Category: Electric Vehicle

Background

An electric vehicle, or EV, utilizes one or more electric or traction motors or propulsion. Having emerged in the mid-19th century, the first EVs have soon been replaced by internal combustion engines (Ehsani, Gao, Longo, & Ebrahimi, 2018). In the 21st century, EVs have seen a resurgence and the publics growing support due to technological advancements and concerns for the health of the planet. In 2018, global sales reached 1.26 million units  a 70% increase from the previous year engines (Ehsani et al., 2018). Environmental challenges have been the main rationale behind creating alternatives to traditional engines (Ehsani et al., 2018).

On the market for green transportation technology, EVs compete with hybrid electric vehicles, HEV, that combine a conventional combustion engine with an electric compulsion system and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. Some of the most prominent HEV models on the market include Toyota Prius, Honda Insight, and Ford Fusion Hybrid (Ehsani et al., 2018). Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles only went commercial in 2015 with the launch of the Toyota Mirai (Ehsani et al., 2018).

As compared to their conventional counterparts, EVs are more energy efficient. Energy efficiency is understood as the amount of energy derived from the fuel source that can be converted into actual energy for powering a vehicle. In this regard, EVs were found to be superior to gas-powered vehicles. Moreover, EVs are not only smooth, high-performance rides, but also require less maintenance than conventional internal combustion vehicles (Green, Skerlos, & Winebrake, 2014). EVs give the driver full control due to their quick reaction and enhanced responsiveness. The main objective of this project is to examine the claimed benefits of the EV technology and troubleshoot it for possible weaknesses.

Proposed Project

Some of the important statistics on the potential benefits of EVs include energy efficiency and environmental impact. First, for gas-powered vehicles, the conversion rate is at 17-21%. AEV batteries, on the other hand, are able to convert up to 62% of energy into movement (Wu, Freese, Cabrera, & Kitch, 2015). Another undeniable advantage is reduced usage of fuel, which equals decreased gas emission.

Since EVs utilize rechargeable batteries, they do not generate any tailpipe emissions that were found to be the primary source of pollution in many countries such as the US (Ehsani et al., 2018). The rechargeable battery means that all energy can be sourced within a single household, and often with the use of other green technologies like solar panel systems.

Lastly, the owner of an EV can save a decent amount of money: while an electric vehicle can drive up to 100 miles using 25-40 kWh of energy ($1), a gas-powered car will require about four gallons for the same distance (Wu et al., 2015). However, there is evidence that the batteries can emit toxic fumes, which may hurt both the environment and owners health (Wu et al., 2015).

Currently, many customers concerned with their environmental footprint struggle to choose between fully electric vehicles and hybrids. Mild, series, and plug-in hybrids vary in price but are still less costly than any EV, which allows them to dominate the market for green transportation technology (Hannan, Azidin, & Mohamed, 2014). As opposed to their contenders, EVs still have a limited range and a lengthy recharge time (Mi & Masrur, 2017).

However, given the instant torque, silent operation, and zero emissions, it is hard to say whether hybrid vehicles are superior to EVs. According to Bohnsack, Pinkse, and Kolk (2014), the target demographic for EVs is customers in their late 20s to early 40s who care about the environment, knowledgeable about technology, and well-off financially. European markets seem to be more accepting of Evs, probably, due to liberalism and environmental awareness as opposed to the more conservative customer base in Asia.

Project Team

Y is a new student from Energy Management, M.S. at the NYIT Vancouver campus. She studied Accounting and Finance at the University of Plymouth in the United Kingdom. Also, she received her first masters degree in MSc International Business Management at Surrey University in the United Kingdom. Regarding her education and internship background, she does not have any experience in energy technology. However, after she graduated as a young observer, she clearly sensed the rapid economic development in China.

The environmental and energy issues brought out by economic development is a current and widespread public concern in China. After that, Yan decided to pursue an education in energy technology to discover and solve this problem. Meanwhile, the government has developed several resolutions to these environmental problems. The promotion of the popularized, new energy vehicles is a significant breakthrough and achievement in this field.

For the new energy technology project, Yan wants to research, gather information, and develop more innovative solutions revolving around new energy vehicles. As new technologies emerge, she expects current issues caused by the rapid economic development to be solved in a more efficient and pollution-free manner, which makes her believe that there is a bright future in the energy technology field.

Project Plan

Key Project Tasks

Task 1: Conduct research for the project proposal

The first task is to select the project topic. Then, research the background, aims, and objectives of the project to find appropriate sources for the literature review. The project proposal is due on June 3^rd, 2019

Task 2: Literature review

The second task involves writing up the introduction and providing background information on the topic. The literature review includes the methodology, analysis, and ethics of the topic. Lastly, the literature review will include a discussion about environmental consequences.

Task 3: Draft and update the project

In this task, create a draft for the discussion and conclusion. Focus on methodology, analysis, and findings for the project.

Task 4: Complete the report and prepare for the presentation

The last task is to review and format the project by checking for grammar, spelling, and flow. In addition to that, an appointment will be made with the student assistant to aid with in-text citations. Regarding the presentation, Microsoft Office PowerPoint will be used to complete the slides. Project presentation and slides are due on July 3^rd, 2019. The final report is due on July 11^th, 2019.

Estimated Level of Effort and Project Schedule

Table 1: Estimated Level of Effort.

Table 2: Project Schedule.

References

Bohnsack, R., Pinkse, J., & Kolk, A. (2014). Business models for sustainable technologies: Exploring business model evolution in the case of electric vehicles. Research Policy, 43(2), 284-300.

Ehsani, M., Gao, Y., Longo, S., & Ebrahimi, K. (2018). Modern electric, hybrid electric, and fuel cell vehicles. Boca Raton, FL: CRC press.

Green, E. H., Skerlos, S. J., & Winebrake, J. J. (2014). Increasing electric vehicle policy efficiency and effectiveness by reducing mainstream market bias. Energy Policy, 65, 562-566.

Hannan, M. A., Azidin, F. A., & Mohamed, A. (2014). Hybrid electric vehicles and their challenges: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 29, 135-150.

Mi, C., & Masrur, M. A. (2017). Hybrid electric vehicles: principles and applications with practical perspectives. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Wu, X., Freese, D., Cabrera, A., & Kitch, W. A. (2015). Electric vehicles energy consumption measurement and estimation. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 34, 52-67.

Electric cars have been brought to the market to encourage low-emission vehicles, which will have side advantages for society, the environment, and the economy. Structurally, the main difference between electric and traditional cars is that electric cars use battery power consumption instead of burning fuel. Even though gasoline is considered the main driving force in the automotive industry, electric vehicles are becoming more popular as they reduce the impact of transport on the climate.

The main concern when switching to electric vehicles is the distance range. The range is crucial for drivers to find electric vehicle charging network facilities (Simpson & Van Barlingen, 2021). According to Gelmanova et al. (2018), the average time for charging an electric car is 8 hours, which allows passing 60 to 100 miles per charge. However, the industry of electric vehicles is dramatically expanding, and modern batteries have become more powerful and long-lasting. For example, the newest electric vehicles can reach up to 300 miles on a fully charged battery (Simpson & Van Barlingen, 2021). Another important thing is the drivability of electric vehicles, which has no difference from a petrol or diesel car. As electric cars have fewer mechanical features, they may seem more comfortable to drive.

The safety of electric cars is another concern for drivers. The possibility of fatal collisions with other vehicles increases by 12 percent for every 500 kg difference (Shaffer et al., 2021). Therefore, modern electric cars have lighter batteries, making them safer than petrol or diesel cars. The lighter weight also minimizes the pollution from tire wear and gas emissions.

As environmental concerns and the depletion of fossil resources have become a significant worry, electric vehicles are being produced. As a result of the development of the auto industry, modern electric cars have less charging time with a more extensive distance range. Thus, even though traditional cars are still a popular type of transportation, the advantages of electric vehicles, such as affordability and fewer emissions, make them the most comfortable and ecologically friendly trend.

References

Gelmanova, Z. S., Zhabalova, G. G., Sivyakova, G. A., Lelikova, O. N., Onishchenko, O. N., Smailova, A. A., & Kamarova, S. N. (2018). Electric cars. Advantages and disadvantages. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1015(5).

Shaffer, B., Auffhammer, M., & Samaras, C. (2021). Make electric vehicles lighter to maximize climate and safety benefits. Nature, 598, 254-256.

Simpson, J. D. & Van Berlingen, W. (2021). How far can an electric car go on one charge? EVBox. 

With the development of technologies and the growing need to take care of the environment, new models of vehicles started to appear. A non-professional may fail to see any differences, but electric cars are actually not the same as their gas predecessors and colleagues, and the similarities between them can be only spotted outside. The purpose of this paper is to compare and contrast these two types of personal transport.

First of all, the ways in which the two types of vehicles are similar are explored. The most evident similarity is that electric cars look exactly like gasoline-powered vehicles, although the former have no tail pipes (Idaho National Laboratory 1). Further, they are equipped the same way in relation to mirrors, wheels, seats, and other car parts. Electric and gas-powered vehicles serve a number of similar purposes and also do not differ in how their owners tune them. At the same time, there are many more aspects in which these two car types are not similar. For example, the electric vehicle has one moving part, the motor, whereas the gasoline-powered vehicle has hundreds of moving parts (Idaho National Laboratory 1). This fact also leads to another difference: electric cars are more reliable and require less frequent periodic maintenance, although they sometimes need their batteries replaced (Capparella). Additionally, the electric and gas vehicles varied efficiencies, as well as the costs of electricity and gasoline, allow noticing that driving gas-powered cars is more expensive. However, filling a gasoline transport is much easier than recharging an electric vehicle due to the lacking infrastructure.

To draw a conclusion, one may say that the number of differences between these two types of cars is greater than the number of similarities. Both electric and gas-powered means of transport have their own challenges and benefits, which means it is up to everyone to decide which type to prefer. Similar on the outside and entirely different on the inside, these vehicles still allow people to travel.

Works Cited

Capparella, Joey. Electric Cars vs. Gas Cars: Everything You Need to Know. Car and Driver, Web.

Idaho National Laboratory. How Do Gasoline & Electric Vehicles Compare? INL, Web.

Introduction

There are a growing number of electric cars on the market, and they are already firmly occupying a significant transport segment on the roads. Manufacturers and distributors, cars with electric motors are generally considered zero-emission vehicles. On the other hand, many people perceive electric cars as nonenvironmental, pointing to greenhouse gas emissions, including at the production stage. Recently, there has been more conversation about how environmentally friendly electric cars are gaining popularity (Valerdi 1). Thus, arguments need to be presented to confirm the negative impact of electric cars on the environment.

The Hidden Influence of Electric Vehicles

The negative impact of electric cars on the environment is manifested through coal-fired power plants. Studies conducted in the United States indicate that the effects of electric vehicles on the environment are heterogeneous (Research Highlights 1). This is explained by the fact that, for example, in the Midwest, electricity comes mainly from coal-fired power plants. Accordingly, the production of components for the functioning of cars uses methods that are detrimental to the environment. The more electric cars, the more electricity needs to be produced, and if the bulk of the countrys power factories is in thermal power plants, the situation worsens dramatically. Moreover, another evidence of electric vehicles negative and hidden influence on the environment is the increased demand for charging stations (Caldeira 41). Perhaps the problem can be improved if the idea of using solar energy and equipping charging stations with solar panels is implemented.

Production and Disposal of an Electric Vehicle

When assessing the environmental impact of an electric car, attention should also be focused on the production technology. Several years ago, the Ricardo consulting company published the results of studies. According to these results, the production of a conventional fuel-based car emits one and a half times less hazardous emissions than the production of an electric vehicle. Approximately half of the emissions come from the battery production step (Wan and Wang 2). It appears that the harmlessness of the electric car pales in comparison with the damage inflicted on the ecological environment of the planet by its production.

Perhaps the issue of recycling electric car batteries is not yet acute, but it raises doubts about the environmental performance of these vehicles. However, this is probably because the number of electric cars in the world is still relatively small compared to the number of fuel-powered vehicles. Batteries contain many toxic chemicals, and if these batteries are thrown away in a landfill, they can harm the environment significantly. Only 5% of all failing lithium-ion batteries used in electric cars are properly recycled (Wan and Wang 2) At the same time, Bloomberg New Energy Finance, a consultancy that conducts analytical research on the global energy market, claims that the number of batteries for electric cars will exceed 3.4 million by 2025 (Wan and Wang 7). An ecological catastrophe will surely ensue if humanity does not learn how to recycle batteries properly.

Harmful Effects of Electromagnetic Fields

The electromagnetic fields produced by cars hurt human health. There is another phenomenon associated with electric vehicles, which, according to scientists and researchers, can cause serious harm, this time not to the environment but directly to human health. The question is about the electromagnetic field created in the process of work of the electric car. Research on electromagnetic phenomena has been conducted practically since the beginning of electric vehicle history. According to the outcomes of an examination conducted at the Institute of Terrestrial Magnetism, the effect of electromagnetic fields is most potent in electric cars of the hybrid type (Weeberb et al. 69). In them, the battery is installed under the back seat or in the luggage compartment, and the current flows virtually throughout the car, turning the vehicle into a charged circuit. In this case, the maximum electromagnetic field occurs precisely where the cars driver sits.

Moreover, during active acceleration or the moment of braking, the radiation peak falls on the place behind the driver. That place is believed to be one of the safest for the passenger; a child is often placed there (Weeberb et al. 70). To fully assess the degree of danger of electromagnetic field, it is necessary to remember that the electromagnetic background from the electric car is quite comparable to radiation. They receive a driver in the subway for a full shift of work. However, the representatives of professions related to electromagnetic phenomena receive a bonus for harmfulness (Weeberb et al. 70). Meanwhile, drivers and passengers are spreading the myth that electric cars are meant to enhance the environment and not harm peoples health.

Nevertheless, the principal danger is not the power of electromagnetic radiation but the fact that this value is extremely variable in an electric car. The low-frequency field in an electric vehicle changes thousands of times, and these changes harm the human body. It is essential to become accustomed to one level of exposure, and it immediately changes; such fluctuations inevitably violate the ability of the body to work. Pregnant women who have not yet had time to form all their organs entirely are highly harmful to electromagnetic exposure (Weeberb et al. 70). It is confirmed that electromagnetic fields cause abnormalities in the development of the human embryo. At the cellular level, low-frequency electromagnetic oscillations cause body cells to receive an ionic charge. As a result, the chemical processes in the body are disturbed, and the tissues cease to obtain the appropriate amount of oxygen for nutrition. This results in lethargy, disorientation, irritability, and the gradual development of oncology.

The Positive Environmental Impact of Electric Vehicles

The benefit of electric cars is that they decrease the emission of exhaust gases into the atmosphere. Road vehicles are not only a convenient means of transportation but also a powerful source of environmental pollution. The higher number of cars, trucks, passenger buses, and construction equipment significantly worsens the already poor air quality. From an ecological perspective, motor vehicles are a mobile and intermittent source of environmental pollution: gaseous, liquid, and even harsh chemical compounds (Knobloch et al. 437). The degree of pollution is determined by the engines type, power, time, and mode of operation, the fuel quality used, the engines technical condition, and the level of operation of the vehicle. For instance, exhaust gases contribute up to 1-1.5 percent of a vehicles fuel consumption to the atmosphere. In addition, running engines are potent sources of heat radiation (Knobloch et al. 437). Current vehicle engines discharge about 60 percent of the thermal energy of combusted fuels into the atmosphere in the form of heat and hot gases (Knobloch et al. 438). Considering the constant improvement in the total number of motor vehicles, their negative impact on urban air quality is tangible and steadily expanding.

The solution to these problems is using electric motors in todays world. This is explained by the fact that they guarantee the absence of exhaust fumes. The engine, which is powered by electricity, is practically pollution-free. In addition, renewable energy sources, such as our photovoltaic system, can be used to charge the battery. Research in recent years confirms the positive effect of electric cars on the environment. According to the available analytical data, throughout the entire life cycle of vehicles, the operating phase is associated with the highest environmental pollution (Weeberb et al. 70). In this aspect, electric cars are superior to other car models, mainly due to significant reduction in the carbon footprint.

Studies indicate that electric cars do not have a CO2 emission advantage. They emit greenhouse gases indirectly by producing the required electricity in a power plant. It requires a lot of energy to make electric cars, mainly due to the energy-intensive production of batteries. Its production is not without emissions to the atmosphere. Most studies cite the following figures: the output of 1 kWh emits between 100 and 200 kg of CO2 into the atmosphere. At the stated pollution level, about 5 tons of greenhouse gases are produced while producing a standard 35 kWh battery (Weeberb et al. 72). In different studies, these emissions range from 10 to 12 tons. When produced, an internal combustion engine, whether gasoline or diesel, emits 6 to 7 tons of greenhouse gases (Weeberb et al. 72). Thus, the use of electric motors does not help to reduce the problem of exhaust gas emissions into the atmosphere.

Conclusion

Therefore, it appears that the benefits of an electric-powered car are questionable. The production of electric vehicles leads to more carbon dioxide emissions than the assembly of cars with internal combustion engines. Battery recycling and disposal of electric vehicles also hurt the environment. However, the use of electric vehicles is detrimental to the health of drivers and passengers. Accordingly, the popularity of electric cars is not justified by the indicator of safe exposure but by the environment.

Works Cited

Caldeira, Ken. Stop Emissions! MIT Technology Review, vol. 119, no. 1, 2016, pp. 41-43.

Knobloch, Florian et al. Net Emission Reductions from Electric Cars and Heat Pumps in 59 World Regions Over Time. Nature Sustainability, vol. 3, no. 6, 2020, pp. 437-447.

Research Highlights. Springer Nature, vol. 541, 2017, p.1.

Valerdi, Ricardo. Unintended Consequences of Electric Vehicles. Industrial Engineer, 2015, pp. 1-3.

Weeberb, Requia, et al. How Clean are Electric Vehicles? Evidence-Based Review of The Effects of Electric Mobility on Air Pollutants, Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Human Health. Atmospheric Environment, vol. 185, 2018, pp. 64-77.

Wan, Taotianchen, and Yikai Wang. The Hazards of Electric Car Batteries and Their Recycling. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, vol. 1011, no. 1, 2022, pp.1-9.

The findings show that an estimated 1.2 million Chinese people suffer consequences from air pollution. The article states that by reducing emissions from power generation, health and environmental benefits might be achieved. In order to help the Chinese citizens, a team of Northwestern University researchers studied the idea of widespread adoption of electric vehicles. This study was published on February 16, 2021, and conducted that a fraction of Chinas electricity is being sourced from coal. Moreover, pollution may come from such sources as transport emissions and different power-generated facilities. That is why the adoption of electric vehicles will facilitate the reduction of the emissions of air pollutants. In addition, researchers discovered that the adoption of such electric vehicles might reduce the public health burden and benefit the environment (Northwest University, 2021). The researchers argue that in order to achieve the net joint benefit of the introduction of heavy-duty electric vehicles, more widespread adoption of renewable energy is needed.

In order to prove these findings, the researchers conducted a simulation model, where they replaced 40% of heavy-duty vehicles with electric vehicles (Northwest University, 2021). This model allowed scientists to prove that there is a noticeable improvement in air quality in this case. However, electrification did not reduce the greenhouse effect, but the use of light electric vehicles reduced carbon dioxide emissions by two megatons. The research team conducted several more comparisons to complete the study, where they found that such measures would still help reduce premature mortality among the Chinese population by 6% (Northwest University, 2021). In conclusion, Schnell, a research scientist, stated that air quality would improve as the power-generation sector reduces the use of fossil fuels.

Reference

Northwestern University. (2021). Electricity source determines benefits of electrifying Chinas vehicles: Reducing emissions from power generation is key to achieving health, environmental benefits. ScienceDaily.

Global businesses and working environments are complex and require an in-depth assessment of issues for proper management. One such international business is manufacturing electric vehicles (EVs) that are likely to disrupt the original market structure. The commitment to the Paris emission agreement has pushed and will continue driving the growth of EVs (Dimsdale, 2019). Deloitte, a multinational accounting organization providing such services as audit and financial advisory, predicts that the industry will grow significantly to attain a market share of over 30% by 2030 (Woodward et al., 2020). Despite the growth and policies in different countries, consumers still prefer internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, citing a lack of infrastructure. Production and market have concentrated in such regions as the European Union (EU), United States, and China. However, other parts of the world are contributing at low levels to the manufacture of EVs. Following the new EVs demand and fabrication structures at the factory, the industry presents opportunities for conflicts and cooperation between countries, firms, and regions over market and production. This paper will assess the trend in EV growth to forecast changes in the current trade paradigm.

Factors that will Drive Global Chain Supply and Trade Paradigm

Trade

Some countries and companies have taken the lead in manufacturing EVs compared to ICE vehicles previous structure implying an inevitable change in market integration and supply chain. According to Deloitte, China is the leader in EVs, followed by the EU, while the United States comes third in making EVs (Woodward et al., 2020). Unlike the case in ICE vehicles, Japan does not feature among the top three regions in EVs sales every year. The development of greed cars has seen new countries, such as China, gaining more roots in the vehicle industry. Moreover, other companies are entering the market, following incentives in EVs. However, older companies in the ICE vehicles industry are also adding environment friendly vehicles to their catalogs. The development in the EVs market, where new companies are entering the business, will lead to a more integrated and altered global supply chain due to the need for resources and trade barriers.

Well established countries and those behind EVs manufacturing will impose trade barriers, such as tariffs, while strengthening the existing ones leading to deepened global supply chain and integration. EVs come as a strategic resource following leadership in countries and companies that can manage quick and better research and development (R & D). For instance, China has already classified EVs as their strategic industry, indicating plans to protect through trade barriers (Dimsdale, 2019). There also exists a trade barrier between the United States and China that challenges free trade. Similar to how the United States has protected its oil supply market globally, leaders in green vehicles might also introduce the same measures.

Companies and countries will only manage to sell to external markets by integrating with the local ones or establishing stockists instead of direct sales. For example, EV companies in China will have to incorporate with others in Japan and the United States for the respective governments to reduce registration, import, and other taxes. The firms will also need to establish supply chains by making existing ICE vehicle manufacturers their distributors in countries with substantial trade barriers. Such arrangements using established ICE companies will improve free trade in the industry to benefit EVs sales (Panda, Sethi & Chaudhuri, 2017). Therefore, the growth of EVs and their marketing as a strategic industry will lead to the introduction of other supply china players and increased integration to overcome the challenges of trade barriers and disputes.

Disparities in the EVs market between countries and especially those producing the vehicles will also deepen the global supply chain and integration to increase sales. Although the United States and EU are among the leaders in EV production, China has the largest market (Woodward et al., 2020). EU, on the other hand, has strict emission standards that will raise its market with time (Woodward et al., 2020). The market in other countries is relatively low with prolonged time to meet the Paris agreement on emission, which further reduces sale opportunities.

Consumers in other countries, for instance the EU, still have weak attitudes towards EVs with such questions as charging infrastructures. Woodward et al. (2020) project that there will be slow growth in the EVs market in other countries, primarily due to a lack of government incentives and emissions policies. Such issues limit the available external market where manufacturers will compete. The few EV manufacturing countries and firms will have to establish ways to reach the external market regardless of trade barriers and competition. For example, the EU will seek to reach China market, which is relatively large and growing at a fast pace. However, buying local goods to promote local producers might affect direct sales motivating the establishment of partnership, integration, and other points along the supply chain. EV market disparities will lead to a strengthened global supply chain and integration as sellers seek to compete in the limited market.

Resources

The EVs market is a capital-intensive business that needs many different inputs, especially at the current stage of its inception before advancements in technology. The demand for high capital and technological knowledge motivates further integration between businesses. According to Woodward et al. (2020), many EV start-ups will fail in the future due to a lack of resources to sustain production. The forecast is an indication of the needed massive investment in the businesses. Much of the resources go to research and development due to the required continued improvement of green vehicles to gain a competitive advantage and persuade consumers. Moreover, the cars need other materials that come from different countries other than the manufacturers. Resource mobilization will push for changes in the existing paradigm with expanded free global trade within the industry.

Among the factors that will drive expanded global free trade and a more in-depth global supply chain is capital to sustain the business. Woodward et al. (2020) predict that there will be partnerships and joint ventures in the future as many EV start-ups struggle to maintain their production. The original EVs and ICE vehicle manufacturers are more resourced with capital and established research and development departments (McKinsey & Company, 2017). Most of such ICE companies will have resources they save from low businesses as consumers turn to EVs. As countries and firms seek to get more resources for EV development through joint ventures, the vehicle industry will become freer with minimal trade barriers. The dependence on other established ICE companies will force countries to open up trade opportunities improving penetration of other states and vehicle manufacturers. Thus the need for heavy capital investment in the EVs industry will push for a more open global trade and a more resonant global supply chain with improved integration.

Need for Global Operations and Extensive Supply Chain

EVs are in their initial stages, indicating the potential to grow and companies need to invest heavily in production and supply chain to succeed in the market. The EV market share in the whole vehicle industry is around 2.5% of sales every year and is projected to go beyond 31.1% by 2030 (Woodward et al., 2020). At the moment, most manufacturers, for example, in China, are selling locally due to the large market. However, as the EVs market and production increase, companies will need to compete more in the local and external markets. Such competition will include marketing and production. In 2011, over 400 EV manufacturers in China joined, indicating many firms in the industry with growth chances in the future (Dimsdale, 2019). Most of the new companies in the industry and even the older ones, for instance, Ford, would not claim to have sufficient capabilities to meet customer expectations that can sustain and allow market penetration. The market for green cars is different from that of ICE vehicles, creating a new supply chain and production processes. Companies will have to go global or increases their depth in the international market to penetrate and become sustainable.

Globalization presents opportunities for EV companies to strengthen their supply chain to meet customer expectations and achieve sustainability. Multinational companies are efficient in penetrating new markets to offset challenges with low sales and changing consumer needs. Globalization makes corporations develop global supply chains that can facilitate ease of entrance to new markets due to their international status. The position provides loyalty to customers compared to new national companies attempting to sell their products in the outside market. EVs present the vehicle industry with different consumer needs and consumption forces to those in ICE vehicles (Woodward et al., 2020). In green vehicles, consumer needs are not similar to those they have in ICE cars. According to Smit, Whitehead, and Washington (2018), most consumers are yet to appreciate the EVs due to different cited issues such as establishing infrastructure, including charging points. Customers in most countries, for example, in the United States, have weaker attitudes towards EVs compared to others such as China. Manufacturers in the US and EU will therefore need to penetrate other markets for sustainability.

Companies globalization will allow EV corporations to easily penetrate the limited market at the beginning by influencing customers through loyalty. Global firms have favorable reputations even in countries with no outlets due to the brand name in producing quality products. Customers get the attraction to such companies following long-tern service to other regions without complaints. Corporations such as Ford and General Motors, for example, will have an easy time persuading customers towards EVs through loyalty transfer. Managers will use the same strategy of globalization to improve their loyalty towards potential customers. As a result, the growth of EVs will push most manufacturers to expand their global limits.

Another reason why EV growth will push vehicle companies into in-depth global operations is competition for improved models while driving change. Woodward et al. (2020) forecast that businesses that will survive the market will update their model with time to attract customers. Most of the original EVs firms have managed to stay afloat due to the acquisition of start-ups and update in their models (Woodward et al., 2020). Globalization benefits corporations with knowledge for continuous improvement of their products. Global firms employ people with diverse backgrounds in production and preference for local community products, following globalizations benefit. EV manufacturers will seek to become multinationals to raise their knowledge in production. At the moment, China is more advanced in producing EVs. The US and EU companies will, for example, extend their market to China to get more employees from the country who can add technological knowledge on improving EVs models.

Apart from globalization growth of green car makers will change, alter and make the industry supply chain more extensive and specialized. EV manufacturers do not have established supply chains and capital to run a profitable business (McKinsey & Company, 2017). The firms will need to collaborate with ICE manufacturers who have all the resources and capabilities required to run a sustainable business. Negotiation between EVs and ICE vehicle companies will yield a new supply chain model with many companies developing the chain. ICE car producers will become sales points for green vehicles as they get stock from manufacturers. For example, Chinese EV producers might incorporate other companies, for instance, General Motors and Ford, to sell their cars. Although EVs car manufacturers might be new in the vehicle industry, there are low chances of standing independently without incorporating the existing companies in their supply chain. Such collaboration will deepen the global supply chain while expanding the supply chain for car manufacturers to have ICE manufacturers serving as sales agents.

Changes in the Management of Global Organizations

Management of global organizations affects the trade paradigm, making it vital for organizations to focus on the wave of EVs growth. Managers in global companies determine where to trade, who, and who to use to drive the company objectives. The growth of green cars will force the organizations to increase sourcing of employees from external markets to drive globalization, market-entry, and improving car models. The companies need to invest in predicting and shaping future market developments to remain relevant. EVs market is full of uncertainties, including changes in demand, policies, prices, and affordability (Dimsdale, 2019). The primary concern is consumer attitudes towards the models and government goodwill and support to the respective companies (Smit et al., 2018). Managers will have to reorganize their companies to have employees who focus on the future and represent different world regions.

Managers will also seek employees with local tastes to drive production alongside others with a global mindset to deepen international reach. Such a composition will be essential to reduce uncertainties in the future and ensure that the organization makes progressive decisions to sustain the market. Thus, EV growth will push companies in the industry to consider management aligned to business changes, especially the need for competitive models and marketing strategies.

Conclusion

In conclusion, EVs growth is a global issue that will affect the current vehicle companies and upcoming ones. The industry has led to the emergence of new manufacturers while making other regions leaders of EVs instead of the case in ICE vehicles. Moreover, there is customer segmentation with the needed push towards acceptance of green cars. The growth faces challenges in the market, marketing, and sustaining the businesses. This assessment establishes that EV firms will have to deepen their global supply chain and increases market integration to have a sustainable business. The information is essential to global managers in the industry to plan the needed structures for depending global supply chain and establish partners to avoid going out of businesses. Among the noted drivers to the need for in-depth global supply and globalization includes capital, improved car models, and market penetration.

References

Dimsdale, T. (2019). Redefining geopolitics in the age of electric vehicles. Web.

McKinsey & Company. (2017). Electrifying insights: How automakers can drive electrified vehicle sales and profitability advanced industries. Web.

Panda, R., Sethi, M., & Chaudhuri, S. (2017). Changing paradigm in trade theories: a review and future research agenda. Indian Journal of Science and Technology, 9(46), 1-6.

Smit, R., Whitehead, J., & Washington, S. (2018). Where are we heading with electric vehicles? Air Quality and Climate Change, 52(3), 18-27.

Woodward, M., Walton, B., Hamilton J., Alberts G., Fullerton-Smith S., Day E. & Ringrow J. (2020). Electric vehicles: Setting a course for 2030. Web.

Our society has long considered what we can do to improve the society we live in, to make it better for future generations to come. One aspect that must be considered is the level of pollution that occurs throughout our country and the world through ways in which that pollution level can be reduced. The most popular method that is presented to reduce pollution is by increasing the number of electric cars on the road in hope to reduce the number of nasty polluting petrol and diesel and thereby reducing the number of toxins released from traditional cars.

Many say that our global pollution problem is a sum of many different factors and decreasing the number of vehicles that are currently emitting greenhouse gasses will only make an infinitesimal impact on global pollution as it exists today. This may be true, as it would be nearly impossible to make all vehicles completely electric and, even if it were possible, each would only have a slight impact as long as other methods of pollution were still in effect.like from power plants to make the electricity and places making the plastics or metals.

Electric cars run off of electricity and therefore do not require diesel or petrol and plus we don’t know how much more we have left of these fuels.Because if these fuels are not being mined, this reduces the number of gasses and other pollution that is released not only into the air but into the soil as well. This can minimize the number of toxins that are getting taken up by plants, animals and even ourselves within the environment. With a massive production of fuels comes other less intentional aspects such as leaks and therefore additional pollution into the surrounding area which can definitely leach into the water and even our crops. There have been a number of oil leaks throughout the world that have resulted in poisoned water and have killed a vast number of animals for a long time after the leak is discovered and cleaned up. The damage caused can never fully be undone from that leak and that same material will end up our air we breathe and the essential soils we grow our crops in and our water that we drink every day.

While electric cars don’t emit exhaust fumes, they do use batteries which can emit toxic fumes if damaged. Most electricity used to power electric vehicles is generated from non-renewable energy sources such as energy plants that use coal or oil, which can cause major or permanent damage on both our health and the environment. Transport now accounts for 26 per cent of the UK’s greenhouse gas emissions, compared to 25 per cent coming from energy supplies. In 2017 there were about 31 million petrol and diesel while there were only 45.4 thousand electric cars, so for every 600 non-electric car 1 electric car was bought. With electric cars, they do not create these greenhouse gasses that are being let off into the atmosphere. There are alternative clean energy sources such as hydroelectric dams windmill and solar panel farms to produce clean electricity .As a result of this, there is less pollution being put into the air and far less that is actually being trapped within the atmosphere. Because gases aren’t released, this then means there will be less to cause illness or harm to us the plants and animals that we share the planet with. This should make the world become a much cleaner place and hopefully repair some of the damage caused for our future generations. When traditional cars use petrol or diesel it has to be burned off and goes into the air as a type of smog. The gases like carbon monoxide are extremely bad for anyone to breathe in and it becomes even worse when it gets into the atmosphere and stays there. That’s because it can then trap in more dangerous chemicals so the air becomes permanently damaged, instead of just for that short time.

The one problem with electric cars is that there a huge investment at the moment. Currently, they range from roughly £14,000 for a Renault Zoe hatchback a nibble electric car that’s suitable for a more urban environment, to over £100,000 for a more well known and popular brand Tesla. One of Europe’s best-selling electric cars is the Nissan Leaf, which is manufactured in the UK and has a starting price of £21,000. another problem with them is the recharge time, It can take up to twelve hours to fully charge an electric car, depending on the battery size, so, while these vehicles offers savings in petrol or diesel, at the same time will increase electricity bills. And what happens if you forget to charge it at night, you will end up stranded somewhere. The UK government’s keen to promote electric cars wherever they can so they created the plug-in grant, as part of their aim to reduce carbon emissions. That’s why you could get up to £3,500 to help people buy one. vehicles that have CO2 emissions of less than 50g/km and are approved by the government get the maximum of a £3,500 and you don’t have to pay road tax . And each year these cars are becoming more affordable for people to buy. Lexus has created a self-charging electric hybrid car that doesn’t need to be plugged in at a socket so it will only produce co2 emissions when using petrol.lexus claim that their car is “always ready to go”.

Overall, Electric Vehicles are starting to change the way people think about going green. With the advancement of battery technology and alternative power, these vehicles are producing fewer emissions and going further than ever before. We need to start relying on these technologies to start reducing our carbon footprint. As the years continue to pass, these vehicles are going to start changing the way we live, and operate in society.

Introduction

The 21st-century society is heavily dependent on road transport and related developmental projects that aim to promote the substantial growth of road transport. Moreover, there is the forecasted increase of gasoline and diesel demands among road users. These two before-mentioned features are adversely associated with air quality and climate change; hence they have led to Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles (ICEVs) being slowly replaced by electric vehicles (EVs), a cheaper and more environmentally friendly alternative form (Muneer, Kohle & Doyle 2017). The U.S. and other countries have formulated plans and strategies to facilitate the introduction and adoption of EVs in the market.

Presently, the EV market in the U.S. constitutes of plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs), battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) (Chau 2016). The BEV utilises a lithium-ion battery and functions on an electric motor; the PHEV runs on a battery but later switches to gas in situations when the battery is low; and the HEV runs on both electricity and gasoline.

The charging of EVs varies with the model type. Electric vehicles can be charged by plugging one end of a charger into a vehicle while the other end is connected to an electrical grid, also known as electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE).

According to Chau (2016), there are three primary categories of chargers based on the power output of the outlet: level 1 (charging through a 120V AC plug), level 2 (charging through a 240V with additional equipment) and level 3 (charging through 480V with special other equipment).

From 2011 to 2014, the BEV has exhibited positive sales; however, since 2015, its sales and growth rate has slowed (see Figure A-1). The reduction in growth is attributed to the limited charging infrastructure and driving range, which are still in their initial stages of development (Schwanen 2019). It is essential to take note of the fact that the BEVs only represent approximately 1% of the total fleets in the U.S. Moreover, the demand of BEVs is profoundly concentrated in specific automotive geographies, for instance, nearly half of all BEVs retailed in the U.S. have been purchased in California (Muneer, Kohle & Doyle 2017).

Moreover, there have been little controversies revolving around the use of BEV vehicles and they include their global warming potential and pedestrian safety. Although the BEV has a zero tailpipe emission rating, it adversely affects the environment in terms of the manufacturing of lithium-ion batteries.

On the other hand, in pedestrian safety, BEVs have relatively low propulsion and rolling noise. This report aimed to compare PEVs and the Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles (ICEVs) based on the economic and environmental indicators for vehicle production and usage.

Methodology

This research focused on comparing electric vehicles to internal combustion engines – an economic evaluation that emphasised on the Total Cost of Ownership, the environmental impact and safety analysis.

Total Cost of Ownership

In this study, the Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) model was employed in comparing the cost of ownership between two comparative compact cars in different market segments. The vehicles selected for the study consisted of one BEV (2019 Nissan Leaf) and ICEV (2019 Hyundai Elantra) in an American marketing setting (see Table B-1 for detailed specifications of each vehicle). The U.S. market segment was used as a reference for evaluating prices as it is among the countries with the most significant market volume in the car industry.

TCO is an accounting term referring to the purchase cost of an asset, including the operation cost for a given usage period. Four factors were selected to act as measures for the comparison and they consisted of the purchase cost of the vehicle, maintenance, and service for a 1-year duration, taxes and subsidies, fuel cost for a single year, and the TCO (see Table B-2 for the TCO breakdown). It is essential to note that the energy policy in the U.S. is based on CO₂ emissions.

Environmental Impact and Safety

The environmental impact was assessed by focusing on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and air pollution (AP) of the two car models. The overall ecological impact values obtained for each car model were aligned to the standards presented by the EPA (see Table B-1). The EPA measured vehicle fuel economy and greenhouse gas emissions using a set of standardised tests Environmental Protection Agency (2019). These tests imitated the typical driving patterns. Moreover, to get the absolute values of AP and GHG emissions of the individual vehicles, the following formulae were used (see Table C-1 for the values of AP and GHG):

For internal combustion engine vehicles

AP = m_carAP_m

GHG = m_carGHGm

For electric vehicles;

AP = (m_{car −} m_bat) AP_m + m_batAP_bat

GHG = (m_{car −} m_bat) _GHGm + m_bat

where m_car and m_bat are the masses of the car and battery, respectively; AP_m and AP_bat is the air pollution emissions per kg of the conventional vehicles and lithium-ion batteries, respectively; GHG_m and GHG_bat are the greenhouse gas emissions per kg of ICEVs and lithium-ion batteries, respectively.

Pedestrian Safety

A desk study design was used in which existing empirical and theoretical literature was used to explore and compare the pedestrian safety of BEVs and ICEVs. Relevant literature published from 2011 to recent was searched on various databases. The searched focussed on specific keywords: “pedestrian safety”, “electric vehicles”, “hybrid vehicles”, “cyclists’ safety”, “traffic sounds”, and “auditory perception”. This resulted in a list of 2 publications.

Findings and Results

TCO

The findings presented in Figure 1 illustrate the variation between the overall TCO between the sample vehicles. The purchasing cost for the Nissan Leaf was higher than the Hyundai Elantra. However, the Nissan Leaf was low-priced to own in regards to the fuel cost, road tax, maintenance and repairs cost categories.

Environmental Impact

In terms of the tailpipe emission, the BEV is illustrated to have a zero tailpipe emission, while that of the ICEV is at its highest. However, when it comes to greenhouse emission and air pollution, the BEV is seen to have a notably higher emission that the ICEV.

Discussion

The results in Figure 2 illustrate that the redacted operating expenses of BEV offsets the higher initial cost relative to ICEVs. TCO is rather a broad concept on the basis that it contradicts the typical observed behaviour, which is, purchasing price, used car buyers. If shoppers assume a similar structure cost for BEVs and ICEVs, then they are running into the danger of making uneconomic budgeting and environmental decisions. Currently, the primary factor influencing the purchasing value of BEVs is the price of the battery pack.

However, according to Hagman et al. (2016), the value of lithium-ion batteries is expected to fall in the future; hence, this will make BEVs competitive in terms of both the purchasing price and TCO. The other factor includes policies such as road taxes and fuel-economic standards. These policies function as economic instruments; therefore, they play a crucial function in bridging the gap between EVs and ICEVs with regards to the TCO. For instance, the BEVs not falling into the “premium category” are not subjected to any Vehicle Exercise Duty; however, all conventional vehicles are required to pay the road taxes.

The results in Figure 3 illustrate that although the BEV has a zero tailpipe emission, it still contributes to climate change with regards to its manufacturing. From an environmental outlook, the image is even more multifaceted. BEVs attain the objective of minimising GHG emissions in relation to the comparable conventional vehicles when the vehicles’ lifetime at taken into consideration. Nonetheless, this masks the heightened impact on human health and other secondary effects on the environment.

On a well-to-wheel basis, the GHG emissions are lower than that for the ICEs (see Table B-1). However, the net benefits of EV with regards to GHG emissions savings are dependent on the power mix throughout the entire value chain; in other words, their life cycle. It is also dependent on the real-time charging behaviour of EV users, and the fuel mix of electricity generation occasionally changes (see Figure C-1).

As a result, BEVs are capable of leading to more widespread and detrimental sets of environmental impacts, which will consequentially offset a substantial measure of their general advantage relative to GHG emissions. Notably, the employment of heavy metals in the development of lithium-ion battery packs blended with the pollution produced by the region’s power grid is estimated to result in thrice the volume of human toxicity in relation to ICEVs (Muneer, Kohle & Doyle 2017).

Furthermore, as presented in Egede (2017), most of the graphite and cobalt entering into the production system of lithium-ion batteries is obtained from poorly regulated and massive polluting mines in China and Congo (Muneer, Kohle & Doyle 2017).

Therefore, while the BEV users attempt to minimise their local contribution to GHG emission, they are instead creating a more diffused array of adverse environmental impacts across the world, after-effects that are largely endured by disadvantaged and rural communities near regions where lithium is sourced from.

The relative high presence of electric vehicles in roadways has raised some safety concerns regarding vehicle’s inherently quiet operation, which might prove to be dangerous to the BEV drivers, pedestrians and others, particularly bicyclists. The results of this study are mirrored by Tataris (2014) that found that the probability if an EV being in a pedestrian crash is 22% higher than the likelihood of an ICEV.

Moreover, according to Steling-Konczak, Hagenzieker and Van Wee (2015), hybrid electric cars are associated with a higher frequency of accidents among roads users listening to electronic devices. The high frequency of accidents was attributed to the quietness of electric cars at low speeds.

On the other hand, other studies illustrated a direct relationship between the quiet ambience of hybrid electric cars and vulnerable road users. In Garay-Vega et al. (2011) the participants, who were blind took longer to detect HEVs regardless of their speed.

Conclusion

Over the years, there has been a rise in the demand for BEVs, which is attributed to a lower TCO and “environmentally friendly” capacity as they have no tailpipe emissions. The sales of electric vehicles is expected to increase significantly.

However, research has revealed that although BEVs are generally cost-effective as compared to their ICEVs counterparts, there are potentially unsafe and unintended consequences associated with the silent engines that the EVs operate on. The manufacturing of the lithium-ion battery poses severe environmental damage and also the lack of propulsion noise from the combustion engine is a far higher risk to pedestrians and cyclists.

Reference List

Chau, K 2016, Energy systems for electric and hybrid vehicles, Institution of Engineering and Technology, London.

Garay-Vega, L, Guhty, C, Pollard, J & Hastings A 2011, ‘Auditory detectability of hybrid electric vehicles by blind pedestrians’, Journal of the Transportation Research Board, vol. 2248, no. 1, pp. 68-73.

Egede, P 2017, Environmental assessment of lightweight electric vehicles, Springer Publishers, Switzerland.

Environmental Protection Agency 2019, Greenhouse gas emissions from a typical passenger vehicle, Web.

Hagman, J Ritzen, S, Stier, J & Susilo, K 2016, ‘Total cost of ownership and its potential implications for battery electric vehicle diffusion’, Research in Transportation and Business Management, vol. 18, no. 6, pp. 11-17.

Muneer, T, Kohle, M & Doyle, A 2017, Electric vehicles: prospects and challenges, Elsevier Science Publishers, New York, NY.

Schwanen, T 2019, ‘The five major challenges facing electric vehicles’, BBC News, Web.

Steling-Konczak, A, Hagenzieker, L & Van Wee, A 2015, ‘Traffic sounds and cycling safety: the use of electronic safety devices by cyclists and the quietness of hybrid and electric cars’, Transport Reviews, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 1-23.

Tataris, K 2014, ‘National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) notes’, Annals of Emergency Medicine, vol. 64, no. 2, pp. 196-197.

Appendices

Appendix A: BEV Sales

Appendix B: Total Cost of Ownership

Table B-1: Car Model Specifications. Sources: Fuel Economy 2019, 2019 Nissan Leaf (40 kW-hr battery pack). Fuel Economy 2019, 2019 Hyundai Elantra.

Table B-2: Total Cost of Ownership for a Compact Car. Source: Author.

Appendix C: Environmental Impact

Table C-2: Normalised environmental indicators. Source: Author.

When man discovered how to use fossil fuel as a major energy source, the world was never the same again. It was a time when fossil fuels such as oil and coal were considered a cheap and abundant alternative to firewood, animal fats, etc. However, this is no longer true today. In the oil crisis of the 1970s Americans reeled from the impact of fuel shortages.

In the 21^st century, many began to realize that expensive petroleum products cannot be sustained in the long run and therefore the need to find another alternative energy source especially when it comes to fuel-guzzling cars that Americans had grown to love. One temporary solution is the hybrid car – a combination of a conventional internal combustion engine and an electric motor. The only challenge is the design of the car battery for it needs to be charged and discharged. It was discovered that a solid-state lithium-ion battery is the most suited for hybrid cars.

The Battery

The inventor of the battery realized that there are only three major ingredients needed to produce a direct current: two different metals and an electrolyte (Gilles, p.404). This can even be demonstrated using a potato, an orange, or a soft drink as the electrolyte (Gilles, p.404). When two types of metals are poked into say an orange a direct current is produced and a voltmeter can then be used to measure the voltage between the two dissimilar metals (Gilles, p.404).

In the case of a battery cell, the design is more sophisticated but uses the same principle. Instead of orange and soft drinks, there is a negative and positive plate immersed in an electrolyte solution. A typical battery is composed of a positive plate made up of lead dioxide, a negative plate made up of sponge lead and an electrolyte which is made up of sulfuric acid and water (Gilles, p.407).

When a battery is charged, current flows into I,t, and the unit stores this energy until it is needed (Gilles, p.406). Charging a battery is achieved when an energy source “puts electrons on the negative plate” and as a result, the positive and negative plates will have a difference in voltage or potential (Gilles, p.406). What occurs is a voltage imbalance between the negative and positive plates and this requires equalization by creating a current path where energy can flow out of the system (Gilles, p.406).

When the voltage imbalance is equalized the battery is discharged and current flows out of it. This is made possible by what is known as the “electron current flow” – electrons passing through the electrolytes as it travels from the negative plates to the positive plates (Gilles, p.406). A chemical reaction occurs and as a result, materials are being used up in the process. The continuous charging and discharging of the battery will wear out the active material in the cell plates (Gilles, p.408). This is a problem for battery-operated devices and most especially for Hybrid-elective vehicles.

The HEV

Hybrid-elective vehicles also known as HEVs are considered to be a short-term alternative to fossil fuel (Dennis & Urry, p.71). It is a temporary solution because the system does not totally eliminate the use of fossil fuels. However, it allows the car to maximize its fuel consumption; instead of solely relying on the internal combustion engine it works in tandem with an electric motor that is powered by a battery.

Therefore, HEVs engines combine “regular petrol-combustion driven mechanical drives with battery-driven long-range driving, switching to battery-electrical power assistance for initial acceleration and low-speed driving conditions” (Dennis & Urry, p.71). This is the normal configuration but this is not the only design available for HEVs. In the second generation HEVs the battery is the major power source, and as a result, the amount of battery power that can be found aboard this type of hybrid vehicle “may vary between a single battery to a pack of many batteries connected together” (ThermoAnalytics, p.1).

Based on the basic description of what goes on inside a battery there are two implications when it comes to the two types of HEVs. The first one is related to the assertion made that: “HEV batteries do not require constant recharging as in electric vehicles since they rely on a long-life battery cell and recharging via the vehicle’s kinetic motion and braking” (Dennis & Urry, p.71).

The Battery in an HEV

There are three things that must be considered in the design and manufacture of a new generation of batteries that can best serve HEVs. These are the following things to consider: a) long battery life; b) battery capacity; and c) efficient charging and discharging of the battery. There are two ways to deal with these concerns. First, engineers must continue to look for better components and better designs. Second, consumers must know how to properly take care of their batteries.

When it comes to proper handling of the batteries it must be pointed out that a battery’s life is significantly shortened by improper charging system amperage or voltage (Gilles, p.411). Too high or too low amperage is the greatest cause of shortened battery life (Gills, p.411). Extreme temperatures can harm batteries as well. Cold weather can easily reduce the cranking power of batteries by more than half (Gilles, p.411). Excess heat as a result of overcharging can cause buckled and warped plates as well as the shedding of materials from the plates (Gilles, p.412).

It is therefore important to choose the correct type of battery to be used for HEVs, one that has a long life cycle, high gravimetric and volumetric energy densities, ambient temperature operation, and good pulse power density (Dhameja, p.21). There are at least four major types of batteries used in current HEVs and these are: a) Lead acid; b) Nickel-Cadmium; c) Nickel-Metal Hydride; and d) Lithium-Ion. According to researchers lithium-ion batteries seems to be the most ideal because it is the lightweight and high electric potential of all metals (ThermoAnalytics, p.1). However, lithium is known to be an unstable metal and can ignite if it comes in contact with water, and because of that lithium batteries are limited to portable devices (ThermonAnalytics, p.1).

The most common battery type in use in many HEVs islead-acid acid type because it is easy and cheap to produce. In fact, the Toyota Prius uses a lead-acid type for their accessory battery, and for the new models they use a nickel-metal-hydride battery type (Voelcker, p.1). The only problem with the lead-acid battery is its low energy density and less impressive life cycle. The nickel-metal-hydride type of batter on the other hand is expensive to manufacture (Voelcker, p.1). There is therefore the need to revisit the lithium-ion configuration.

Scientists assert that lithium-ion is indeed much better than the other types the only thing that needs to be done is to modify it into a solid-state lithium-ion battery instead of the traditional liquid-state Li-ion battery (Dhameja, p.19). One of the benefits of the new design is the capability to store “up to three times more energy per unit weight and volume than the conventional Pb-acid and NiMH batteries” (Dhameja, p.19). This means that it is a space saver favorable for car designers. They do not have to worry about incorporating a number of battery cells within the hood of the cars.

In addition the solid-state lithium-ion battery has a low self-discharge rate as well as superior life cycle as compared to the other battery types (Dhameja, p.19). Studies reveal that a typical lead-acid battery drops to “80% of the rated capacity after 500 cycles at the C-rate” (Dhameja, p.19). A solid state lithium-ion battery, on the other hand, drops down to 80% of its rated capacity after more than 1,200 cycles (Dhameja, p.19). When engineers are able to improve the performance and safety aspect of the solid-state lithium ion battery then it would become the most popular type used in HEVs.

Conclusion

The need for an alternative fuel to combat the rising price of crude oil has prompted scientists to develop new technologies in order to satisfy the global energy demand. Solar energy and wind power may be feasible solutions but cannot be considered a permanent answer to acute energy needs. The most promising short-term solution in the case of the automotive industry lies in HEVs. The most critical component is the battery. The goal of researchers is to develop a vastly improved battery type that has a higher capacity while at the same time long battery life. It also helps if consumers are well aware on how to properly charge and discharge their batteries. It will increase the efficiency of their units as well as increase the life span of their batteries.

References

Dhameja, Sandeep. Electric Vehicle Battery Systems. MA: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002.

Dennis, Kingsley & John Urry. After the Car. MA: Polity Press, 2009.

Gilles, Tim. Automotive Service: Inspection, Maintenance and Repair. New York: Delmar Learning.

ThermoAnalytics. “HEV Battery Types.” Web.

Voelcker, John. “Why the 2010 Toyota Prius Doesn’t Have a Lithium-Ion Battery.” Web.

The epoch of the internal combustion engine vehicles’ domination in the market is now giving way to the era of electric vehicles, which experience rapid growth. Such a tendency for broad-scale implementation of electric cars has significant importance for society by “moving our economies away from petroleum and lessening the environmental footprint of transportation” (Brown, 2010, p. 3797). Hence, it is crucial to study the technologies related to the subject and determine important specifications of electric vehicles.

One of the essential reasons for electric car rapid development is the global concern about greenhouse gas emissions and the associated threats of global warming. The innovative vehicles can reduce and eliminate harmful effects, contributing to the solution of the environmental problem. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the well-to-wheel efficiency of electric vehicles, the range extender, and the Vehicle to Grid technology, as well as provide a specification for a concept electric vehicle.

Part 1

First, it is crucial to consider the characteristics of an Internal Combustion (IC) engine-powered vehicle and an electric vehicle (EV). An Internal Combustion engine is a heat engine where the chemical energy of the fuel that burns in the work area is converted into mechanical work (Song and Aaldering, 2019, p. 898). Along with the electric motor, an IC engine is among the most common types of engines. As a rule, it is used in such vehicles as cars, motorcycles, trains, aircraft, and water transport. IC engines are also utilized in stand-alone electric generators to generate electricity.

An electric motor is an electric machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical. It consists of a rotating part, namely the rotor, and a fixed part, the stator (Electric vehicle basics, no date, para.2). There are electric motors of direct and alternating current, and the latter is divided into synchronous and asynchronous. Asynchronous electric motors, in turn, are divided into ones with a short-circuited rotor and a phase rotor. Furthermore, they are distinguished by function, such as general industrial electric motors, as well as crane, elevator, excavator, trolleybus, tram, and car electric motors. Furthermore, the recent accomplishments in the lithium-ion battery technology for operating range, vehicle application, and driving attitudes of BEVs are starting to meet the requirements of passenger car users.

Comparison of WTW Efficiency and CO2 Emissions between IC Engine Powered Vehicle and Electric Vehicle

Vehicles powered with different types of engines have different well-to-wheel efficiency and CO2 emissions. Well-to-Wheel (WTW) emissions are the emissions in-use due to their proportionality to the vehicle’s fuel and energy consumption (Going beyond Well-to-Wheel, 2019, para. 1). In this regard, Tank-to-Wheel (TTW) is a subrange in the vehicle’s energy chain, extending from the charging point where energy is absorbed to discharge. The difference between the two terms is that TTW refers to the use of fuel and emissions during driving. WTT indicates the subrange of fuel supply from the creation of the source of energy, such as petrol, diesel, natural gas, or electricity, to fuel supply, namely, transport to the charging point.

Well-to-Wheel is regarded as the first stage of comparing the effectiveness of various solutions in regard to greenhouse gas emissions. As depicted in Figure 1, technology transition can be observed as traditional solutions coexist with more renewable components that emerge, such as advanced biofuels and synthetic pathways. Energy consumption and fuel economy for electric vehicles have been agreed upon internally by NGVA Europe as a battery electric vehicle (BEV) consumption at 14,5 kWh/100km (Well-to-Wheel, para. 4). Overall, electric vehicles produce fewer amounts of tailpipe emissions, thus, offering fuel cost saving and lowering damage to the environment.

Different WTW efficiency is observed among vehicles based on the engine type. Figure 2 presents a comparison of WTW emissions among c-segment of vehicles, such as petrol, diesel, Plug-in Hybrid on petrol (PHEV), Battery-Electric (BEV), and compressed Natural Gas vehicles (CNG). C-segment comprises the third smallest and the so-called medium passenger cars. As can be seen, electrified solutions suggest the most efficient performance on the TTW basis, while the WTW approach indicates that BEVs offer optimal efficiency of the powertrain.

The environmental impacts of BEVs in comparison to IC engine vehicles are widely studied. EVs create considerably lower emissions than conventional vehicles across their lifetime. According to Hausfather (2019, para. 11), “around half of the emissions from battery production come from the electricity used in manufacturing and assembling the batteries.” As depicted in Figure 3, the level of CO2 emissions from these two types of engines differs by approximately 20%.

Nevertheless, ICEV-generated environmental impacts are localized to the combustion of gasoline in the engine; BEVs causes a more detrimental set of ecological effects, “offsetting a significant portion of their overall advantage with respect to greenhouse gas emissions” (Battery electric vehicles, 2016, para. 7). In this regard, IVs running on hydrogen or methane still generate slightly higher CO₂ emissions than battery-powered vehicles. But this disadvantage can turn into an advantage if renewable energy principles are implemented. Combustion engines running on fossil methane already have very low CO₂ emissions.

The structure of the energy balance of various states of the world is crucial. In this regard, “manufacturing, fuel extraction, refinement, power generation, and end-of-life phases of a vehicle, in addition to the actual operational phase” need to be considered to evaluate the greenhouse gas emission (Kawamoto et al., 2019, p. 2690). For instance, in Norway, due to the large number of natural lakes located high in the mountains, waterfalls, and rivers, almost all electricity is generated by hydroelectric power plants. Their construction does not require expensive dams, which means that it costs the authorities or private investors relatively cheap.

It is natural to build up the fleet of electric cars in such conditions because its development means a constant decrease in emissions of toxic substances from car exhaust pipes and their absence at power plants. Overall, a comparison of emissions from BEVs and IC engine vehicles are complex, but a Well-to-Wheel approach to measuring CO2 suggests that other solutions apart from electrification can also contribute to the decarbonization process.

Overview of Range Extender Technology for Electric Vehicles

Range extender technology should be discussed in regard to electric vehicles. Range Extender Electric Vehicle (REEV) refers to a multi-domain engineering system that implements a range extender, or a fuel-based auxiliary power unit to extend the battery range through charging it by an electric generator. The road ability on a REEV depends on “the balance of subsystems” (Wahono, Santoso, and Nur, 2015, pp. 410).

According to Veza et al. (2020, p. 2), BEVs are characterized by low range characteristics, which contributes to customers’ anxiety and hinders market development for the technology. Range extender technology offers a solution to this issue, lowering the BEVS’ capital costs by downsizing the battery. As presented in Table 1, the battery capacity of an electric vehicle (Chevrolet Volt) equipped with a range extender covers less than 60 km driving range. In contrast, an electric vehicle without a range extender (Renault Fluence ZE) can reach up to 185 km. At the same time, the range extender in the first model can increase the total driving range to over 480 km, even though its battery capacity is 27% lower than the model without a range extender.

Furthermore, it is essential to compare the range extender EVs, EVs, and IC engine vehicles. As presented in Table 2, the driving range of EVs without range extender has a maximum of up to 210 km, while IC engine vehicles can be driven to more than 700 km. Even though the application of the range extender technology had been put off by numerous factors, many automobile manufacturers have now launched range-extended electric vehicle models.

Different types of range extender technology for EVs can be discussed. They include the IC engine, microturbine, and fuel cell. For the IC engine extender, the engine and a generator are connected to the power converter. The engine will not be used if the battery is sufficient; however, when the battery is running low, the engine will be activated to generate mechanical energy. A generator then converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy that can either be stored or used by the electric motor to run the vehicle. Free-piston motors are similar to conventional IC engines except for the linear movement of the piston and connecting rod.

The microturbine works similarly to an internal combustion engine, where it converts the chemical energy into mechanical energy (Veza et al., 2020, p. 4). Since the exhaust after treatment is not required, the oil circuit can be omitted, and the unit becomes compact, light, and more affordable. Fuel cells, unlike any other range extender technology, converts the chemical energy directly into electrical energy. In this way, the necessity of mechanical energy conversion is eliminated. Moreover, compared to BEVs and fuel cell-powered EVs, it is suggested that “normal EVs with a downsized fuel cell as a range extender will be more economically attractive by 2030” (Veza et al., 2020, p. 4).

Furthermore, Low Temperature Combustion (LTC), an advanced combustion concept, can be utilized as a range extender for electric vehicles. LTC differs from conventional spark ignition (SI) combustion and compression ignition (CI) diffusion combustion concepts, offering prominent benefits, such as oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and particulate matter (PM) reduction (Singh and Agarwal, 2017, p. 11). Additionally, it reduces specific fuel consumption and can be beneficial in the implementation of automotive engines.

Vehicle to Grid (V2G) Technology and State of the Art

Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) is a concept of two-way use of electric vehicles and hybrids, which involves connecting a car to a common electrical network to recharge the vehicle. At the same time, there is an ability to send electricity back to the network to participate in electricity demand management (Mehrjerdi and Rakhshani, 2019, p. 463). Owners of cars with V2G technology have the opportunity to sell electricity to the grid during the hours when the car is not in use and to charge the car during hours when electricity is cheaper since in many countries the price of electricity depends on the time of day. It is possible to connect cars with this technology to houses and use them as uninterruptible power supplies for households.

Batteries have a finite number of charge cycles as well as an expiration date, so using vehicles as grid storage can affect battery longevity. Studies in which batteries are cycled two or more times a day have shown a significant decrease in capacity and a significant reduction in battery life (Mehrjerdi and Rakhshani, 2019, p. 464). However, battery capacity is a complex function of factors such as battery chemistry, charging and discharging rates, temperature, state of charge, and age. Most studies with slower discharge rates show only a few percent additional degradation, while one study suggested that using mesh storage vehicles could improve durability (Mehrjerdi and Rakhshani, 2019, p. 464).

Most modern battery electric vehicles use lithium-ion cells, which can achieve over 90% efficiency in both directions. Battery performance depends on factors such as charge rate, state of charge, battery health, and temperature. However, most of the loss occurs in system components other than the battery. Power electronics such as inverters usually dominate overall losses, and the overall crank efficiency for the V2G system to range from 53% to 62%. However, overall performance depends on several factors and can vary greatly.

From the perspective of vehicle-to-grid technology, EVs ‘ integration into the smart grid can be beneficial in terms of environmental and economic effectiveness. However, EV charging involves adverse impacts on the current network operation, and appropriate charging management strategies should be implemented (Yong, J. Y. et al., 2015, p. 365). In a nutshell, V2G technology refers to smart charging that results in decarbonization, energy efficiency, and electrification.

State of the art is the highest level of general development reached at a given time. In terms of vehicles, contemporary technologies enable electric and hybrid vehicle growth in the market. The integration of technologies of the automobile, electronics, and energy storage is of high importance in the modern context. The state of the art of electric vehicles should be considered in regard to technological aspects, like charging techniques and wireless power transfer. In this regard, conductive and inductive, or wireless charging system (WCS), methods can be utilized for battery charging.

According to Brenna, M. et al. (2020, p. 2539), there are stationary WCSs, which “can only be utilized when the car is parked or in stationary modes … or they can be dynamic.” In Figure 3, the onboard and the off-board chargers are depicted, showing the typical architecture of an EV. Furthermore, the principle of the static WCS for EVs is depicted in Figure 4. Both modes imply the ways of improving current technology.

For improving the efficiency of the system, series and parallel combinations can be included on both the transmitting and receiving sides (Panchal, Stegen, and Lu, 2018, p. 924). In addition, different innovations can improve charging opportunities for EVs, such as pop-up pavement chargers, roadside street cabinets, lamp-post charging, self-heating batteries, and electrified roads.

Electric vehicle tendencies are constantly developing through the implementation of new innovations. Modernizing the battery technology use is only one of the potential ways of bringing higher value to the market while reducing cost. For improving the efficiency of the system, series and parallel combinations can be included on both the transmitting and receiving sides (Panchal, Stegen, and Lu, 2018, p. 924). In addition, different innovations can improve charging opportunities for EVs, such as pop-up pavement chargers, roadside street cabinets, lamp-post charging, self-heating batteries, and electrified roads. Constant innovations in the industry are required, along with a more developed infrastructure to accommodate the consumer demand for electric vehicles.

Part 2

A Specification for a Concept Electric Vehicle

Based on the research of the subject presented in Part 1, a specification for a concept electric car is provided in Table 3.

Table 4: Concept car specifications.

Acceleration times calculation

The calculations of the 0 to 100 kph and 0 to 160 kph acceleration times are provided in Table 5.

Table 4: Concept car specifications.

To summarize, the rapid development of innovation and new technology implementation contributes to the expansion of the electric vehicles market. A well-to-wheel efficiency, the range extender technologies, and the Vehicle to Grid technology are essential to consider in regard to the improvement of EVs. This paper provides specifications for a concept electric vehicle as well as acceleration times calculations. Overall, EV technology has developed at a rapid pace, and constant enhancements are observed.

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