problem: electrocutions are the second causation for deaths at the workplace after falls from height. Actions for preventing occupational accidents have been taken in the various countries. The EU structure Directive for protection and health at work provides several requirements. Electricity has long been recognized as a grave workplace hazard, revealing employees to electric shock, electrocution, burns, fires, and explosions.

An electric shock can happen upon make contact with of a humans body with any resource of voltage high enough to cause sufficient current flow through the muscles or hair. The least current a human can feel is thought to be about 1 milliampere (mA). The current may cause tissue damage or fibrillation if it is adequately high. The discernment of electric shock can be different depending on the voltage, duration, current, path taken, frequency, etc. Current entering the hand has a entrance of perception of about 5 to 10 mA (milliampere) for DC and about 1 to 10 mA for AC at 60 Hz. Shock perception declines with increasing frequency, eventually disappearing at frequencies above 15-20 kHz.

An electric shock can effect in anything from a minor tingling sensation to immediate cardiac arrest. The severity depends on the following:

• The amount of current flowing through the body,
• The currents path through the body,
• The length of time the body remains in the circuit, and
• The currents frequency.

This table shows the general relationship between the amount of current received and the reaction when current flows from the hand to the foot for just 1 second.

Cardiac effects

Current can result meddling with nervous control, especially over the heart and lungs. Repeated electric shock which does not lead to death has been shown to cause neuropathy. When the current path is through the head, it appears that, with enough current, loss of awareness almost always occurs swiftly. The effects of electricity on the human heart are usually the most serious considerations when dealing with electricity, because this is how most fatalities of accidental electrocution die. Note that currents less than 5 mA are usually imperceptible, and currents above 100 mA are the lethal currents.

Currents in excess of 6 A can cause severe burns and connected trauma; currents above 20 A can physically dismember the body. Currents between 100 mA and 1 A are the most dangerous to the heart, and voltages between 50 V and 240 V are those that can readily produce these currents, if the skin is wet. According to Ohms Law and the low 1 kS value of the resistance of the skin, a 50 V source produces only 50 mA through the body, which is throbbing but usually not deadly. However, if the voltage is 120 V, the current becomes 120 mA; at 240 V, the current is 240 mA, both of which are right in the range of the currents nearly all dangerous to the heart.

Other issues affecting lethality are frequency, which is an issue in causing cardiac arrest or muscular spasms, and pathway, if the current passes through the chest or head there is an increased probability of death. From a main circuit or power division board the spoil is more likely to be internal, leading to cardiac arrest.

Burns

Burns are the most ordinary shock-related injury. An electrical accident can effect in an electrical burn, arc burn, thermal contact burn, or a combination of burns. Electrical burns are in the midst of the most sombre burns and require immediate medical attention. They occur when electric current flows through tissues or bone, generating heat that causes tissue damage. Arc or spark burns result from high temperatures caused by an electric arc or blast near the body.

Thermal contact burns are caused when the skin touches hot surfaces of overheated electric conductors, conduits, or other energized equipment. Thermal burns also can be caused when clothing catches on fire, as may happen when an electric arc is produced. In addition to shock and burn hazards, electricity poses other dangers. For example, arcs that result from short circuits can cause injury or begin a fire. Extremely high-energy arcs can spoil equipment, causing fragmented metal to fly in all directions. Even low-energy arcs can cause sadistic explosions in atmospheres that have flammable gases, vapours, or burnable dusts.

Freeze

When a person receives an electrical shock, occasionally the electrical stimulus causes the muscles to contract. This freezing effect makes the person powerless to drag free of the circuit. It is tremendously dangerous because it increases the length of exposure to electricity and because the current causes blisters, which diminish the bodys resistance and increases the current. Longer exposures at even quite low voltages can be just as dangerous as short exposures at superior voltages. Low voltage does not involve low hazard. In addition to muscle contractions that cause freezing, electrical shocks also can basis reflex muscle reactions.

These reactions can result in a wide range of other injuries from collisions or falls, including bone fractures, bruises, and even death. If a person is frozen to a live electrical contact, shut off the current instantly. If this is not possible, use boards, poles, or sticks made of wood or any other no conducting materials and safely push or pull the person away from the contact. Its significant to act speedily.

Preventing Electrical Hazards

Nearly all electrical accidents result from one of the following three factors:

• Unsafe equipment or installation,
• Unsafe environment,
• Unsafe work practices.

Insulation

Proper insulation is required for Preventing Electrical Hazards. An insulator is any material with high resistance to electric current. Insulators-such as glass, rubber, mica, and plastic-are put on conductors to put off fires, shock, and short circuits. Before employees get ready to work with electric equipment, it is always a good idea for them to check the insulation before making a connection to a power source to be sure there are no exposed wires.

Subpart generally requires that circuit conductors be insulated to prevent people from coming into unintentional contact with the current. Also, the insulation should be suitable for the voltage and existing conditions, such as moisture, temperature, gasoline, oil, or corrosive fumes. All these factors must be evaluated before the proper choice of insulation can be made. Conductors and cables are marked by the manufacturer to show the maximum voltage and American Wire Gage size, the type letter of the insulation, and the manufacturers name or trademark. Insulation is often colour coded.

Guarding

Guarding of live parts may be accomplished by position in a room, vault, or similar enclosure reachable only to qualified persons; use of eternal, substantial partitions or screens to exclude unqualified persons; location on a suitable balcony, gallery, or podium elevated and arranged to exclude unqualified persons; or elevation of about 8 feet. Indoor electric wiring more than 600 volts and that is open to unqualified persons must be made with metal-enclosed equipment or enclosed in a vault or area controlled by a lock. In addition, equipment must be marked with proper vigilance signs.

Grounding

The ground refers to a conductive body and means a conductive connection, whether deliberate or accidental, by which an electric circuit or equipment is connected to earth or the ground plane. By grounding a tool or electrical system, a low-resistance path to the earth is calculatedly created. When properly done, this path offers suitably low resistance and has sufficient current carrying capability to prevent the build-up of voltages that may cause a personnel hazard.

Safety equipment for electric hazard prevention

• Eyewash units- Eyewash device used to irrigate and flush eyes exposed to a chemical substance. Performance needs such as surge rates and distances to the eyewash are recommended by ANSI Standard Z358.
• Safety shower- It is a unit people use to soak their entire body with water to remove a contaminant. Performance needs such as surge rates and distances from the shower to the hazard are recommended by ANSI Standard Z358.1.
• Splash-proof goggles- Goggles providing shield against splashes. Usually, these goggles have an indirect venting system to avoid fogging. These goggles are not gas tight.
• Safety glasses- Both the lenses and the frames must be ANSI approved, and side shields must be worn in the presence of flying objects such as machine-shop work where impact may arise from the side.

The control of electrical hazards is an imperative part of every safety and health plan. The measures optional in this article should be of help in establishing such a plan of control. The duty for this plan should be delegated to individuals who have a complete knowledge of electricity, electrical work practices, and the proper standards for fixing and performance. Everybody has the right to work in a safe milieu. Through cooperative efforts, employers and employees can learn to identify and remove or control electrical hazards.

References

1. Dennis K. Neitzel, The Hazards of Electricity  Do You Know What They Are?. 2008. Web.
2. WILLIAM F. BARRY, C. FRANK STARMER, ROBERT E.WHALEN, and HENRY D. McINTOSH. 2008. Web.
3. Safety Electrical Hazards. 2008. Web.
4. Personal Protective Equipment. 2008. Web.
5. Electrical shock hazard protection. 1993. Web.

Lives of all great men remind us that we can make our lives sublime and leave footprints in the sands of time.-Anon. Science and Technology have played a major role in our lives. The advancements in this field have made our lives simpler, manageable, entertaining, and above all, advanced. All this advancement didnt come by in the period of a few years or so but rather is the outcome of the struggle of millions of countless people striving for the betterment of this planet ever since its inception.

The part played by scientists and inventors cannot be overruled. These are the people who have made this possible. Without them, the concept of life at hand is unimaginable. People often argue that science has made our lives easier and comfortable, but on the other hand, the inventions of bombs and ballistics have increased the threat of total annihilation of this planet. This can be explained by the fact that one needs to harness the resources at hand in the best possible manner for the interests of mankind.

Of the many inventors and scientists, the name of Thomas Alva Edison needs no introduction. He was an institution in his own right. His life is the stuff that the American Dream is made of. From humble beginnings to the giant that he was, Edisons life is a source of inspiration to the thousands of young people trying to make their mark in the world. The Wizard of Menlo Park, Thomas Alva Edison, was born in Milan[1], Ohio, in the year 1847. Having only three months of formal education and being regarded as retarded by his schoolmaster, Edison ventured out to give more than a thousand inventions to this world, many of which are still there and providing solace to millions around the globe.

To go through the inventions of Edison is no walk in the park. I wish to take you through Edisons achievements in chronological order so as to have a feel for the immense work he has done in the field of science and Technology. When Edison was 12 years old, he started selling newspapers on the Grand trunk railway, and in one of the carriages later, he developed the worlds first newspaper to be published from a carriage. Grand Trunk Herald, published in 1862, was a weekly newsletter published from a freight car.

The same place also served as Edisons laboratory. He once saved the life of a child of a railway officer, who had connections in the telegraph office, and he posted him there. Edison learned telegraphy, and along with that, he also invented the automatic telegraphing machine, which could send messages without the presence of an operator.

In 1868 when he was 21 years old, Edison invented an electrical vote recorder. Being an invention ahead of its time, the electronic vote recorder didnt sell, and thereafter Edison concentrated on inventing objects that he expected were readily marketable. Sometime after, in 1869, Edison went to New York.

By chance, he came to Gold and Stock Telegraph Company. Keeping in mind the fact that he had some training as a telegraph operator and had the mind of a genius, he was able to repair a broken down ticker apparatus, which nobody could repair and was given a job at three hundred dollars a month, a huge sum in those days.

After that, he also started selling telegraphic devices and made around 40 000 dollars, through which he established his laboratory at Menlo Park in 1876. This laboratory served as the base or the impetus of his further research activities. Afterward, when he became popular, the local press started referring to him as the Wizard OF Menlo Park. The notion alternately amused and angered him. Wizard, Phew, Its plain hard work that does it. Was all that he said? The phonograph was invented by Edison in the year 1877, and by this device, one was able to record sound mechanically on a tinfoil cylinder. This phonograph made it possible for recordings to be made of sound, and then these recordings could be played on the record. A modern tape recorder is a loose form of the original phonograph, which was invented by Edison.

The discovery or the invention which made Edison gain worldwide fame and popularity was the invention of the incandescent light bulb[3]. It was not that it was one of its kind. Because electric arc lamps were present and being utilized in France, it was his improvement of a 50-year-old concept that Edison was able to utilize the bulb for ordinary home use.

The light bulbs which he invented at first didnt last long, but he kept on experimenting. What he thought that if the vacuum is replaced by inert gas and the filament is made of a stronger material, maybe that would answer the question. Edison kept on experimenting with different materials until. Finally, he came up with Argon[4], which he used to fill in his bulbs, and the result was a more durable and long-lasting light source. In 1879 using low electricity, carbon filament, and vacuum inside a tube, he was able to devise a practical lighting system.

Now that he had made the bulb, the next problem was providing electricity to an ordinary house. This started the development of an electrical distribution system. Utilizing his previous knowledge gained at the telegraph office, where he had mastered the concepts from early innovators such as Franklin, he applied the principles to electricity and came up with a manageable, cheap electrical distribution system to be used for the mass provision of electricity for common use.

What Edison did was that his bulb, together with the system of distribution of electric power that he developed, made electric lighting practical for home use. His company by 1882 was manufacturing bulbs, and electricity distribution systems were being devised to help in the distribution of electricity and thus, providing light through a bulb was made possible through the electric distribution system.

On September 4, 1882, the first commercial power station located on Pearl Street went into operation, providing electricity to a population within a one-mile radius. This was the start of the electric age. After this, Edison spent many years perfecting and improving his electric distribution system and the light bulb.

In 1887 Edison moved his laboratory from Menlo Park, New Jersey, to West Orange, New Jersey, where a large laboratory complex was constructed for research and experimentation. Now this laboratory complex which employed quite a workforce, served as a prototype of the large research laboratories that so many industrial firms later established. Edisons origination of the modern, well-equipped research laboratory, where many people work together as a team, was the concept which the large industrial complexes are utilizing and can be considered his most important invention.

The success of the electric bulb resulted in Edison being projected to new heights of fame and fortune. The various electric companies continue to grow until eventually, in 1889, they were merged together to form Edison General Electric. When it dawned upon Edison that such a venture would require a lot of capital, he turned to investors, and JP Morgan was among the first ones to participate and help Edison in his endeavors. Due to this, Edison had to drop the prefix Edison and named the company General Electric.

The Kinetoscope was invented by Edison in 1888, which was the first machine ever to produce motion pictures through a series of stills. Sometime after that, he was also able to produce storage batteries. It was in 1891 that he patented the motion picture camera, which made it possible to take, reproduce and project motion pictures, and this concept is being used today in the film industry as well.

Another of Edisons discovery was made in 1882 when he discovered that in vacuum or near-vacuum electric current can be made to flow between two wires which do not even touch each other. At that time, Edison couldnt think of a manner that might employ this principle or make this principle practical. This was called the Edison effect and was later utilized in the development of the transistor. Thus this invention revolutionized the electronics industry long after Edison ever thought of it.

During the First World War, there was a severe lack of carbolic acid, and since Edison was using lots of it due to its use in the photographic industry at the time, he started to manufacture it on his own and within four weeks was making more than a ton of it. He also developed plants for the manufacture of benzene, carbolic acid, and aniline derivatives.

The department of the United States Navy appointed him as president of their consulting board, and he perfected and designed several types of equipment for used onboard the vessels as well as for ordinary use. In the year 1914, he devised the Telescribe, which permitted to record both sides of a telephonic conversation.

From 1917  1918 Edison worked with the department of defense and helped in formulating methods to locate the position of guns by sound ranging, the invention of sonar waves, detection of torpedoes by ships, developed collision masts for ships and submarines. This and several other inventions and discoveries for the United States Military helped the Military in gaining a tactical and strategic edge over the enemy.

A total of more than a thousand inventions were patented by Edison. He had seriously impaired hearing, but he made up for it through his hard work and persistent efforts. The last experimental work of his life was carried out on the requests of his friends Henry Ford and Harvey Firestone. They asked him to manufacture synthetic rubber as the natural rubber couldnt be sought in America. He was working on this project till the very last days of his life.

He was married twice and had three children by each marriage. Edison spent the last days of his life away from his laboratory. He went to Glenmont for vacations. It was in Glenmont in August that he collapsed; he was subsequently taken to New Jersey, where his condition continued to deteriorate. On October 18, 1931, he died in West Orange, New Jersey.

Giving a cursory look over the plethora of devices that Thomas Edison invented, one cannot help but marvel at the very essence of the kind of person he was. There has been some criticism related to Edison over the fact that the light bulb was already there and he did no wonder in reinventing it, but what people fail to comprehend is the fact that inspires of it being there the light bulb couldnt be used in a practical manner. It was only Edison who managed to curtail the problems associated with it and brought it out as a practical device.

Through the invention of the light bulb, as has been explained previously, he also laid down the foundations of the electrical distribution system, which was unheard of in those days. This laid the foundation of the modern electrical distribution system. This is the very system which makes it possible for electricity to reach our homes from the power stations.

At the time of the development of the electric distribution system, a kind of rivalry developed between Edison and George Westinghouse. Edison was of the view that distribution systems should carry DC or direct current because his company was providing DC, so he tried his best to win public favor in this regard, while Westinghouse was a strong advocate of AC or Alternating current to be carried through the electric distribution systems.

Edison and his company workers even held demonstrations in this regard and protested that Alternating current could be used in electrocuting a person. After a lot of deliberations, it finally came out that the main power distribution lines carry DC while the current is changed to AC and supplied for home use.

The discovery of the Edison effect made modern inventions in electronics possible, as without the transistor, there might have been no future of electronics. The tremendous advancements in the field of electronics couldnt have been made without the transistor, and as such transistor served a very practical purpose of Edisons concept termed as the Edison effect.

Edison used to say, For most of my life, I refused to work at any problem unless its solution seemed to be capable of putting into commercial use. It is this thought that made him go through all those years and made him the person that he was. It wasnt that he didnt have failures; he had them but always used to take failures as a step towards success. When he failed, he used to comment, We havent failed, and we now know a thousand things that wont work. So were that much closer to finding what will. This kind of attitude is what is required in modern-day society to succeed.

The way that Edisons inventions have changed the way we live is of magnanimous proportion. These are the people to whom we are proud and owe our convenient lives.

This age of technological advancement has affected almost all the fields of society, and science is no exception. The modern sciences have undergone a complete metamorphosis ever since the turn of the century. The future lies in expanding the horizons of our intellect and looking beyond what we term as possible, but we need to bear in mind the ethical issues, the broadening gap between the developed and the underprivileged.

The scope of modern technological advancements is quite broad, and every day new technologies are emerging which offer hope to the millions of people around the globe. Being able to comprehend the true potential of these advancements and being able to use them for the betterment of mankind is what can be considered the ultimate reward.

References

1. Gerald Beals (2005) Thomas Alva Edison.
2. Michael H Hart (1987) the 100-A ranking of the most influential people in history (pg 222-225) Citadel press 1987
3. The Edison Papers (2000) Web.
4. The Life Of Thomas Edison (2007) Web.
5. Thomas S Vernon (1999) The Life of Thomas an Edison
6. WikepediaTheFreeEncyclopedia (2007) ThomasEdison. Web.

Outline

1. The demand for electricity as a commodity has been rising as consumers and providers become more concerned about the convenience of the existing system.
   1. What is more, the change in lifestyle and the increasingly demanding life requires processes that save on time and money.
   2. It is necessary to automate the electricity billing process, hence, the need for smart electricity meters that are able to record electricity consumption data and relay that data to the relevant recipients.
2. These digital electricity meters have various benefits and capabilities.
   1. Providers and consumers are able to get data on electricity consumption at their desks to facilitate the payment process.
   2. Some processes that consume a lot of time and cost money are eliminated.
   3. The digital meter has other added features that provide various benefits to the provider and the consumer such as notification on power outages and power quality.
3. The relatively higher cost of the digital meters is justifiable as compared to the conventional electricity meters considering the value of their added features during their operation.
   1. The features, thus allow a reduction of cost for the whole process of acquiring electricity consumption data. That is, it would be more expensive to acquire these data through the conventional meters as compared to the digital meter in spite of the fact that the initial cost of the digital meter is a bit higher.
4. The digital meter should be reliable, durable, provide convenience, and be secure to use or rather not vulnerable to criminal activities such as illegal programming.
5. The functional unit of the digital meter translates to the input function, the processing function, the output function, and the transmission function.
   1. The input functions include the analog and digital signals for configuration, and the current or energy input.
   2. The output functions involve the display of the processed data including notifications and billing information, and the electricity current/energy for continuity of power.
   3. The transmission function involves linkage to a telecommunication system that sends data to the provider and consumer into a suitable media.
6. External search indicates the possibility of the viability of the digital electricity meter.
   1. Lead users approve of its importance and demand.
   2. Experts agree on the possibility of its design and implementation as well as the need to have such equipment.
   3. Similar inventions also inspire its development in that they have been received positively in the market. Nonetheless, these innovations have limited features.
7. Internal search affirms the discovery made through external search.
   1. That is there is the need to develop a gadget that sends electricity consumption data to the electricity provider and consumer.
   2. However, the development team questions the significance of sending these data to both the provider and the consumer simultaneously.
   3. The proposal is that the data could be sent to the billing agent centre, which would then send the processed data to the consumer after verification.
   4. This would be vital for security.
8. There is a need to further explore the usefulness and cost-effectiveness of the processes.

Introduction

Electricity is a vital commodity, whose consumption has been rising with its demand. What is more, electricity consumers and providers are becoming more concerned about the accuracy, reliability, and effectiveness of the billing systems. With the reality of the increasingly demanding life, there is a need to introduce innovations in this sector to allow both the electricity providers and consumers to save on time and costs by eliminating certain physical processes. In this respect, it would be necessary that it is possible to send electricity retail data such as the amount consumed and charges to the provider and consumer. This, in addition, would allow consumers to receive electricity consumption data conveniently to make arrangements for payments. This requires that a reliable digital meter with the capability of sending data to a receiver is designed and produced for the market.

Problem clarification

The problem

The digital electricity meter would provide additional capability, services, and benefits as compared to the conventional electricity reading meters. The meter should be able to send data, more so data regarding electricity consumption, to the electricity consumer and provider through and a suitable medium; the possible appropriate media could be a mobile phone or the email technology for the consumer, and through email technology to the provider.

The electricity consumptions data that is sent to the consumer would be displayed as an electronic invoice in a format that would make it possible to print it out. The data would include the amount of energy consumed (which will be measured in kilowatt), the total charges as well as charges per kilowatt, the minimum charge, and the time when the electricity was consumed. In addition, the meter could analyse changes in electricity quality and relay this information to the consumer as well as the electricity service provider. These additional features, which are definitely not incorporated in the commonly used conventional analog meters should not translate to a very high cost for the meter.

The cost of the meter should be relatively low. It should be possible to retail the meter at an average price of 250 AUD (Australian Dollar). Although this is a bit higher than the average retail price of about 190 AUD of the commonly used meters, the additional benefits should make it competitive in the market.

As people adopt new modern lifestyles, there is also an increasing demand for the automation of various processes and activities. Electricity billing is one area where there is a growing demand for automation. So many people want to have their electricity bills delivered to them reliably and conveniently, and at the right time. This is to facilitate the consumers budgeting of their finances as well as eliminate some processes that consume a lot of time and money.

What is more, inclination to technology has driven several services-providing companies to deliver information through technology. In effect, consumers have felt the need to harmonize the mean by which they receive this information. Therefore, it would be crucial that electricity providers can send information to their customers electronically. In fact, the providers themselves need to receive certain data from the consumer side such as the electricity consumption and quality of electricity conveniently and efficiently.

Electricity service providing companies or their billing agents need to have information about their customers use of electricity. They need to have data on the amount of electricity to calculate various charges, and also information such as the quality of electricity to enable them to analyse their customers satisfaction, and may give them discounts. Therefore, the availability of devices that would allow them to implement a system that relays such data to them without the need for the physical processes would be very crucial.

The digital electricity equipment, therefore, should be reliable, efficient, and durable as well as being automatic and programmable. In addition to the usual functions of a conventional meter, which is to record and display the amount of electricity consumed in terms of kilowatts, the digital electricity meter should make calculations and relay all data to the electricity providers billing centre and the customer. It should be possible to program the meter, more so, regarding the charge rates because these are not always constant and sometimes change with the changing status of an economy. However, it should be designed such that unauthorized persons are not able to configure it, or if any tampering occurs, the security unit of the electricity provider or the billing agents are notified.

Problem decomposition

The problem or the issue about the digital electricity meter is well understood in examining related functional parts independently. The meter records data, stores data, and computes and synthesizes data. It also relays these data to the electricity consumer and the electricity provider or the billing agent and also displays the recorded information on its integrated display unit. In this regard, it converts digital information into analog data for transmission.

Moreover, it should be possible to configure the digital meter locally as well as accept remote signals for remote configuration, probably from the billing centre. The fact that data or information into and from the digital meter is transmitted through a public network, authentications, and security measures are significant here. Furthermore, it should be able to also convert analog data into digital data. These constitute input, processing, output and transmission.

Functional decomposition

The functional elements of the digital electricity meter are represented in the diagram below. It features the input function, the processing function, the output function and the transmission function.

The meter must accept electric current/energy synthesizes it into human-readable data, store it, and relays it to a transmission network that allows the data to be received through media such as a mobile phone or email.

On top of these critical functional components, the digital meter could give notifications for a power outage, monitoring for power quality. These functions are not very critical and could be traded off for the sake of reducing cost.

The critical components

Critical to the functioning and marketability of the digital electricity meter is the capability to read and display electricity data and relay the data to the billing centre and the consumer. Therefore, critical to the core functioning of the meter is a powerful processor that makes computation, and other components that would make analog/digital conversion as well as a display of the processed information.

The analog/digital conversion components can be either integrated independent from the digital meter, however, the digital meter should have the slots to connect such devices. This is vital to allow linkage to a telecommunication system.

External

Information on the proposed digital electricity meter was sought both internally and externally. An external search involved interviewing the lead users, experts, and professional societies as well as searching patents and literature, standards, and benchmarking (Ulrich and Eppinger 2004, pg. 100). The internal search involved individual and group methods in finding solutions for the existing problems (Ulrich and Eppinger 2004, pg. 100).

The outcome of an external search indicates that digital electricity meters that would send electricity data to consumers are in demand. The highest percentage of lead users interviewed indicate that they would wish to have their electricity data sent to them automatically. These lead users of the digital electricity meter, who include both the consumer and the electricity provider, indicated that the immediate benefit is the reduction of certain time-consuming physical processes, as well as cost for that matter.

What is more, most manufacturers of digital electricity meters that only record and display consumption data agree that digital meters are more preferred than meters because of their reliability and accuracy? However, consumers indicate reluctance in opting to incur more expenses for electricity billing. The cost-effectiveness of the digital electricity meter, nonetheless, outweigh the factors that discourage potential customer for the meter.

The overall cost of receiving electricity consumption data through printed invoices in a process that involves a physical reading of the meters is more expensive. Considering the cost of traveling by the meter reader and the consumer as well as the printing costs, this meter would cut a substantial amount of operating cost. Furthermore, its initial cost is only slightly higher than the conventional meters.

Several companies and entities have introduced smart meters that are almost similar to the proposed digital meter. They, in fact, send certain data to the electricity providers. However, they generally lack the capacity to send specifically electricity consumption data, although some innovations are coming up; currently, these innovations have a high retail price.

The meters are in demand to the electricity consumers; however, the electricity providers determine their use because it is, they who makes installation; in spite of that, consumers contribute to a greater extent the use of such innovations.

Internal search

The ideas generated by the development team of the digital electricity meter indicate support to the already determined features discussed above. Digital electricity meters are necessary with contemporary circumstances. To start with, almost all the analog and mechanical-based types of equipment are being replaced by digital gadgets. It is generally known that digital gadgets provide more precise results than mechanical equipment.

Moreover, digital technology is more reliable, efficient, and convenient especially citing that the trend is the computerization of processes. Most of the electricity reading meters that are on the market have been built using mechanical/analog technology. It is with the realization of the general trend in the market and most industries that make is crucial to consider the development of digital electricity meters. In fact, this is vital to allow interoperability with other digital-based systems. Even more crucial, is the consideration to add a feature to the digital meter that would allow automation of processes associated with it.

A smart digital meter would even be more necessary considering the emerging lifestyles. First, people are increasingly adopting lifestyles that require efficiency and enhancement of various processes. Automation is a solution to these requirements. Therefore, it is significant that processes that are involved in electricity billing be automated to conform to the contemporary trend. This makes the development of smart meters that are able to record, display and send electricity data to electricity consumers and providers very viable. Such kind of an electricity meter means that a communication network system would be involved to implement its capability.

The meters, therefore, must be designed such that they are compatible with the telecommunication technology that is available in the market. It would be a tragedy to build meters that would necessity the development of other unique technologies for communication to be possible. However, there is the significant question of the importance of the meters capability to send data to both the billing agent and the consumer.

There is the issue of the need by the electricity provider or the billing centre to verify the correctness of data before it is sent to the consumer. Therefore, it would be more sensible to send the data to a central billing centre, which then sends the processed information to the consumer. Furthermore, it would be the design of the communication network or system that should make consideration on the need to have data sent to both the consumer and the provider simultaneously. Apparently, as long as the meter is able to communicate through a telecommunication system, then it would be possible to have data reach any number of recipients.

What should be of most importance in regard to communication is the capacity of the smart digital meter to support a certain amount of data flow. Note that designing the communication system such that electricity data is first verified by the billing agents or the electricity providers is vital to ensure that the providers or their billing agents are in control of the information that is received from the digital meters. This is so, especially in a situation where there is the tampering of the device or a compromise in the communication network to avert cases of conflict between the provider or agent and the consumer over issues of misleading or mismatch of data; thus, the agent or provider would be able to rectify the information before it is sent to the consumer.

Systematic Exploration: the concept combination table

The functioning of the smart digital meter would require that certain components are incorporated in its design. The most critical components include a processor or an integrated circuit that is able to interpret electricity current and synthesize it into a digital language and human-readable language. Further, the processor should be able to make computations and return numerical data. In addition, the meter should have input capability that makes it possible to read electricity current signals and computer signals for both local and remote configurations.

It should also have output capability where data can be displayed locally through a small integrated display unit. Moreover, it should allow the connectivity of a communication system that allows data to be transmitted to the provider and the consumer. Thus, there should be an integrated system that converts digital data into analog data for transmission through the telecommunication system and also converts the received analog signals into digital data.

Table 1. A concept combination table for a digital electricity meter.

Reflection

There are very critical considerations that would be vital for the development of this kind of digital electricity meter. They include relatively low cost, accuracy, and reliability, convenience, efficiency, and viability. That is would it be more convenient to have information sent automatically to the consumer and the electricity provider than employing the physical process of acquiring that information, probably from a simple conventional meter?

This question leads to the whole cycle of the physical as compared to the automated process while factoring in the overall cost and time spent; definitely, automation results in reduced cost and the time spent. It would be necessary to emphasize these advantages to potential customers to make them realize the overall cost-effectiveness of the digital meter as compared to the conventional meters.

On top of the core function of recording, displaying, and sending electricity data to the consumer and electricity provider or the billing agent, the digital meter could send notifications on power outages and power quality to the provider and consumers as well. This would allow the provider to make improvements to ensure the stability of the electricity output and also give compensations to consumers who are affected by interruptions.

It would also allow providers to make proper distribution of electricity based on the consumption data recorded by the meter. Nonetheless, not all electricity providers are willing to provide such compensation, and so this could act as a deterrent. It is this fact that make is necessary to focus on the core functions of the meter which are to record, process, and display electricity consumption information and send that information to the electricity provider and consumer.

Nonetheless, there are issues in sending data to both the provider and consumer simultaneously. The electricity provider or their billing agents might opt to have the electricity consumption information sent to their centre first, perhaps to undergo a verification process or to make sure they are in control in case there is an emergency situation before the information is sent to the consumer.

This would avert instances of conflict between the provider and the consumer when, for instance, information sent to the consumer is falsified through tampering of the system and the provider had not taken measures to rectify the misinformation.

The information gathered through this concept generation process may have left out some necessary functions. Therefore, there is a need to explore further into literature, experts, lead users as well as analyze the success of the existing smart meters and make a review on the gathered information to come up with a product that is superior to previously defined designs. This would entail extensive research for an extended time.

References

Concept generation, 2009. Web.

Karl, T, U, and Steven, D, E 2004, Product design and development, (4^th edn), p. 117, Irwin McGraw-Hill, New York.

Ogot, M, Okudan-Kremer, G, Kremer, G 2004, Engineering design: a practical guide, Trafford Publishing, United Kingdom.

Webster, J 1999, Wiley encyclopedia of electrical and electronics engineering online, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.

The pollution through fuel use, technology and many other aspects of civilized life has brought about many changes that humanity was not ready for, including a lessening of resources used for energy. But there are many ways to generate energy using clean sources, and one of them is wind power. It is thought to be one of the cleanest ways and has been used for some time (Dell, 2004).

Energy is the force that runs everything present in the world. The law of conservation of energy states that no energy can be made out of nothing or destroyed, as it can only be converted. Energy changes states and cannot be produced out of emptiness, as some processes have to take place to bring it out (Lawson, 2001).

Due to this fact, humanity must use a source of energy to its advantage, and nature is the one that provides these sources (Niele, 2005). Unfortunately, the planet is seeing a major depletion in natural resources and fossil fuels which are the established source of energy that must be greatly counted, due to the decreasing numbers.

The conversion of wind energy into electricity is accomplished through building wind turbines, a simpler way of building windmills and of course ships sails. Windmills and sails are used as a more private energy source; whereas wind turbines can be build industrially and in greater numbers. This will allow for widespread access and a much higher energy output.

The most basic way that a wind turbine works is by using the kinetic energy of the wind and turning it into electricity that can be used by humans. It is applied as mechanical, thermo and any other form of energy, which can be used in the agriculture and other places.

Wind turbines are considered a renewable source of energy and the sun has great connection to the wind. The sun rays warm up the air masses, causing warmer air to rise, and as it cools down in the upper layers of the atmosphere, it sinks, thus causing a cyclical nature of air masses (Morris, 2006).

In the modern times, there has been an enormously significant increase in the use of wind power. Electricity produced using wind was estimated to be more than 2.5 per cent of all energy produced by humans in the world. The larger a wind turbine is, the more energy it will convert. The power of the wind generator depends on the area that the turbine covers and its height above ground.

Some of the most common wind turbines are above 100-115 meters in height. The wind masses that are closer to the ground are much slower than those that are above one kilometer, but the wind above 100 meters is already considered to be much faster and better flowing.

The rotary vane also plays an important role in converting wind into energy, as the greater the area, the more wind will hit the surface, thus turning the rotor at a higher rate of speed. The two factors of the wind turbine, which are height off the ground and area that it covers, are interdependent. The higher it is, the larger the area, and also, the space close to the ground can be used for other purposes.

The wind generator starts to produce electricity when the wind is higher than 3 meters per second and turns off when it is greater than 25 meters per second. This is a safeguard that will make sure the wind gusts or particularly strong winds do not damage the mechanism (Morris, 2006).

The most common design for the wind turbine is one that has three rotary vanes or blades. The efficiency of the turbine also depends on its position relative to the ground. The ones that are vertical or perpendicular to the ground are used in areas where the wind is not as strong. They are thought to have a complete absence of noise and are more durable, used for more than 20 years without any particular maintenance.

But a widespread use has seen wind turbines that are horizontal. These are built in areas with strong surface winds. The highest wind speeds can be observed near the shore lines, but it is more expensive to invest in, by 1.5-2 times. Also, there are offshore wind electrical stations that are built 10-12 kilometers out in the sea. Some of them are built on stilts while some are free floating.

The use of wind on shore and off is said to be one the most useful types of generating energy, as the amount of wind and its energy are higher than those of all rivers on the planet by 100 times. The strength of winds higher than 7-14 kilometers is stronger by 10-15 times than those on the surface of the ground.

There is a strong consistency of the currents and they practically do not change over the course of the year. The ecological safe use allows building turbines even in the highly populated areas without any damage to the agriculture or people (Morris, 2006).

With all the advantages there are also some disadvantages, but the positives highly outweigh the negative sides. One benefit of wind power is its cleanest conversion and/or production of energy. The amount of wind power is a renewable source. It is quiet, safe for people and animals, as well as for the planet.

Wind turbines do not need any fossil fuels and the work of one wind generator with the power output of 1 mega watt allows saving 29 thousand tons of coal or 92 thousand barrels of oil, in 20 years. The use of the same powered wind generator decreases yearly air pollution in the atmosphere by 1800 tons of CO2. The durability and almost needless maintenance is another great advantage.

The fact that they can be built on mountains and on the sea, allow for widespread usage, as the territory covered by water is enormous. This provides for minimal interaction with human populations and all other living things. Even in places where the vanes are susceptible to icing, there is no damage to the generator, on the contrary, it has been shown to increase the power output (Ghosh, 2011).

Some of the disadvantages that have been registered are the process of manufacturing, assembly and technical, as well as economical difficulties. Sometimes, it is costly to build in remote areas with no particular guarantee that the wind strength will be adequate. The fact that weather is unpredictable and can change from time to time, means that it cannot be relied on steadily.

It is extremely difficult to regulate energy flow, making electrical production unreliable and destabilized. This inconsistency increases the cost of energy converted by the wind generators, which is a factor important for many populations and countries.

In case there is some maintenance or replacement needed, the repair cost is quite significant. There has also been supposition that a great amount of wind turbines can influence the speed and flow of wind over large areas and lead to a change of climate or weather shifts (Morris, 2006).

Some of European countries have been using wind power for several years. For example, wind turbines in Germany have produced 8% of the total electricity in year 2011. Denmark was able to generate 28% of power and is thought to be of the highest productions.

Also, wind turbines are used in countries such as China, the United States, Spain, India, United Kingdom, France and Canada, but many other countries worldwide as well. Even though the cost is sometimes higher than expected and some problems include reliability risk, the future looks rather promising.

Humanity has reached an age where clean energy has become a key to the survival of the planet and humanity. There is constant work on the better management and upgrades to the wind generators, so it is evident that the future will greatly use the available resource (Ghosh, 2011).

Currently, there are technologies that have already proven to be important in clean energy production. The sun and wind have shown great potential and has brought positive results. It is much more beneficial to people and environment, but it must be used with great care. It is evident that more safety procedures and preventative measures would have to be established, so that the risk is minimal to people, economy and stability of nations.

References

Dell, R. (2004). Clean Energy Cambrigde, United Kingdom: Royal Society of Chemistry.

Ghosh, T. (2011). Energy Resources and Systems: Volume 2: Renewable Resources. New York, NY: Springer.

Lawson, J. (2001). Conservation of Energy. Manitoba, Canada: Portage & Main Press.

Morris, N. (2006). Wind Power. North Mankato, MN: Black Rabbit Books.

Niele, F. (2005). Energy: Engine of Evolution. San Diego, CA: Elsevier.

The main points of this article are to offer the reader with an awareness of the generally dangers of electricity, and to provide some insight into the physiological effects of electrical shock on the human body. The main part of the article will centre of attention on the physiological effects of electrical shock on the human body. Electric power is a main form of energy world-wide. It helps us in living enhanced, but it is still a hazard in our everyday life. The human body uncovered to the electromagnetic field is presented as a thick conducting cylindrical scattered of the length L and radius a, placed vertically on the ideal ground.

When a human touches a large ungrounded metal object (like a car, truck, etc.), the total impedance between the entity and ground can be signified by a series combination of circuits equivalent to the electrode, skin and increase impedances, impedance between the feet and ground, and body impedance. Electric accidents figures, especially on work-related accidents, demonstrate the extent of the problem: electrocutions are the second causation for deaths at the workplace after falls from height. Actions for preventing occupational accidents have been taken in the various countries. The EU structure Directive for protection and health at work provides several requirements. Electricity has long been recognized as a grave workplace hazard, revealing employees to electric shock, electrocution, burns, fires, and explosions.

An electric shock can happen upon make contact with of a humans body with any resource of voltage high enough to cause sufficient current flow through the muscles or hair. The least current a human can feel is thought to be about 1 milliampere (mA). The current may cause tissue damage or fibrillation if it is adequately high. The discernment of electric shock can be different depending on the voltage, duration, current, path taken, frequency, etc. Current entering the hand has a entrance of perception of about 5 to 10 mA (milliampere) for DC and about 1 to 10 mA for AC at 60 Hz. Shock perception declines with increasing frequency, eventually disappearing at frequencies above 15-20 kHz.

An electric shock can effect in anything from a minor tingling sensation to immediate cardiac arrest. The severity depends on the following:

• The amount of current flowing through the body,
• The currents path through the body,
• The length of time the body remains in the circuit, and
• The currents frequency.

This table shows the general relationship between the amount of current received and the reaction when current flows from the hand to the foot for just 1 second.

Cardiac effects

Current can result meddling with nervous control, especially over the heart and lungs. Repeated electric shock which does not lead to death has been shown to cause neuropathy. When the current path is through the head, it appears that, with enough current, loss of awareness almost always occurs swiftly. The effects of electricity on the human heart are usually the most serious considerations when dealing with electricity, because this is how most fatalities of accidental electrocution die. Note that currents less than 5 mA are usually imperceptible, and currents above 100 mA are the lethal currents.

Currents in excess of 6 A can cause severe burns and connected trauma; currents above 20 A can physically dismember the body. Currents between 100 mA and 1 A are the most dangerous to the heart, and voltages between 50 V and 240 V are those that can readily produce these currents, if the skin is wet. According to Ohms Law and the low 1 kS value of the resistance of the skin, a 50 V source produces only 50 mA through the body, which is throbbing but usually not deadly. However, if the voltage is 120 V, the current becomes 120 mA; at 240 V, the current is 240 mA, both of which are right in the range of the currents nearly all dangerous to the heart.

Other issues affecting lethality are frequency, which is an issue in causing cardiac arrest or muscular spasms, and pathway, if the current passes through the chest or head there is an increased probability of death. From a main circuit or power division board the spoil is more likely to be internal, leading to cardiac arrest.

Burns

Burns are the most ordinary shock-related injury. An electrical accident can effect in an electrical burn, arc burn, thermal contact burn, or a combination of burns. Electrical burns are in the midst of the most sombre burns and require immediate medical attention. They occur when electric current flows through tissues or bone, generating heat that causes tissue damage. Arc or spark burns result from high temperatures caused by an electric arc or blast near the body.

Thermal contact burns are caused when the skin touches hot surfaces of overheated electric conductors, conduits, or other energized equipment. Thermal burns also can be caused when clothing catches on fire, as may happen when an electric arc is produced. In addition to shock and burn hazards, electricity poses other dangers. For example, arcs that result from short circuits can cause injury or begin a fire. Extremely high-energy arcs can spoil equipment, causing fragmented metal to fly in all directions. Even low-energy arcs can cause sadistic explosions in atmospheres that have flammable gases, vapours, or burnable dusts.

Freeze

When a person receives an electrical shock, occasionally the electrical stimulus causes the muscles to contract. This freezing effect makes the person powerless to drag free of the circuit. It is tremendously dangerous because it increases the length of exposure to electricity and because the current causes blisters, which diminish the bodys resistance and increases the current. Longer exposures at even quite low voltages can be just as dangerous as short exposures at superior voltages. Low voltage does not involve low hazard. In addition to muscle contractions that cause freezing, electrical shocks also can basis reflex muscle reactions.

These reactions can result in a wide range of other injuries from collisions or falls, including bone fractures, bruises, and even death. If a person is frozen to a live electrical contact, shut off the current instantly. If this is not possible, use boards, poles, or sticks made of wood or any other no conducting materials and safely push or pull the person away from the contact. Its significant to act speedily.

Preventing Electrical Hazards

Nearly all electrical accidents result from one of the following three factors:

• Unsafe equipment or installation,
• Unsafe environment,
• Unsafe work practices.

Insulation

Proper insulation is required for Preventing Electrical Hazards. An insulator is any material with high resistance to electric current. Insulators-such as glass, rubber, mica, and plastic-are put on conductors to put off fires, shock, and short circuits. Before employees get ready to work with electric equipment, it is always a good idea for them to check the insulation before making a connection to a power source to be sure there are no exposed wires.

Subpart generally requires that circuit conductors be insulated to prevent people from coming into unintentional contact with the current. Also, the insulation should be suitable for the voltage and existing conditions, such as moisture, temperature, gasoline, oil, or corrosive fumes. All these factors must be evaluated before the proper choice of insulation can be made. Conductors and cables are marked by the manufacturer to show the maximum voltage and American Wire Gage size, the type letter of the insulation, and the manufacturers name or trademark. Insulation is often colour coded.

Guarding

Guarding of live parts may be accomplished by position in a room, vault, or similar enclosure reachable only to qualified persons; use of eternal, substantial partitions or screens to exclude unqualified persons; location on a suitable balcony, gallery, or podium elevated and arranged to exclude unqualified persons; or elevation of about 8 feet. Indoor electric wiring more than 600 volts and that is open to unqualified persons must be made with metal-enclosed equipment or enclosed in a vault or area controlled by a lock. In addition, equipment must be marked with proper vigilance signs.

Grounding

The ground refers to a conductive body and means a conductive connection, whether deliberate or accidental, by which an electric circuit or equipment is connected to earth or the ground plane. By grounding a tool or electrical system, a low-resistance path to the earth is calculatedly created. When properly done, this path offers suitably low resistance and has sufficient current carrying capability to prevent the build-up of voltages that may cause a personnel hazard.

Safety equipment for electric hazard prevention

• Eyewash units- Eyewash device used to irrigate and flush eyes exposed to a chemical substance. Performance needs such as surge rates and distances to the eyewash are recommended by ANSI Standard Z358.
• Safety shower- It is a unit people use to soak their entire body with water to remove a contaminant. Performance needs such as surge rates and distances from the shower to the hazard are recommended by ANSI Standard Z358.1.
• Splash-proof goggles- Goggles providing shield against splashes. Usually, these goggles have an indirect venting system to avoid fogging. These goggles are not gas tight.
• Safety glasses- Both the lenses and the frames must be ANSI approved, and side shields must be worn in the presence of flying objects such as machine-shop work where impact may arise from the side.

The control of electrical hazards is an imperative part of every safety and health plan. The measures optional in this article should be of help in establishing such a plan of control. The duty for this plan should be delegated to individuals who have a complete knowledge of electricity, electrical work practices, and the proper standards for fixing and performance. Everybody has the right to work in a safe milieu. Through cooperative efforts, employers and employees can learn to identify and remove or control electrical hazards.

References

1. Dennis K. Neitzel, The Hazards of Electricity  Do You Know What They Are?. 2008. Web.
2. WILLIAM F. BARRY, C. FRANK STARMER, ROBERT E.WHALEN, and HENRY D. McINTOSH. 2008. Web.
3. Safety Electrical Hazards. 2008. Web.
4. Personal Protective Equipment. 2008. Web.
5. Electrical shock hazard protection. 1993. Web.

Introduction

Electricity is a wide topic used to illustrate the actions of electrons and protons. The subsequent flow of the electrons forms the current we use to energize everything around us. It is important to realize that electricity did not just come to be. Many dedicated men committed and sacrificed themselves to bring electricity to the form that we know it today.

To many people, electricity is ranked among other basic things like food, water, and breathing air. However, most of us take this important invention for granted.

From the powering of radios to refrigerators, electricity brings about many positive things in life. However, these benefits do not come without their own risks. Electricity has the potential of causing instant death if it is not handled in the right manner.

Although electricity has become part and parcel of most households, there is risk that the world will not be in a position to produce enough electricity for its population in the near future. This might have serious ramifications in the lives of all those affected. There is need to understand the history of electricity, its present benefits and uses, and its future if we are to appreciate this important invention. (Bocco, 2010)

History of Electricity

Pre Discovery of Electricity

According to Diana Bocco (2010), The history of electricity goes back more than two thousand years, to the time the Ancient Greeks discovered that rubbing fur on amber caused an attraction between the two. (Bocco, 2010) By the turn of the 17^th century, there were numerous electricity-related discoveries that scientists had arrived at.

Among these were electrostatic generators and the separation between positive and negative currents. By this time, physicians had also come up with a formula to identify which materials were insulators or conductors.

As early as 1600, physicians like William Gilbert had come up with terms like electric to refer to the energy that certain materials emit when rubbed against other materials. This clearly shows that even before the invention of electricity there were other discoveries that pointed to the existence of electricity. (Gavin Electrical, 2007)

Discovery of Electricity

Although many people believe that Benjamin Franklin was the sole inventor of electricity, current research done on the matter has proved otherwise. Nearly all inventions take hundreds of years to arrive at perfection. On top of this, nearly all inventions come by through the concerted efforts of different inventors.

The invention of electricity was therefore wrought from limitless efforts from different people. For a long time, lightening has fascinated the human race. As time progressed, this fascination led Greek scholars like Thales to observe that rubbing amber against fur could generate an electric charge. Soon after this, a German physicist Otto Von Guericke tried to generate electricity in 1650.

Almost 80 years after Otto Vons discovery, another English physicist by the name of Stephen Gray discovered that some materials had greater potential to conduct electricity over others. Almost two decades after Grays invention, Benjamin Franklin proved beyond doubt that lightening and the spark produced by rubbing amber against fur material that the Greek physicist Thales had earlier invented were related.

According to historians, Franklin tied an iron spike to a kite that was made of silver and flew it in a storm. In one of her works Diana Bocce (2010) observes, The kite experiment helped Franklin establish a relationship between lightening and electricity, which led to the invention of the lightning rod (Bocco, 2010)

This is considered one of the greatest milestones towards the invention of electricity. In 1786, Luigi Galvani observed that a metallic knife being exposed to the leg of a dead toad would form some kind of a reaction. This made him believe that the frogs leg must be a source of electricity.

However, six years later another Italian scientist by the name of Alessandro Volta disagreed with this theory. He instead pointed out that the source of energy was not Galvanis frog but rather the steel knife and the tin plate where the frog had been placed.

According to Volta, when wetness comes between two different metals electricity is produced. (Gavin Electrical, 2007) Using this knowledge, he designed the first documented electric battery. Voltas electric battery was the first ever source of dry current (DC) known to man. (Bocco, 2010)

Following Voltas invention, it was now possible to produce electricity that flowed in a steady manner. Before this, the only electricity available was the one that dislodged itself in one flash or shock. Through Voltas efforts, it was now possible to tap electricity from one place to another using a piece of wire. This was a big contribution toward acquiring the science of electricity, as we know it today.

Following his enormous contribution, scientists decided to name the unit used to measure electrical potential Volt in honor of Alessandro Volta. In 1827, George Simon Ohm fine tuned Voltas ideas and came up with a new electrical law commonly known as the Ohms law. Scientists trying to come up with electrical circuit analysis used this relationship later. (Gavin Electrical, 2007)

Post Discovery of Electricity

Despite earlier scientists doing much of the groundwork, the year 1830 was a turning point in the invention of electricity. In that year, an English scientist by the name of Michael Faraday began generating electricity on a commercial scale. Through his own creation and taking on the ideas of those before him, Faraday was able to produce the electro magnet.

Through his intellectual work, Faraday was able to come with technology that has been used to manufacture electric motors and transformers. This came after he realized that magnetism could be used to transmit electric current.

Measured by modern standards, Faradays dynamo or the electric transformer was crude by all standards and gave out only a small fraction of electric current. However, this formed a strong basis through which generation of electricity is based. (Bocco, 2010)

After Faradays invention, there was a lull of close to 40 years before the next major invention came out. This came in 1879 after an American Thomas Alva Edison built the first ever-practical Direct Current generator. Edison was also able to build the phonograph and a well-formed telegraph. Together with his friend Joseph Swan, a scientist from Britain, Edison was able to invent the first light bulb.

The two scientists later on set up a manufacturing company to produce and sell light bulbs. This brought on a revolution in electricity invention since prior to this electric lighting was only by the means of crude arc lamps. In September 1882, Edison took his invention further by erecting streetlights in one of New York streets.

Although this was a major breakthrough in the invention of electricity, it received great criticism from the general population and fellow scientists who viewed Dry Current to be containing major shortcomings. However, Edison was not discouraged and he continued working on towards making his invention a major success. (Gavin Electrical, 2007)

At the same time that Edison was trying to erect streetlights in New York City, an industrialist by the name of George Westinghouse was also taking a keen interest on electricity. Together with Nikola Tesla, they set up a manufacturing plant for the production of Alternating Current (AC). Through their concerted efforts, Westinghouse and Tesla were able to convince the American population and the world at large to drop the use of DC in favor of AC.

Through this adoption, it was now possible to transmit large amount of electricity, which had hitherto been impossible by using only dry current. Another major contributor to the development of electricity was James Watt. The Scottish inventor is credited for inventing the steam-condensing engine. As a token of appreciation for his efforts, the electric unit of current was named Watt in his honor. (Bocco, 2010)

Contrary to popular belief, Benjamin Franklin and his kite theory did not discover electricity. Way before Franklin could fly his kite or Edison came with his light bulb, electricity was still in existence. Throughout the history of humankind, electricity has always been in existence. A good example of this is lightening, which is a surge of electrons between the earth and the clouds.

When someone touches something and gets shocked, it signifies a form of inert electricity. It is therefore imperative to note that the invented electrical devices do not necessary translate to the presence of electricity.

These devices are merely artistic inventions meant to collect and store electricity. Even before the invention of electricity, as we know it today, the Greeks had already discovered it. Greek philosophers had long discovered the existence of static electricity. All these scientists and philosophers played a great role in defining electricity, as we know it today. (Bocco, 2010)

Electricity Today

Benefits and Uses

Electricity forms a basic part in the life of each one of us. One thing that makes electricity readily available is that the resources used to make it are varied. Today, nearly all form of transport relies on electricity to function. From commuter trains to individual cars, electricity is needed to run them. Most cars being made today solely rely on electricity to spin the wheels that in turn moves the vehicle.

Apart from this new breed of vehicles, even the traditional models that rely on gas to power them still need electricity to launch the engines, control it and give energy to other supplementary parts. This shows that without electricity, the human race would not be able to move from one point to another using the available means of transport.

Apart from transport, nearly all home appliances require electricity to power them. From home heating systems, computers, transistor radios, TVs, and many other home appliances all require electricity to power them. On top of lighting, electricity is needed to facilitate communication. This is done through powering computers, mobile phones, fixed telephone lines, and most importantly in transmitting signals.

On top of this, the high-speed optical cables that have helped in connecting the world through high-speed internet require electricity to give out the signal used at every end of the cable. In the absence of electricity, the world would revert to the era of letter writing, lighting fires or even waving flags to pass across messages. (Iowa Public Television, 2004)

Industrial manufacturing, which is the driving force of every nation solely, relies on electricity to drive almost every part of the industry. This means that without electricity the manufacturing industry would halt. Another area where electricity is highly required is the entertainment sector. Today, MP3 players, hand held radios; Ipods are all regarded as part of life. All these appliances require electricity to operate.

Whether they are plugged to a source of electricity or powered by battery, they all consume electricity. This shows that without electricity human life would be devoid of entertainment. In rural areas, electricity is needed to bring about the much needed infrastructure development. All these uses prove that electricity is essential in the production and progression of any country. (Iowa Public Television, 2004)

Risks

Just as the uses of electricity are numerous, it also poses many risks if not handled carefully. Healthy Working Lives (2010) states that harm can be caused to any person when they are exposed to live parts that are either touched directly or indirectly by means of some conducting object or material. (Healthy Working Lives, 2010)This can happen if one touches the live wire or if they are exposed to a material that is considered a good conductor of electricity.

In reality, voltages going beyond 50 are considered dangerous to human live. In average, electricity is considered to cause close to 1,000 deaths in America alone. This happens through electric shocks or burns caused when someone is exposed to live electric cables. On top of this, operating defective electrical equipments can cause fires. This can in return cause death or destroy property that becomes hard to replace.

In order to avoid these risks, it is important to understand how electricity operates, how to direct it, the risks that it contains, and one can avoid and control these risks. However, the benefits of using electricity by far outweigh the hazards. This makes the usage of electricity a necessity in the life of each person. On top of this, taking the necessary precautions can effectively reduce the hazards posed by electricity. (Healthy Working Lives, 2010)

Future of Electricity

The modern electrical supply system depends largely on the transmission network. The problem that this system poses is that the network was not made with the capacity to carry its current load. Due to increased demand, it has not been possible to update the infrastructure.

As the Iowa Public Television website (2004) suggests, this has left the current system at the risk of experiencing power interruptions and outages from time to time.(Iowa Public Television, 2004)In the coming days, the mode of transmitting electricity is most likely to undergo major transformations. In the coming days, many organizations will consider rationalization and the use of alternative energy sources to solve the power crisis. (Iowa Public Television, 2004)

Rationalization

According to a recent article by Pargman (2010), labor rationalization will be replaced by energy rationalization in all activities and at all levels. (Pargman, 2010) This is partly due to the rising cost of energy. In the recent past, there have been calls by bodies opposed to scientific and technological advancements to reduce the usage of electricity since it is viewed as a threat to people and their environment.

These calls to adopt rationalization of energy are not only being made by environment conservatives but also by governments worried about by the inability of the current energy production to meet demand.

Contrary to what many people think, rationalization is not meant to reduce the cost of electricity. Although reduction of cost might be a long-term goal, rationalization of consumption does not necessarily reduce the total consumption. On the contrary, it means using electricity in the best way possible to reduce wastage.

This is also meant to reduce the negative effect that electricity has on the environment. Although at a lower scale, rationalization of electricity is meant to reduce the high rates that organizations and individuals have to pay to access this important commodity. According to researchers, Britain spends more than $500 per year.

The electrical devices used by the British people are also estimated to release close 1.6 million tones of carbon monoxide in to the atmosphere. Most of these costs and emissions come from the home front and hence the need for rationalization by individuals. By rationalizing electricity, the world will be conserving sufficient power for the future. (Pargman, 2010)

Alternative Energies and their Benefits

As the production of electricity becomes more threatened, the world is slowly turning to the use of alternative energy. This alternative source comes from renewable sources like the sun and wind. Unlike the usual electricity, renewable energy produce clean energy compared to the one produced by fossil fuels. Unlike other sources of energy, alternative energy produces no known hazards to the environment. These hazards include toxic and radio active waste products, which are present in nuclear power.

According to ABS Alaskan (2008) In addition to the lack of emissions and waste products, no valuable resources are used up with renewable resource power generation. (ABS Alaskan, 2008) In fact, the materials used in the manufacture of alternative energy, which are usually solar and wind power, are free.

On top of this, despite the magnitude of the usage, these raw materials would never run out. Unlike electrical generators that produce much noise and use expensive diesel, the alternative sources of electricity do not produce any noise and are free. Given the increased usage of electricity and the inability of the available raw materials to cope with the demand, the world will soon turn to the use of solar energy. (ABS Alaskan, 2008)

Conclusion

The history of inventing electricity has been a long journey. Many scientists participated in this journey and their overall efforts gave rise to the current form of electricity. It is hard to point an exact date as the time when electricity was invented.

However, 1752 was a turning point in the invention of electricity when Benjamin Franklin proved that lightening and static electricity that the Greeks had earlier invented was one and the same thing. When a breakthrough was arrived at, the world opened its arms to a new level of operation. Today, electricity forms a basic part in the life of everyone. From transport to communication, the world would be hard to be run without electricity.

However, the future of electricity looks uncertain due to the increased demand and the reduction in supply. This has made the world to turn its attention to the use of alternative energy. Compared to nuclear power, alternative or renewable energy provides more benefits. Electricity has definitely made life more comfortable compared to the olden days.

References

ABS Alaskan. (2008) Alternative Energy Information. Alternative Energy Information and its Benefits. Web.

Bocco, D. (2010) Who Discovered Electricity? Web.

Gavin Electrical. (2007) History of Electricity. Web.

Healthy Working Lives. (2010). Electricity. What are the Risks from Electricity? Web.

Iowa Public Television. (2004) Electricity. Web.

Pargman, D. (2010) Life After Oil. Death of Rationalization. Web.

Electricity refers to the movement of electrical charge. Magnetism is a magnets capacity to draw magnetic objects. Electricity and magnetism have for many years been considered to be two distinct phenomena by physicists. The misconception was corrected in 1820 when Hans Oersted, a Danish physicist, discovered that current flowing via a conductor generates a magnetic field. Indeed, there exists a unique relationship between magnetism and electricity. None of the two forces can exist in the absence of the other (Kirkland 30). Electric power lines are also erroneously thought to harm the environment. This fear is founded on the thinking that harmful radiations originate from electromagnetic fields. What many do not know is that electromagnetic radiations are not identical to nuclear radiations (Kirkland 30).

Electricitys interrelationship with magnetism is described by the term electromagnetism. Electromagnetism has been the target of study and research throughout the years. Furthermore, one can hardly think of the world without electricity. Electricity and magnetism have improved human life in many spheres ranging from lighting, cooling and heating houses to running computers and television sets among many other electric appliances used today (Bloomfield 253).

One of the common uses of the electromagnetism is storage and retrieval of information. Since the nineteenth century magnetic fields have been applied to record, store and play back sound. Between 1930s and 1940s scientists and engineers invented magnetic tapes. Sound recordings were made on phonographs. Magnetic tapes were made using flexible substance covered with a thin stratum of magnetic particles. Information is written on and read from the tape using a gadget known as the head. The head is a small electromagnet having a wire coil wound on a small magnet (Kirkland 34).

A microphone changes sound into an electric wave. The movement of electric charge past the heads coil leads to the formation of magnetic fields on the surface of the tape. The units of current through the head determine the number of particles that are magnetized and the strength of the magnetic field created. The direction of movement of electric charges determines the polarization of the particles on the magnetic. When the tape is played the magnetized tape runs close to the head causing the formation of a small electric current in the heads coil by electromagnetic induction. The electric signal is sent to a speaker where it is changed to sound. Phonograph recordings are easily erased by strong magnetic fields. They are also relatively noisy and in lesser circulation as compared to compact disks (Kirkland 37).

Computer disks also use the notion of magnetism to store information. Nevertheless, computers store data in a two digit code known as the binary code. The code is written using zeros and or ones, each number constituting a measurement of information called a bit. Such data is known as digital data. Magnetic storage is suitable for storing trails of 1s or zeros. Each unit of data, a bit, is represented by a small magnet. The data preserved on CDs is written as arrangements of large number of magnetized poles. Eight bits constitute a unit of measurement known as byte in computer jargon; the carrying capacity of computer disks is stated in bytes.

Both CDs and magnetic tapes have a magnetic substance coat, but disks normally have an inflexible backbone. The computer disks store more information reliably and cheaply as contrasted to magnetic tapes. Computer disk storage has not always been cheap for instance in the mid twentieth century a 5 Mb disk was priced at $ 50,000. Nevertheless, since disks and computers became economical, computer disks found widespread application (Bloomfield 261).

For years people have debated about better storage medium between analog and digital media. Each of the two has its merits and limitations. The analog storage provides continuous information. It concerns the use of a magnetic tape as a medium for storing information. Sound recorded on magnetic tapes have natural and warm tone. Information recorded from the source without loss; hence, gives the more accurate method of recording and recalling information. Notwithstanding the aforementioned pros, analog recordings are noisy, slower to edit, rewind and fast forward (Bloomfield 253).

Digital media store information in non-continuous form since data is split into binary codes. Digital recordings are much faster to work with. Since they are not linear no time is needed for rewinding or fast forwarding. Furthermore, natural noise is alien to digital media. Digital data is easily edited without getting distorted, is easy to transmit and integrate into multimedia. Though the digital format of information has overtaken the analog, it has several limitations. Digital data comes in many confusing formats and is easily corrupted. The quality of sound may also lack the natural tone found in analog recordings (Bloomfield 253).

Electromagnetism is ubiquitous with modern life with most of the modern-day electrical gadgets applying the principles of electricity and magnetism. In the absence of electromagnets, telecommunication technologies would not be practical. Data processing, distribution and storage have also been possible due to the interdependence between electricity and magnetism.

Bibliography

Bloomfield, Louis. How everything works: Making Physics Out of the Ordinary. New Jersey: Wiley & Sons Inc., 2007. Print.

Kirkland, Kyle. Electricity and Magnetism. New York: Infobase Publishing, 2007. Print.

The article Power Your Home with Kitchen Scraps? Scientists Figure out How to Generate Electricity from Decomposing Food authored by J.D. Heyes discusses how households can use food waste to generate electricity and lower their power bills. The article is very informative and provides information that can have great economic benefits if applied on a large scale. The content of the article is very important because food waste is one of the major components of landfills in the United States. The article changed my perspective on electricity generation. The new discovery implies that scientists have not yet exhausted the possible means of generating electricity. After reading the article, I learned that food waste generated in kitchens, grocery stores, commercial establishments, and markets can be used to generate electricity through the application of biological fuel cells.

Article Summary

As mentioned earlier, the article that appeared on the website Natural News on March 31, 2016, discusses a new electricity-generation method developed by scientists from the United States of America. The scientists discovered that decomposing food can be used to generate electricity (Heyes, 2016). The majority of Americans use food scraps to feed their chickens and fertilize their gardens. However, this practice might come to an end if the new discovery is put into operation. The scientists research revealed that electricity can be generated by converting decomposing fruits and vegetables into energy (Heyes, 2016).

Moreover, food wastes from market stores can be used to create biological fuel cells. In their study, the scientists used spoiled and damaged tomatoes in biological and electrochemical cells to produce electricity. The process had another benefit in addition to generating electricity as it purified the waste contaminated with decomposing tomatoes (Heyes, 2016). It is interesting to learn that the discovery was almost accidental because the scientists were looking for a method to treat waste materials. In an effort to find an effective method to treat food waste, the researchers developed microbial gel batteries that produced current by utilizing tomato waste (Heyes, 2016). The electrochemical cells produce electricity by using bacteria to decompose and oxidize the organic components in food scraps. The process is possible because of lycopene, a chemical that is found in tomatoes.

Reflection

Several aspects of the article were very interesting because they provided new information that did not exist in an area that is critical to the global economy. First, the article discusses how decomposing food waste can be used to generate enough electricity that can power Disney World in Florida for a period of three months. This information surprised me because I did not know that food waste can be used to generate electricity. It is ironical that many homesteads have high power bills even though they produce large amounts of food waste every day (Miet, 2014). Second, a lot of food is wasted in the US, which could be used to generate energy. The amount of food waste generated in America is astounding. For example, the state of Florida alone generates about 396,000 tons of tomato waste that has adverse effects because it pollutes the environment (Heyes, 2016). When food waste is dumped into landfills, it generates methane gas, which is one of the major greenhouse emissions. On the other hand, the waste causes water treatment challenges when dumped into water bodies. The author states that if the discovery is applied to tomato waste in Florida, enough electricity would be generated to run Disney World for ninety days. This claim seems too ambitious to believe because it is based on assumptions that lack the backing of scientific evidence.

The content of the article raised many questions on my mind as I tried to think about the viability and sustainability of electricity generation from decomposing food. One of the questions that emerged was how efficacious the discovery is because the article does not talk about the cost of its application. From the content of the article, it is evident that the scientists have only made a discovery, and it is in its initial stages of development. It appears that it will take several years before homesteads can use their food waste to generate electricity and lower their power bills. The fear that biological and electrochemical cells might take time to become useful to homesteads and commercial establishments is augmented by the sentiments of the scientists who made the discovery. According to the scientists, the devices can produce small amounts of energy, and therefore, not effective for large-scale application. The amount of electricity that can be produced from the oxidation of 10 milligrams of food scraps is insignificant (Heyes, 2016). This means that several biological fuel cells would be required to power a high-voltage light bulb. I am afraid that the discovery is not well-developed to have any significant change. However, the scientists are convinced that they will be able to boost production through additional research.

The discovery of a new power-generation technique could have significant economic and environmental benefits if scientists refine it and enhance the output of the devices. The article states that earlier studies have shown that biofuels are more effective generators of electricity when compared to biomass. After reading this statement, I wondered how this discovery could benefit the environment because food waste is a major component of landfills. Does it have the potential to generate enough energy that could lower the United States overreliance on fossil fuels? In order to answer this question, I researched on the issue of food wastage in the United States. The findings of my research were astounding. For example, I found out that each American throws away about 400 pounds of food annually, which has severe economic and environmental effects (Barnard, 2016).

Another insight that I got from my research was the severity of food wastage in regard to its effect on the environment. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), food waste is among the top three sources of carbon dioxide in the United States. The greenhouse gases released by decomposing food waste release carbon dioxide and methane that intensify the effects of climate change such as high temperatures (Chauhan et al., 2017). This information baffled me because very few Americans realize the adverse effects that the food they throw away has on the environment. This research made me conclude that the discovery of a method to convert decomposing food into electricity is a highly innovative and revolutionary concept. I came to the conclusion that there is enough food waste in the United States to generate significant amounts of electricity that can power several sectors of the economy (Michaelides, 2012). The content of the article is not convincing enough to believe that that the scientists have the innovation all figured out. However, it is too early to dismiss it as unfeasible because it is in its development stage.

I agreed with most of the articles content because the additional research that I conducted supported most of the authors arguments and claims. However, some of the information that the author provides is not supported by the scientists findings. I questioned the validity of some of the claims made by the author. For instance, the author states that leftover food from grocery stores and markets as well as homesteads can be used to generate green energy. However, the findings of the scientists were based on the use of tomatoes only. According to the researchers, tomatoes are an excellent component for power generation because they contain a pigment known as lycopene.

I questioned myself as to whether other food wastes contain similar pigments that facilitate the generation of energy from food waste. The author provides an explanation that tries to eliminate any doubts that readers might have. He argues that microbial electrochemical cells use bacteria to oxidize organic materials in order to release electrons that are captured in biological fuel cells. This implies that all that is needed is decomposing food waste and the presence of bacteria. The scientists discovered that biotechnological applications perform better when using chemicals to generate electricity when compared to decomposing fruits. However, electrical performance between the two components did not show any significant differences.

Biological fuel cells will contribute significantly to the mitigation of electricity and environmental challenges in the world. However, scientists will have to increase the power output of biological fuel cells. The power-generation capacity of the device is low, but the scientists believe that innovative improvements will boost it considerably. The discovery supports earlier reports, which revealed that biofuels are more efficient than biomass in the generation of electricity. Scientists are continuing their research in order to ensure that the output power of the device is sufficient to generate electricity that can be used in homesteads and commercial establishments. One of the major challenges in the United States is addressing the adverse effects of fossil fuels in environmental pollution (Wang, 2016). International organizations that are concerned with environmental conservation have called on governments to promote the development of renewable and alternative energy sources.

In that regard, the discovery of a method to transform decomposing food into electricity has two main benefits: it will generate energy and it will help in mitigating global warming. According to the article, the state of Florida produces about 396,000 of tomato waste that can be converted into energy (Heyes, 2016). The state does not have an effective treatment process to deal with waste materials. If scientists improve the output of biological fuel cells, the waste can be harnessed and converted into electricity. The author of the article also captures the adverse effects of food waste. When food waste is dumped in landfills, it decomposes and releases methane, which is a greenhouse gas that pollutes the environment and increases global warming (Heyes, 2016). The waste creates water treatment challenges when it is dumped into water sources. Scientists should work more on the discovery in order to find ways of applying it on a large scale. Currently, it is a concept that has insignificant application benefits. Moreover, the federal and state governments should take an interest in the discovery and fund institutions that conduct research on the use of biofuels in electricity generation.

Conclusion

The article was informative because it explores a new discovery on the field of electricity generation. This discovery is very useful because many countries are looking for ways to generate green energy in order to lower the use of fossil fuels that are major sources of greenhouse gases. The author talks about the discovery of a method to generate electricity from food waste. Scientists in the United States discovered how tomato waste can be used in the production of electricity. Though the article was informative, it did not provide sufficient information to demonstrate the feasibility of the new discovery. After reading the article, I was left with many questions because the content was simplistic in nature.

The author does not discuss the challenges of generating electricity from decomposing waste. He only discusses its potential. I concluded that the article was simplistic in nature because the discovery is new, and therefore, related studies on the topic do not exist. I also concluded that the discovery has great potential for electricity generation because the amount of food waste thrown away in the United States annually is large. It is a relief to proponents of environmental conservation because if fully adopted, biological cells will play a key role in lowering the amount of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere. I would highly recommend the article to anyone interested in learning more about how decomposing food can be converted into electricity. Many Americans are unaware that they can use the food they throw away to generate energy and power their homes.

References

Barnard, A. V. (2016). Freegans: Diving into the wealth of food waste in America. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

Chauhan, A., Ghosh, C., Gulati, K., Gupta, C., Gupta, C., Jindal, T., &and Singh, K. (2017). Paradigms in pollution prevention. New York, NY: Springer.

Heyes, J. D. (2016). Power your home with kitchen scraps? Scientists figure out how to generate electricity from decomposing food. Natural News. Web.

Michaelides, E. E. (2012). Alternative energy sources. New York, NY: Springer Science & Business Media.

Miet, P. C. H. (2014). Energy from waste & biomass fuels. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse.

Wang, A. (2016). How can we reduce fossil fuel pollution? New York, NY: Lerner Publications.

Introduction

In the recent past, a number of countries have embarked on an ambitious program of privatizing the electricity sector. While some governments have sold part of their shares to the private sector, there are others who have sold all the shares to the private sector, leaving such governments with no power to control the actions taken by the new electricity company owners.

There are some people who perceive this as a bold move while others have a different opinion. Those who view this as a positive move argue that, most of the government owned organizations lack proper ways of carrying out their work because of the bureaucracy involved. Furthermore, most of these institutions have been perceived as havens of corruption, since most of the governments lacked the capacity to fight corruption.

Literature review

A remarkable number of scholars have had their input on this field, where a number of them seem to concur with each other while a substantial of them differ in a big way from their counterparts. This has therefore led to lack of consensus between the two camps since each perceive their arguments as the one holding water.

It is important to recall that the ideas of privatizing the government utilities was a condition set out by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank in the late 1980s, for any country that wished to have its loan application considered by the two bodies.

These reforms were referred to as the Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) and were aimed at minimizing the government expenditure on non performing utilities. The critics of this program claims that it was structured in a way that poor countries in Africa, South America, and Asia would continue depending on the developed countries for assistance.

Izaguirre (2000) claims that electricity privatization has helped eradicate the corruption involved while seeking for electricity connection. According to Cook (2007), in the developing countries for example, it used to take months for a person to have his house connected to electricity because the corrupt officials in the main office wanted kick backs for the whole process to start.

He observes that the public demanded accountability from their government and as a result measures were taken to privatize most of the governments non performing utilities that included the electricity sector.

The above sentiments were echoed by Vivien (2008) who asserted that privatization has enhanced service delivery to the members of the public. According to her, the private sector is geared towards making profits. As a result of this, Paul (2002) has argued that the people owning this sector have to put in measures that ensure that the people, who are the main customers, have their needs addressed as fast as possible.

He observed that prior to privatization, other sectors owned by the governments regardless of the country suffered similar problems of slow service delivery and corruption riddled offices.

Furthermore, David (2003) has observed that privatization of electricity sector has helped eradicate matters of favoritism. According to him, some governments, especially in Africa and other developing countries in the world, had the tendency of allocating national resources, including electricity, to areas they perceived as having the support from the people.

According to Fereidoon (2006), such a move led to an imbalance in development because others who were seen to oppose the government were neglected and made to suffer for supporting the opposition.

Therefore, according to Gerard (2008), privatization has helped the distribution of electricity in all areas of a country regardless of the peoples support to the government. According to Mark (2006), private companies are capitalist in nature and therefore they would do all within their disposal to make sure that they make an extra coin from their investment.

In addition, Paredes (2007) has argued that privatization of the electricity sector is likely to reduce the cases of illegal connections that have been witnessed in the past, when the government was the only shareholder in the sector. According to Mert (2010), the government lacked adequate personnel to monitor how electricity was being distributed to the people and industries.

He says that since the private sector is wholly owned by individuals whose motive is making profit, they will make sure that there are no illegal connections that deny them revenue by employing a good number of people to patrol certain areas such as the ghetto, where these acts are common.

In Europe and other developed countries like Japan and United States of America, Czamanski (1999) points out that the number of companies offering electricity is more than one, hence eradicating the idea of monotony in the business.

Newbery (2001) has asserted that this has created a battle between such companies, a situation that has led to a decrease in the amount charged per kilowatt used by the people and the industries. He says that, just as is the case with mobile phone companies, the consumers are migrating to the service provider with high quality services and cheap rates as well.

According to Stiglitz (2000), the idea of privatizing the public sector has increased the government revenue through the taxes levied on these companies. He points out that, due to the inefficiencies of the former officials in charge the electricity distribution, companies in many countries used to record losses year in year out. He claims that since the new owners are profit minded, the government collection will be on the rise.

On the other hand, there other scholars as earlier stated who perceive privatization as a negative move that is by no means going to help the consumers. One of such scholars is Knight (2002), who claims that most of these private firms lack sufficient capital to boost their business.

The same ideas are shared by Paredes (2003) & Bernardo (2004) who point out that the amount of money required to be injected in such a project are beyond reach to most of these companies. Therefore, they argue that unless they get financial assistance from banks and other financial institutions such companies may never realize any meaningful growth in their first years of operations.

As a result, Zaccour (1998) recommends that the government should continue running such institutions until when a well financed company comes along and wins the tender to manage and supply electricity on behalf of the government.

According to Kilick (2004) privatization of the electricity sector can lead to the exploitation of the consumers by the electricity suppliers. He notes that since the government does not have any significant control in such a company, the management might keep on adjusting their charges upward, making the consumers the victim of privatization.

To add on that, Jordana (2008) points out that the main objective of adjusting the tariffs on the higher side is to make the company be in a position to finance their new investments. In the long run, Scott (2006) asserts that, the rate of inflation is likely to go up because the costs of producing basic commodities in the industries will go up, making such a commodity be beyond reach of many people.

The issue of job security has also been cited as the main reason why privatization should be opposed by all means. This is according to Baldwin (1999) who claims that the new owners of the company have to restructure the company so that they can reduce their expenses incurred, particularly in paying of wages.

According to Bacon (2008), majority of employees in the junior positions are usually the main victims, while only a few in the management level are affected. Therefore, in his opinion, the government should have the interests of its people first before it can think of privatizing such companies.

Critique of the work

From the above discussion it is quite clear that the private sector is likely to improve the service delivery to the people. However, Fantini (2003) points out that this has not always been the case because even when the new company starts its own operation independent of the government, the people at the helm are the same who were in charge of the privatized company.

Therefore, these people might carry along with them their old ways and as a result make the company be unable to fulfill its objectives of bettering its services compared to the government. This therefore calls for more research to be carried out to identify whether all privatized companies perform as expected of them by the government and the people at large.

In addition, Shuttleworth (2002) has observed that privatization of the electricity sector does not always lead to improved service delivery to the people. He claims that privatization has led to many people having access to illegal connection because the company lacks the power to prohibit people from making illegal connections.

According to Parker (1997), the illegal connections are in many instances conducted by the current or former employees who want to make extra money from what they are paid at the end of the month.

From the above point he has noted that the government revenue might not be realized because as claimed earlier in the discussion, these electricity companies may continue making losses as their predecessor used to do.

Furthermore, Cowan (2004) has pointed out that there are some governments that have been regulating the amount levied on the consumers to prevent cases of exploitation by the private companies. Therefore it would be necessary to try and analyze the various actions taken by the government after relinquishing their claims on such public utilities because the writer may have looked at a certain country and left others.

The major hurdle affecting these companies is the continued interference from the government, even after acquiring the majority of the shares in that company. Such actions are the ones that have contributed to the slow implementation of reforms needed to revitalize the electricity sector.

As a result, the company remains in a stagnant position because the government wont let any meaningful project be undertaken without its consent, despite the fact that it is a minor shareholder.

The strength and the weakness of the past scholars

The scholars who have carried out this research should be credited for bringing out some of the issues that are of benefit when a government utility has been privatized as well as the short comings associated with such a move. However, the same group of scholars can be blamed for not carrying out a comprehensive research that would have eradicated the critique provided earlier.

Most of these scholars seem to agree that although privatization has its own shortcomings, it is the best solution to the majority of the government institutions and organization because in most cases sanity is restored.

That is, most of these organizations are dens of corruption but when they are privatized most of them are seen to start operating as required of them. However, the same scholars seem not to be reading from the same scripts on matters pertaining to the privatization and the exploitation of consumers.

Whereas some see this move as resulting to exploitation of consumers, others see the governments hand in it to prevent such an eventuality.

Conclusion

Privatization seems to provide the solution to many government projects that are non-performing. As a result, every government should try and let the private sectors run some of these utilities with close monitoring to ensure the people benefit from such a move.

Reference list

Bacon, C., 2008. Generating Efficiency in the Public and Private Sectors. Paris: OECD.

Baldwin, R., 1999. Understanding Regulation: Theory, Strategy and Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Bernardo, B., 2004.The challenges of privatization: an international analysis. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Cook, P., 2007. Regulation, markets, and poverty. Massachusetts: Edward Elgar Publishing, Inc.

Cowan, M., 2004. Regulatory Reforms. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Czamanski, D., 1999. Privatization and restructuring of electricity provision. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group.

David, P., 2003. International handbook on privatization. Massachusetts: Edward Elgar Publishing, Inc.

Fantini, B., 2003. Regulation and Privatization: The Case of Electricity. Milan: FEEM.

Fereidoon, P. S., 2006. Electricity market reform: an international perspective. Amsterdam: Elseiver Ltd.

Gerard, R., 2008. Privatization: successes and failures. New York: Columbia University Press.

Izaguirre, A. K., 2000. Private Participation in Energy. Washington, D.C: World Bank

Jordana, J., 2008. The politics of Regulation: Institutions and Regulatory Reforms for the Age of Governance. Cheltnham: Edward Elgar.

Kilick, P., 2004. Privatization and Utility Regulation in Developing Nations. Chichester: Wiley.

Knight, F., 2002. Risk, Uncertainity and Profit. Washington: Beard Books.

Mark, S., 2006. Energy Regulation in the 21^st century. London: Routledge.

Mert, Y. K., 2010. Privatization and Liberalization of the Electricity Sector in Turkey. Istanbul: Sabanci Center.

Newbery, D., 2001. Privatization, restructuring, and regulation of network utilities. Massachusetts: MIT Press.

Paredes, J., 2003. Redistributive Impact of Privatization and Regulation of Utilities in Chile. Melbourne: Australian Scholarly Publishing.

Paredes, J., 2007. International experience in the Restructuring of Electricity. Melbourne: Australian Scholarly Publishing.

Parker, D., 1997. The Impact of Privatization: Ownership and Corporate Performance in the UK. London: Routledge.

Paul, S., 2002. Structural adjustment in the transition. Washington: World Bank.

Scott, T., 2006. Impacts of energy privatization. Philadelphia: McGraw Hill.

Shuttleworth, S., 2002. Competition and Choice in Electricity. Chichester: Wiley.

Stiglitz, J., 2000. Economics of the Public Sector. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.

Vivien, F., 2008. The impact of private sector participation in infrastructure: lights, shadows and the road ahead. Washington: World Bank.

Zaccour, G., 1998. Deregulation of Electric Utilities. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Introduction

To answer the question about what is preventing all of us from generating electricity using photovoltaics (PV), it is necessary to briefly mention the benefits. The generation of electricity with the use of PV does not emit any pollutants into the atmosphere, nor does it produce greenhouse gases, nor require the use of finite fossil-fuel resources (U.S. Department of Energy 1). The misconception that the energy payback of PV takes a lot of time has also been disproven. It was concluded that the production of fossil-fuel energy and the fabrication of PV-systems have a similar period of energy payback. Therefore, there is another reason that prevents PV electricity from being widely used. In my opinion, the answer is simple: politics.

External Relationships

The political system and external relationships of many affluent countries are based on selling fossil-fuel resources to those countries that lack them. Because the political influence of fossil-fuel-producing countries can be successfully achieved through supplying gas and oil, vital for sustaining the energy integrity of the population, it is hard for many political representatives to promote solar power, which has the potential to greatly lessen the authority of fossil-rich countries. While solar energy is not being politically promoted on a large scale, the United States is trying to invest in the SunShot initiative for decreasing the overall cost of solar energy by 2030. The initiative has not brought any fruitful results, yet; however, the White House continues to throw more money into it, explaining any failures by the argument that the solar energy sector is too competitive. The issue with political figures trying to unsuccessfully invest in renewable energy is that they do the same thing over and over, instead of analyzing past mistakes and adopting new solutions. To some degree, the inability to achieve success in promoting and investing in solar energy can be associated with a lack of desire for PV to become a new source of energy. For example, the Scottish government is investing in expanding the range of renewable energy sources, including hydroelectric and wind power, instead of focusing on promoting just one source.

Hip-pocket Issue

Politics is the reason why we all cannot generate electricity using PV, because many initiatives for promoting this type of energy are not based on pure altruism. In fact, the promotion of solar energy has been widely called a hip-pocket issue (Graeber par. 18). One of the main reasons why many citizens avoid generating their own solar power is the high cost that comes with it. In addition, this high cost can be bumped up by the government to make sure that renewable energy does not replace fuel, which is one of the most profitable areas of big business. Furthermore, solar energy incentives are not structured in a proper manner. Firms are paid different amounts in different states, depending on the time they entered the business. Early adopters of solar energy are paid much more, compared to those who decided to use solar energy later.

Conclusion

To conclude, the sphere of renewable energy is greatly influenced by political efforts. Despite a range of initiatives aimed at promoting the use of solar energy across all sectors, there is no unified approach that will be beneficial for everyone. There is no reason for politics to promote solar power because they will lose authority over countries that lack enough energy sources.

Works Cited

Graeber, Daniel. Why Is there so Much Political Energy Behind Solar Power? 2012. Web.

U.S. Department of Energy. PV FAQs. 2004. Web.