Category: Education

My firm belief is that students can and should take an active part in the study process. During their courses they should be not passive listeners but rather active developers of new ideas. At Eugene Lang College such practice is common. At Lang students may even influence the course outline suggesting innovative approaches which is beneficial for both, the college and the students.

As far as I am concerned, I would also like to participate in the process of accumulating new ways. Thus, I have two suggestions as for the class outline. In the first place, the majority of classes should be devoted to specific practical issues. For instance, students should get acquainted with common problems which students are likely to face in the real life. Thus, it is possible to use the experience of various companies to learn what issues appear, how they were solved and work out other (perhaps, more effective) solutions for those problems. Students can choose any issue and any company they think can be useful.

For instance, they may search for possible topics in newspapers and magazines, study the problem carefully and suggest it for the discussion during classes. By all means, teachers will guide students, however, the major part of work should be done by learners who in this way will be able to obtain deeper knowledge on the subjects. Such approach will equip student with the necessary skills to solve various issues which are likely to appear at their working places.

Thus, students become skillful professionals who do not need to gain some experience during first years of their work, but already have it and can react in different situations immediately. On the other hand, Lang will also benefit since the faculty will accumulate numerous topics for discussion during their courses. It goes without saying that students always find very interesting cases and quite unexpected solution since they still have freshness of vision which is not spoiled by conventional rules and approaches.

Apart from such problem solving orientation I could also suggest involvement of technology during the class. It is not about presentations made in PowerPoint. I once came across an article dealing with the use of interactive discussion during classes. It is possible to work out similar conferences at Lang. Thus, during classes (or conferences) which involve many students it is possible to use a kind of social network. Thus, more people can participate in discussion putting questions not only orally but online.

Of course, such class will require a lot of preparation, however, I think, it is worth trying. Since a teacher (or rather his/her assistant since the teacher will run the discussion) will be able to pick up the most interesting questions for consideration, and some less important question will also be answered online. This will enable students and teachers to cover more issues, or so to speak, facets of a problem. The lasting impact of these classes for students consists in acquiring more knowledge during shorter period of time and development of necessary skills of participating in complicated discussions and using technology which is excessively exploited at many companies nowadays.

In conclusion, I would like to point out that the use of technology and problem solving orientation during classes will be beneficial for students and the college. Moreover, I think these innovations can encourage students to be more active and suggest new ideas which can lead to many improvements.

The article Writing geology: Key Communication competencies for geoscience was written by three authors, Simeon Yates, Noel Williams and Ann-Florence Dujardin. It was published in 2005 in such journal as Planet. This article analyzes the most common writing mistakes, made by the students of geoscience, and proposes methods of improving writing strategies of students. We can advance a thesis that this study raises very important questions about causes of poor academic writing among students but it has some limitations, especially the fact that this research was prompted by speculative observation rather than verifiable evidence.

In the introduction the authors argue that modern students have to spend a substantial time on the correction of stylistic or grammar mistakes because they do not view academic writing skills as an essential part of being a scientist (Yates, Williams, Dujardin, p 36). This argument seems to be rather reasonable but the scholars do not give any statistical evidence supporting this argument. They compared writing style of undergraduate students with that one of experienced scholars (Yates, Williams, Dujardin, p 36). In particular, they focused on the students ability to follow scientific style of geological report writing (Yates, Williams, Dujardin, p 37).

Their main assumption is that undergraduate students do not fully understand the requirements set for this specific genre of academic writing (Yates, Williams, Dujardin, p 36). Other researchers support this argument and say that students should pay more attention to the analysis of different scientific texts in order to improve their writing skills (Bruce, 3). Thus, this study raises very important questions and the findings of this study can be important to be both teachers and students.

There are several limitations of the study that attract attention. One of them is inaccurate references: many in-text citations do not specify page numbers, and this is not very convenient for people, who may want to refer to these sources (Yates, Williams, Dujardin, p 36). Still, these sources used by the authors are quite reliable since they were published in peer-reviewed journals. Secondly, some sentences of this article sound too informal, for instance The study described here developed out of my personal awareness of this issue (p 36). Moreover, it suggests that the study could originate out of personal observation rather than some evidenced-based research.

Thus, one can argue that this research aims to resolve very important problems related to students academic writing but it has such short-comings as lack of verifiable evidence and slightly inaccurate citations. Yet, these limitations do not diminish the scientific value of this study as it can give accurate linguistic description of learners errors and help them improve their writing style.

Works Cited

Bruce Ian. Academic writing and genre: a systematic analysis. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2008 Print.

Emerson Lisa and Hampton John. Writing guidelines for science and applied science students. Melbourne: Cengage Learning Australia, 2005. Print.

Owtram Nicola. The Pragmatics of Academic Writing: A Relevance Approach to the Analysis of Research Article Introductions. Peter Lang, 2010. Print.

Yates Simeon, Williams Noel, and Dujardin Ann-Florence. Writing geology: Key communication competencies for geosciences. Planet 2005 (15), pp 36-41.

For some time now, and unlike in the past, there is substantial uncertainty of the extent to which the government controls the activities of college professors. This is especially in reference to their involvement in sensitive political matters and how they conduct themselves in classroom and also the kind of articles they write for publication in the media.

College professors are increasingly being involved in sensitive political matters that have got many stakeholders wondering if the control that was previously characteristic of the government towards college professors still exists. Many people have speculated that constant legislations have empowered the American people but the possibility of an unofficial control over this group cannot be overlooked (Fischel 51). This paper is an exploration of the status quo of the infamous control over college professors and a comparison between how things are now and what they used to be in the past.

Although it is not clearly spelt out as a requirement by the law, there are a number of things that college professors are supposed to avoid as much as they can. Most of the no-go zones are skewed towards utterances that show the position of the professor as regards his/her political affiliation or even controversial political views. In almost all U.S. states, professors are very careful before they make such utterances in class or in public (Fischel 47).

The contemporary college-professor community has however adopted a different approach to the aforementioned issues. As much as the contemporary college professors are aware of their out-of-records requirement to exercise high levels of diplomacy when talking about political matters, most of them are oblivious to the requirement. They discuss highly sensitive political issues with their students in class and also write articles in newspapers that put them under political spotlight.

This was especially a problem before the enactment of the first amendment. College professors could be interdicted for making public utterances or class utterances that were political and attracted controversy and hard feelings. At that time, therefore, college professors were easily crucified for their activism in politics and thus they were supposed to maintain low profiles political wise. After the enactment of the first amendment, there was a little change in the status quo because college professors and other silenced groups got a haven in the improved legal structure. However, the pre-existent rules remained in practice although not many actions were being carried out on defaulting professors.

In the contemporary American society, therefore, professors are very careful with how they construct political criticism either in class or in their articles in the media. There seems to be an unofficial rule that governs their level of involvement in political matters (Fischel 51). It has even been alleged that the government once in a while sends student spies who are supposed to monitor the level and appropriateness of the involvement of college professors in sensitive political issues.

As evidenced in the discussion above, some substantial control over the political activism of college professors still exists but times have changed and more and more professors are being involved in these issues. The unofficial control over what college professors say has, therefore, weakened with time as more politically conscious people join colleges as professors. There has also been a revolution in the sensitization of the public about their rights and people seem to be more aware of their rights as American citizens more than ever before. The control functioned to pin American citizens down and disregard their opinions about political affairs. It is thus good that such practices are getting extinct with time.

Works Cited

Fischel, William. Congressional Record. California. Wadsworth Publishers, 2001. Print.

Introduction

Total personal incomes continue to vary in United States workforce. The professional and business world leads in the income category (Morrison, unpaged). The professional world includes bankers, engineers, and other technocrats who have gone to school and have attained a degree or two in order to earn such high incomes. On the other hand, uneducated workers still earn meager incomes in comparison.

In this regard, what effect does the level of education have on total personal incomes? This paper will discuss this aspect by looking at the data available. Additionally, the research will focus on whether private and public schools have an effect towards income levels.

To achieve this end, the paper will look at months of school attendance and the highest attainable level of education as the main variables that have an effect on total personal incomes. This will assist educational public policy formulators in coming up with essential policies that are reminiscent of what the field requires (Morrison, unpaged).

Methodology

According to the National Bureau of Labor Statistics, there is a strong correlation between income levels and the level of education. Professional Degree Holders earn more than High School Diploma Holders (Bureau of Labor Statistics, unpaged).

According to the Bureau, it follows that a higher education means more earnings. According to IPIUMs data, at least 33% of the population have at least attained 12^th grade level of education. In light of the above, the researcher will analyze the verifiability of this statistical observation.

First, the researcher will determine the percentage level of school attendance across the country. Secondly, I will relate this with the official numbers at the National Bureau of Labor Statistics (Bureau of Labor Statistics, unpaged).

The researcher will try to ascertain the fact that those with a low level of education have higher unemployment rates. This way, the researcher will compare the unemployment rates and the percentage of population that has a lower education level compared to the entire population.

The other aspect this paper will focus on will be the school enrolments. The paper will compare school enrolments in public and private schools. This comparison will inform the reader about the changing nature of school enrolments.

The focus will be on the people between a certain age bracket (6 years to 18 years) that should be in school but is not in school. Perhaps this number is contributing to the unemployment levels in America, which will be the focus of this paper.

To do this, the researcher will use comparison tables and bar graphs. Additionally, the researcher will use other visual objects such as pie charts and percentages. For further analysis and explanation in order to understand the numbers, the researcher will compare means and use inferential calculations.

This includes a t-test to ascertain the verifiability of the official percentage of the unemployment level and the percentage of people with a perceivably low education and income. Additionally, the researcher will employ the use of regression analysis to determine the relationship between total personal incomes and time.

Data Analysis

School Attendance Levels

A cursory look at the data on the highest grade of schooling from IPIUMs reveals that majority of the people, which is over 30%, go up to 12^th grade. The rest on both sides are below 8%. According to Bureau of Labor Statistics, there is a 6.5% unemployment rate in the country (USA).

While this represents a huge number of people, it significantly stands out that majority of these people do not have a college degree. The following table indicates the enrolment levels in schools in United States. As the graphical representation below indicates (Table 1), there are currently less than 1% people between the ages of 6 years and 21 years that have not enrolled in at least a certain level of school.

Table 1: Enrolment Levels

Source: IPUMS 2011. Web.

Although this may not be statistical, the concept that only people who did not attain some level of education do not get jobs is disputable from this data. We can say that virtually everyone has an education but the rigors of getting a job are hard (IPUMS, unpaged).

Public vs. Private Schools

On the issue of public and private school enrolment, it is important to understand that public schools lead the pack. Figure 1 below indicates this. This data captures the age of between 6 years and 18 years. Additionally, it reflects the enrolments between 2001 and 2011 (IPUMS, unpaged).

This may indicate that since 2000, there has been less and less people not enrolled in school that fall between the ages of 6 and 18 years. This is indicative of the governments effort to cut illiteracy levels.

In Table 1 above, the recorded number of people recorded to be out of school was 21.83%. However, this figure captures a wider range of population of ages 6 and 21 respectively. Additionally, there is the general inclusion of the data from 1850 to 2011 (IPUMS, unpaged).

Could the above government effort be the reason why total personal incomes have increased over the last eight years? The conclusion by the Bureau of Labor Statistics indicates as such lends its credibility from the conclusion of this research that, truly, there is a connection.

While the people out of school averages that include the 1850 up to 2010 were 21.83%, the average that included 2000 up to 2010 was 4%. This shows that the years preceding the year 2000 had so many people out of school and hence illiterate (IPUMS, unpaged).

A regression analysis shows that this is likely to improve in the next few years. Below is a historical regression analysis of the incomes in the last 6 years since 2005 up to 2010.

Regression Chart

The regression chart (in the appendices section) informs the manner in which the future total personal incomes will pan out. All indications are that this is likely to increase in the next few years (IPUMS, unpaged). The equation that predicts this trend is y = 7E-05x + 1989.

Y represents the income level and X indicates the preceding year. For example, the prediction for the 9^th year (2014) will be as follows according to the regression equation: Y=7E-05*9+1989. This is equal to 358,032.9.

Discussion

The data analysis brings a sharp consensus regarding the effect of learning on total incomes. The Bureau of Labor Statistics indicates that people with higher education have a higher income. This factor is likely to be the influence of the increase in total personal income levels over the last few years as the level of illiteracy reduced drastically.

This has increased the economic situation of the citizens and bolstered their income levels. It is also crucial to note that people with a lower educational level form a huge number of the unemployed cluster of 6.5% (Bureau of Labor Statistics, unpaged).

It is no secret that the USA administration has been pushing for more people into college to ensure majority of Americans realize these economic fortunes.

From the analysis, it is evident that public schools are hugely preferred against private schools. A staggering 86% of Americans enter into public schools and this indicates that to have an influence, the government should inject more funding to these institutions.

Conclusion

The analysis, discussion, and data available have shown that there is a direct relationship between the highest level of educational attainment and the Total Personal Income levels of Americans. Americans with a lower education level earn significantly lower. The same case applies when it comes to unemployment. The discussion also revealed that Americans prefer public schooling as opposed to private schooling.

This may be by design or by circumstances. While the Bureau of Labor Statistics says that unemployment level stands at close to 7%, the data above reveals that the number of people aged between 6 and 21 that were reportedly not enrolled in school between the year 2000 and 2010 was 4% (IPUMS, unpaged).

This indicates that extrapolation of the data backward may increase this percentage. Hence, the level of unemployment is astonishingly close to the percentage of people not enrolled in school at the time in which that particular group was in school.

Hence, the researcher concludes that it is possible to eliminate unemployment by eliminating the percentage of people that are not in school at a particular time. It is possible that this groups mind opens up on attending school, which enables it to find ways to create employment outside the realms of professional employment or gain employment in professional areas.

Works Cited

Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2012. Employment Projections. Web.

Ipums, 2011. IPIUMs USA. 2013. Web.

Ipums, 2011. IPIUMs USA. 2013. Web.

Ipums, 2011. IPIUMs USA. Web.

Morrison, Richard. 2012. Chart of the Day: Income Levels vs. Education Levels. Web.

Functionalist theory

The functionalist theory has the potential to make a stable and permanent society (Arato, 1994). This theory focuses on how to strengthen various elements in the society. In this regard, the functionalist theory uses institutions as principle structures or elements of a society. In order for the society to operate as a system, each element has its own functions.

The functionalist theory seeks a social order that harnesses effective functionality of society elements in a coherent manner. Education is perceived as an integral part of the society that provides citizens with socio-economic opportunities. Through education, other elements of the society gain from improved productivity, innovations and proper leadership.

However, education is dependent on funds from government institutions. From the society, the family unit in contributes funds to the government through taxes. Consequently, the government establishes development by funding critical institutions like infrastructures, education, healthcare sector and industries.

The functionalist theory advocates for a consensus between all social elements. Moreover, the functionalist theory acknowledges that failure by one element affects the whole social system. Therefore, a need to maintain a balance between societys elements is crucial.

Common elements in Finland and Japan education systems

Finland and Japan education systems were initially established by catholic missionaries. Both countries use primary schools as part of their basic education systems. Both education systems allow the integration of culture in the curriculum. This integration is part of developing cultural responsive learning technique for teachers and students.

Finland and Japan education systems include school lunch program as national education policy. In this regard, free lunch for primary school students is a prerequisite. The national government in both Finland and Japan are involved in controlling the education system.

Finland and Japan education systems encourage professionalism among teachers. In this regard, acquiring a masters degree in education for teachers is a professional responsibility. Finally, both education systems encourage development of culturally responsive teachers.

Japans education system

The local education system can learn the following elements from Japans education system. A focus on the general well-being of children attending school through a school lunch program and healthcare policy is necessary (Hayes, 2013). For example, Japans education system involves a lunch program that caters for students nutritional needs.

Japans education system is perceived as a human right by offering education to every child in the country. Offering education opportunity for anyone living within the country from the preschool level to the university is necessary.

The local education system has an opportunity to uphold the teaching profession as one of the highest paid careers in the country. Japan upholds the teaching career in a very noble manner. This is usually achieved through high academic standards that teachers must attain during career training. From this perspective, the local education system can ensure that teachers are only employed after undergoing a masters degree program in education.

Education reform in Japan is a national government initiative compared to the decentralized education control in the local education system. From this perspective, the local education system should reform the education system by encouraging public participation to serve the communitys interest.

Implementation of standardized testing across a country shows how the element of equity is highly upheld. Moreover, standardized testing shows a strong sense of trust bestowed upon teachers and learning institutions. In this regard, standardization of the local education system derives public confidence.

Article review

In modern society, culturally responsive teachers are effective and improve the learning process (Brown, 2007). From the article, I have realized the essence of becoming a culturally responsive teacher. In recent times, need to have culturally responsive teachers is increasing.

This can be attributed with the increasing awareness of the diverse elements in the society. The article offers insight on what an effective teacher should possess in future. For example, a culturally responsive teacher should possess cultural knowledge of the surrounding ethnic composition.

Moreover, developing a curricula that is cultural-conscious is critical to a teacher. The article also offers insightful information on how a teacher can develop cross-cultural communication skills.

Progressive teacher

One characteristic of a progressive teacher is the focus on a students academic performance. The personal interest in an individual student exhibits a focused teacher who uses academic goals to promote excellence. Apart from academic goals, a progressive teacher uses other forms of assessment to evaluate teaching performance, as well as students achievement. Another characteristic of a progressive teacher is cultural competence.

This means that a teacher is conscious of own cultural practices, norms and values. From this perspective, the teacher learns diversity of cultural practices and values from students. This characteristic is important in developing cross-cultural communication skills required in developing interpersonal relationships with culturally-diverse students.

Finally, a progressive teacher consciousness in the socio-political matters is critical in modern times. A progressive teachers curriculum is based on the communitys social expectations. An effective curricular is supposed to address and offer a solution to the immediate political, social and economic issues in the society.

References

Arato, A. (1994). Civil society and political theory. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

Brown, R., M. (2007). Educating all students: Creating culturally responsive teachers, classrooms, and schools. Intervention in School and Clinic, 43(1), 57-62.

Hayes, W. (2013). Consensus: Education Reform Is Possible. Lanham, MD: R&L Education.

Introduction

Donald Macedos concern is the way ignorance is perpetuated in the American education sector and other institutions like the media. He argues that the common culture literacy does not at all address the interest of the students (Macedo, 1994, p.45). Students do not have independent thoughts because it is being locked out by the common culture literacy that has been embraced by the American educational institutions, media and even social institutions. This greatly undermines the students interests and exalts what they are compelled to embrace (Freire, 1970, p.23). Macedo immigrated to Cape Verde from western Africa in search of higher education. He argues that he had to triumph through barriers set by worlds monolinguals. His eloquence in his book literacies of power is not bound to culture. He believes that good education is not culture-bound. He feels that education system in America is only preparing students to be good workers but not critical thinkers. It therefore does not at all seek to gratify their interests.

The objective of this essay is to analyze and evaluate concepts and information Macebo puts forth about education within the context of what Langer says about mindfulness/mindlessness, What Johnson says about patriarchy, and what Bonilla-Silva says about people behave within systems.

Macedos educational views

He feels that in western cultures and America in particular, there are cultures that hamper the way knowledge and truth are c communicated to students in school. He argued that the teaching methodology in America is full of deceitful literacies. He described true literacy as the ability to overcome educational mythical barriers and other educational constraints. The ability to overcome Political ideologies and social agendas of American culture that affect ones independent thinking is also factored in true literacy (Hirsch, 1988, p.25). He accused media and American schools of being the main projectors of dominant ideologies that affect independent critical thought (Macedo, 1994, p.44). Macedos views on American education are summarised in five main themes in his book literacies of power. These themes include pedagogy of gig lies, poisonous pedagogy, the politics of race, class, gender and language, the tongue-tying of America and literacy and poverty pimps, all in relation to education.

The pedagogy of big lies. In this case, Macedo believes that the American pedagogy is away from competence and truth. It does not allow the literacies of power to be fully mastered and their knowledge fully gained (Marsano, 2003, p.34). This therefore denies students independent of thought. Many writers also accused American pedagogy of being adequate in demystifying the myths about the dominant American culture and let people know the origin of this culture. They have argued that the museums in the western only portray the beautiful part of western culture. They suggested that there should be museums for crimes that were perpetrated in the west like the American slavery and Vietnam War among others to help demystify the myths. This would open the minds f learners to know the origin of the western cultures (Freire, 1970, p.33).

Poisonous pedagogy culminated from pedagogy of big lies. He argued that the American culture is more Eurocentric and there is no common culture aspect evident. The Eurocentric philosophy causes unequal participation of all people in the American society. The true common culture is absent that would allow people to be equally represented in the American society irrespective of gender, race, culture, or even language group that they belong to. On contrary, the falsely called common culture has caused vast discrimination in the American society with racial and language discrimination taking the lead. There is no equal representation in the educational institutions and other sectors. This is what was described as poisonous pedagogy due to its discriminative nature.

The other theme covering languages, gender, race and racial politics was bout out of Macedos encounter with a Brazilian educator by name of Paulo. The theme is all about conversation he had with Paulo Freire. Their conversation was dominated by their desire to develop an anti-colonial culture in order to end Eurocentric ideals-based culture. Their idea was to how to corroborate peoples mutual ideologies in order to achieve common cultural production (Macedo, 1994, p.38). In the uncommon culture, there was no corroboration of mutual ideologies due to racism and other discriminative differences. In the book pedagogy of the oppressed, by Paulo, this idea was vastly expounded.

The other theme, tongue-tying of America, depicted the America silence about its malapropism of the non-whites. This was greatly perpetuated by the government and educational institutions whose pedagogical notions were full of lies, and ridicule of women and nonwhites denying them equal participation in the American society. These lies are quite detrimental to the American educational system. The proponents of these deceitful pedagogical notions create unequal representation in their name to create a common culture. They do this by eliminating programs that would create commonality of culture like affirmative actions that aim at creating matching policies. They expand racial discrimination through English only movement that suggested that English is the only language of instruction. This will lock out the non-English speakers. Macedo termed it as a crusade of intolerance where none was to be exempted from speaking English and learning in English. This is very rampant in almost all western countries. Macedo attacks this movement from two perspectives. First he points out the fallacious idea by pedagogical ideas that English is the best language of instruction before they put others to test. He described this as a fallacious assumption that is quite discriminative. This would prevent many bright students from pursuing their education to the deepest canyons owing to language barrier. Macedo also criticizes the assumption made that American educators have knowledge of what can influence language. No consideration was made to factors like race or classism that may influence language and affect learning as well. The educators may not be aware of how language is affected by these factors. On this note, Macedo had a substitute educational idea that would consider the minorities that value their language and would want to be educated in it. He proposed education to these linguistic minorities instructed in their language instead of draining their language and culture. Macedo supports multiculturalism where all people will be embraced irrespective of their race or language.

The last theme focuses on educational reforms. Macedo refutes reforms and argues that education system in America needs to be transformed. He says that the reformists are part of the problem in the education sector. The conventional approach adopted in reformation is also part of the problem.

Macedo proposed a pedagogy that is free from methodologies that are developed by the dominant groups. He argued that educational process should be humane and just, and harmonizing all stakeholders; learners, educators and theorists. It should consider political, cultural economic factors that characterize all groups of people. This will ensure equal representation in the society without an iota of discrimination. Literacies of power cause a lot of injustices in any given society and America is not exceptional. Macedo feels that the system of education needs to be revamped in order to end injustices done with respect to race and gender. He maintains that these injustices are evident in American schools and society and they need to be addressed as appropriate (Marsano, 2003, p.29).

Macedos view in the context of Langers idea about mindfulness/mindlessness

Ellen Langer defines mindfulness to entail individuals effort to control his thoughts and behavior consciously without the influence of the environment or situation. Langer argues that it is beyond being attentive to the instructor but a conscious effort to influence ones mind. She also described mindlessness as ones conscious decision not to control his thoughts leading to lack of mindfulness (Langer, 1989, p.34). To elaborate more about mindlessness, he gave three basic types of mindlessness. He included lack of paying attention as a form or cause of mindlessness. This is because one will be left uninformed. He also argued that people who perform jobs repeatedly automatically will suffer from mindlessness. This would comply with the views of Macedo that the education system restricts people from thinking critically. Doing jobs automatically makes ones mind redundant (Langer, 1989, p.37). The idea of mindfulness also confirms Macedos view that education system should not have formulated pedagogical methodology but it should rather give learners open perspective (Macedo, 1994, p.40). This will enable the learners to think critically and independently but not as instructed.

Macedos view in the context of Johnson ideas about patriarchy

Patriarchy is described as a system of society that is perceived to be larger than the society itself or the people. It is perceived to be above the ideas of individuals and prevails more than these ideas. Patriarchy, though created respective of social relationships, it is more restrictive to the same. This system shows people the dos and donts and guides peoples behavior. It is meant to make people understand what could go wrong or happen if they behave differently. It guides the individuals on how to act according to their expectations. It shapes the behaviors that era is acceptable and needs compliance. In this system, one has to make a conscious effort to act contrary to this system but not dictated to do so. This complies with the lagers and Macedos view that people take conscious steps in doing something. According to Johnson (2006, p.13) the system does not run people but people run it. He argues that people should have means of taking alternative directions away from the system but with least deviation. His view is that people are not puppets to be run by the system but they need to have a space for least resistance. This view is in tune with the views of Macedo concerning American pedagogy where proponents suggested English as the aptest language of instruction in education system. Macedo proposed a space for the linguistic minority to be educated in their esteemed language (Macedo, 1994, p.41). The trend in the western culture especially in America is very patriarchal. People are being manipulated like puppets by the system like the English-only movement which was described by Macedo as the crusade of no tolerance where no one is given a chance to choose what interests them. According to Johnson (2006, p.23), patriarchy does not exist except through people and therefore people should have room to do their wishes in it. In the same way people should be allowed to choose their language of instruction without being dictated on what to do.

Macedos view in the context of Bonilla-Silvas view on people behaves within systems

Bonilla silva depicted how people behave within a system. He viewed racial discrimination as a system and argued that the behavior of people in that system depends on how the system is manifested (Bonilla, 2010, p.23). He said that how racialization is manifested depends on how it originally came about. People should not see racialization as a universal phenomenon but should specifically be studied based on how it occurs. He stated that because racial system is systematic, everybody in the system takes part. He argued that racial system is rational as it depicts the interests of a race. This shows what Macedo says that the interests of linguistic minorities are not considered in America hence they are discriminated against. Bonilla stated that the cure of racism can only be eliminating the root cause of racism and he said that people should be educated that racism is bad (Bonilla, 2010, p.24). This complies with Macedos idea of introducing museums for cases like American slavery so that learners can understand the root cause of racist culture (Macedo, 1994, p.47). Bonilla argues that the actors in racism are conscious of their actions and do it by choice.

Conclusion

The educational views of Macedo are valid and should be adopted because they reflect the interest of all groups with respect to political, economic and racial groups. His views concerning the education system have been bolded by Ellen langer, Johnson, and Bonilla. His concern for discrimination concerning language should be addressed because it prevents many people from accessing good education. Other languages should be used as languages of instruction where necessary. People should not be forced to use a specific language of instruction but they should choose for themselves (Ritchhart & Perkins, 2000, p.2).

Reference

Bonilla S. (2010). Racism without racists: color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in the United States. Lanham, Md: Rowan & Littlefield

Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Seabury Press.

Hirsch, D., Kett, J. & Trefil, J. (1988). Dictionary of cultural literacy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Johnson A. (2006). Gender knot: unveiling our patriarchal legacy. Dallas. University of texas

Langer,E. (1989). Mindfulness. USA. Perseus books group.

Macedo D. (1994). Literacies of Power: What Americans Are Not Allowed to Know, Boulder, CO: West view Press

Marsano, J. (2003). Classroom Management That Works. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development

Ritchhart, R. & Perkins, D. (2000). Life in the Mindful Classroom: Nurturing the Disposition of Mindfulness. Journal of Social Issues.

Introduction

This paper explores organizational strategies that support scaffolding content, techniques of scaffolding information, ways a teacher can scaffold application content, evaluation techniques.

Organizational strategies

Preparation functions actively on research, recap of previous concepts, and formulating learning objectives. Time allocation, learning concepts retribution, and evaluation function effectively within the strategies such as pre-teaching, tapping into prior knowledge, and use of visual aids. In the lesson plan actualization, these strategies must be actualized within a time limit (Unsworth 31).

Techniques of scaffolding information

The choice of techniques used in a lesson should augur well with the learners who appreciate practical and interesting learning techniques. Despite disparities in social and regional cohesion, the learner should be in a position to emulate interactive, creative, and inclusive education through proactive and inclusive teaching approach (Allington 45).

Ways of scaffolding application content

Reflectively, the content of the topic for every lesson must function on the periphery of practicality and relevance in line with the objectives of the study topic, that is, the relation of the theme to contemporary issues happening in the previous, current, and predictable future. They are characterized by facts, concepts, and skills about the subject of the study (Howson 64).

Evaluation techniques

An evaluation criterion should be in place to measure quantifiable aspects such as consistency in speech and listening, reading, and writing. In addition, the process should operate on the periphery of language and content components which are essential in determining the level of success of a lesson session. The student should be given an opportunity to ask questions related to the topic. These questions may guide the instructor to quantify the success of the lesson in terms of comprehensive understanding level by reflecting on the learners perception, distinctiveness, attentiveness, and conceptualization of varying ideas (Slavin 28).

Conclusion

Scaffold learning involves numerous concepts that function simultaneously and quantitatively to facilitate delivery of a well researched, briefly presented, but properly understood topic for every topic of study.

Works Cited

Allington, Richard. Essential readings on struggling learners, New York, NY: International Reading Assoc, 2010. Print.

Howson, John. Taking control of your teaching career: a guide for teachers, Alabama, Al: Routledge, 2006. Print.

Slavin, Robert. Educational psychology: Theory and practice, New York, NY: Pearson Education, 2006. Print.

Unsworth, Leaner. Describing visual illiteracies in teaching multi-illiteracies: changing contexts of texts and images in classroom practice, Buckingham, UK: Open University Press, 2008. Print.

Introduction

In my cover letter to Omnibus, I believe that I achieved my goal, which was to communicate effectively through the cover letter and the report. My word choices, formats, tone, and color choices needed to be professional, and this is what was achieved.

Format

My format choices were quite appropriate for the pieces of writing under consideration. First, I chose to have an Omnibus letterhead from MS Template. The letter would have been very plain if there was no professional letterhead, so the template came in handy; I wanted Omnibus to look distinctive. Since the business letter represented my company, it had to stand for high quality. My letter contained the senders address on the right side of the letter.

This is expected in any formal letter because it immediately lets the reader know who the letter is from and what organization that person represents. It also provides a return address in case of future communication. I placed a date, a few lines after the printed letterhead because this would let the recipient known exactly when the letter was written. A salutation was placed below the date as a courtesy to the reader. It was then followed by the message of the letter, where I let the reader know about the plagiarism report. I chose to start with the message because this was a business letter and the concerned person might have no time to look through the entire communication to find the main message.

I needed to be as straightforward as possible. The cover letter ended with a complimentary close i.e., Sincerely& This paved the way for the signature block that was seen as space &. These two components were important choices because they provided details about the senders identity. The upper section that contained Omnibus address had not specified the actual person that was writing the letter. It was necessary to give this information at the end through the complimentary close and the signature block (Scott, 1995).

My format choices for the report were also appropriate because of several reasons. I started my report with a title. The title was important in summarizing or capturing the main message in the document. It was emboldened to capture the attention of the reader. The title was the most important part of the report, so the reader needed to see it right away. After completion of this portion, I immediately started with an introduction; it was critical because it explained the reasons for writing the report and summarized what was expected in the rest of the report. My introduction was short and precise because this was a business report and needed to appear as professional as possible.

The body of the report had sections that were important because they all represented a particular idea. This outlined information and probably made it easier for the reader to go through the report. It would have been very difficult to follow the assertions in the document if everything flowed together in the form of prose. The report ended with a conclusion. This part was also vital because it summarized the main claims in the report.

No new information was introduced in this section because that would violate the very term conclusion. The conclusion was also free from jargon and was short because several business people only read the conclusion and the introduction to a business letter. It is essential to make these sections very concise and representative of the entire document. At the end of the report, I had a reference section. This was important because it provided solid baking for my ideas from academic writings. The reference section also illustrated that I was being professional in my approach towards the business (Scott, 1995).

Color choices

When composing the cover letter, my letterhead had several colors that included: brown, yellow, orange, green, grey, and maroon. These colors always work together since they are recognized as earth colors. Furthermore, they looked professional. The colors did not shout too much as this would have drawn attention away from the content of the cover letter. If the letter had been plain, then the reader would not be encouraged to read it.

The colors were important in highlighting the organizations name and details; these are very crucial aspects of the letter. In the plagiarism report, the paper was written in plain colors i.e. black and white. Since the report was a formal document, it was advisable to leave it in those neutral colors. Colorful reports are more appropriate for PowerPoint presentations.

Tone

The choice of tone in the cover letter and the report were based on the fact that these two documents were all formal. I needed to use a formal style of writing. For instance, I addressed the recipient of the letter as Ms in the salutation. If this was an informal letter, I would have used her name. The complementary close also portrayed this kind of formality. It ended with the phrase Sincerely... An informal letter would have been personalized.

The letter needed to have such a tone to convey the fact that the interaction was strictly about business. Nonetheless, I was careful not to go over the top. I needed to sound as natural as possible. This was why I did not refrain from using the words I and you in the letter. It was necessary to provide a conversational feel in the letter. I was also very courteous in my writing. For instance, I did not command the reader. Instead, I chose to use neutral statements. When talking about potential questions, I used the phrase If you have any further questions, please contact me at& It would have been rude and informal if I said Send your questions to & My sentences conveyed a formal tone through such kinds of words.

I did not want to be overconfident in my writing because this would have pushed away from the person. In the report, my tone was also formal. Most of the time, I made sure that I was respectful and polite. For example, when talking about the differences between the American and Saudi Arabian students on their perception of plagiarism, I made sure that I explained what goes into Saudi Arabian universities. While American institutions focus on content and academic integrity, Saudi Arabian institutions tended to dwell on content and the curriculum. I knew that the education system in Saudi Arabia was wanting, but I did not want it to look like there was nothing good to be found in their institutions. They still needed to be treated with respect in the report.

Phrasing

The kind of phrasing that I chose was also quite appropriate in the formal letter as well as the report. I needed to use certain words that captured the essence of my message in the letter. This document was written to inform the recipient of a request he had made. I needed to state this at the beginning of the letter, and that was why I used the phrase I am writing &in response to your request& At the end of the letter, I needed to make sure that the receiver fully understood what I had talked about in the letter, and this was the reason why I chose particular words.

I said  If you have any further questions, please contact me at& this was a standard way of ending the letter and it also illustrated that I was willing to help out the receiver as much as possible. When ending the letter, I chose to use the word Sincerely.

This was because the word is quite appropriate for business people who may not be very familiar with one another as the case was between the two parties involved in this letter. If I was sending the letter to an acquaintance, then a word like Regards would have been more appropriate. When writing the report, I paid a lot of attention to my sentence structure and my choice of words. First, I tried as much as possible to have a variety at the beginning of my sentences and paragraphs.

The first paragraph starts with This report.., the next one starts with In the US&, and the third one starts with Phrasing. I needed to avoid repetition and this was one way of achieving it. The recipient could then find my work very easy to read. Even the length of my sentences was quite variable because of this added flavor to the report. For instance, in the last paragraph just before the conclusion, this is what I wrote: This subject is essential in the debate concerning plagiarism. If the issue of plagiarism is not addressed in Saudi Arabian schools, then it can be detrimental to the future of the country and its citizens. I started the first part with a shorter sentence and then used a longer one to expound on the first.

Such flexibility added a lot of creativity to the report (Scott, 1995). I needed to sound persuasive in the report, consequently, my choice of words was in line with this intention. It was done by offering proof of my assertions. I used expert opinions to expound on some of the major concepts. For example, I quoted Arab News when talking about the government curriculum. When talking about that report, I chose to quote the words so that I wouldnt distort their message. I also needed to give the report some oomph, and this was achieved by making a call to action at the end of the report. I stated that teachers needed to be instructed on the need to avoid plagiarism.

Conclusion

My tone was formal in the cover letter and the report because these were business documents. In terms of the format, my choices focused on proving concise information. My colors intended on emphasizing the most important aspects of the documents. Lastly, my phrasing was done to make the work easy to read, but formal too.

Reference

Scott, O. (1995). Contemporary business communication. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Introduction

Conducting a critique on research studies is an important skill. Although many research articles are peer-reviewed and have significant contributions to knowledge, it does not mean that they lack some weaknesses and limitations. Critique on research articles helps to identify such weaknesses and ways through which the studies could be improved and strengthened. The main aim of this paper is to carry out a critique on two peer-reviewed research articles.

The first research study was conducted by Rau, Gao and Wu (2006) and aimed at determining how modern technology particularly mobile technology affects the motivation, pressure and learning performance of high school students.

The second research study was conducted was conducted by Rodriguez, Ooms and Montanez (2008) and aimed at determining the perceptions of students towards the quality of online learning as influenced by comfort, motivation, satisfaction and experience. The major areas of critique are the ethical issues surrounding the research studies, the research approach used and research methodology and methods.

Ethics

Evidence of issues of power in the research

There are various attributes of power in any research. These attributes include: age, race/ethnic group, education level, social status, religion and gender among others. In the study conducted by Rau, Gao and Wu (2006) issues of power are evident through gender, race, and educational level.

The study was conducted in a predominantly Taiwanese vocational senior high school. Although the participants were both males and females, the females were the majority (142) while the males the minority (34). All the participants were of the same educational level since they were all selected from the same academic grade.

In the study conducted by Rodriguez, Ooms and Montanez (2008), issues of power are evident through age and educational level. The age of the participants ranged from 16 to older than 46. The majority of the participants were aged between 16 and 25 years, followed by 26-35 years (38%), 36-45 years (13%) and lastly 46 years and above (10%). The participants were enrolled in different academic programs and were on different academic levels.

Situation of the research in relation to broader academic debates

The study conducted by Rau et al. (2006) has the objective of determining how modern technology particularly mobile technology affects the motivation, pressure and learning performance of high school students. This study is highly significant because of the modern technology era.

More so it is based on the fact that motivation and pressure substantially affect the learning experience of senior high school students. Given the rapid advancement of information technology, educational institutions are not left behind in the application of the technology to enhance the experiences of all stakeholders in the system. The study by Rau et al. (2006) is thus appropriate and further contributes to the debate surrounding the role of information technology in educational institutions.

The study by Rodriguez et al. (2008) had the objective of determining the perceptions of students towards the quality of online learning as influenced by comfort, motivation, satisfaction and experience.

The study is significant chiefly because the rapid development of technology has increased the number of online courses as well as the number of colleges and universities willing to offer online courses. But as this trend continues to grow, there is a heated debate about the quality of the online courses particularly because such technologies are impersonal and reduce the level of personal interactions between students and their instructors and between students themselves.

In addition, the experience of online learning varies among the learners depending on their grasp of the new technologies. The study by Rodriguez et al. (2008) is therefore significant because it provides additional knowledge about factors that influence the quality of online learning.

Recruitment of participants in relation to research ethics

The study by Rau et al. (2006) had two different experiments. In the first experiment, the researchers selected on hundred and seventy six juniors majoring in accounting in Taiyuan vocational senior high school (Rau et al. 2006, p. 5). 142 of the participants were female while 34 were male.

In the second experiment, the researchers used a sample of forty-five students, 29of who were females and 16 males. Based on their usage of SMS, email and internet, the participants were then classified into four groups namely: SMS, email, online forum and control group. The researchers ensured that the classification of the participants was not influenced by prior learning performance of the students. In this study, the ethical issues surrounding the selection of participants have not been made explicit by the researchers.

However, like any other ethical research, it is possible that the researchers selected the participants based on their informed consent and voluntary participation. It is possible that the researchers educated the school about the study they wanted to undertake, its potential benefits and potential harm to the potential participants.

The juniors majoring in accounting were then invited to take part in the study only if they were willing to do so. Out of all those who volunteered to take part in the study, the researchers selected a suitable sample that would help them to achieve their goal.

In the study conducted by Rodriguez et al. (2008), the participants were selected based on their ability to complete the online survey sent to them. The final sample was taken from post-BA, professional and graduate school of Midwest Research-I University which had approximately 3000 students enrolled in the programs.

The survey was posted online and the students were invited to fill them in. however before this took place, the researchers sent the students e-mail notices which informed them of the study, its potential benefits and potential harm. Invitations were then sent to the students with the link of the survey as well as reminders about the study. The survey was left open for 4 weeks.

This process of selecting participants is ethical because it ensured that the students who agreed to participate in the study did so out of informed consent. The informed consent was guaranteed by the e-mail notices sent to the students prior to the survey. The selection process is also ethical because it upheld voluntary participation. This is illustrated by the fact that the survey was left open for four weeks so as to ensure that any student who wished to take part in the study did so.

Use of research methods in relation to research ethics

The research methodology used in the study by Rau et al. (2006) is a one factor experiment design. The researchers divided the participants into two groups: the experimental and the control group.

Participants in the experimental group received all the learning instructions through the experimenting media (SMS, email and online forum) while those in the control group received the same information through face-to-face interaction with the instructor in a classroom setting. The use of the experimental research methodology has significant ethical implications particularly if the experiment involves human subjects.

The research methodology employed by Rodriguez et al. (2008) is theory verification. The researchers begin by giving an introductory paragraph about the problem under investigation after which they present several perspectives that explain the influence of several factors on the quality of online learning.

The researchers then conduct the survey to test the perspectives discussed. The theory verification methodology used by Rodriguez et al. (2008) present a number of ethical issues all of which pertain to the measurement techniques used. Specifically, the study raises doubt about whether or not the right constructs were used and whether the constructs were measured correctly. These doubts can be tackled by the studys replication and modification.

Significance of the research question and its evaluation in terms of research ethics

The study by Rau et al. (2006) has six main research questions. The first three research questions deal with the impact of using SMS, email or online forum separately on student pressure, students learning motivation and students exam performance respectively. The other three research questions deal with the impact of combining wireless communication and online communication on student pressure, students learning motivation and students exam performance respectively.

The major research question addressed by Rodriguez et al. (2008) revolves around the perceived quality of online learning by students. However, this question is addressed through a number of other research questions which pertain to: the general learning experiences and technological support needs of students in online learning, the perception of students registered in online courses towards comfort with technology, satisfaction with earlier online learning experiences and motivation to develop their computer-based skills, the general perception of students towards the quality of different formats and levels of online learning, and the relationship between the perceptions of quality of online learning and comfort, satisfaction and motivation to develop computer-based skills.

Ethical issues in analysis and reporting

Researchers have an ethical obligation to their fellow researchers to report any technical limitations or any unexpected or contrary result that may have been experienced in their studies. This helps other researchers to see another side of a phenomenon and also forms the platform upon which future studies can be conducted.

In the study by Rau et al. (2006), this ethical obligation has been made explicit because the researchers truthfully reported the findings as they were rather than as they expected. In addition, the researchers outlined the limitations of the study which included the short time period of the study, and the lack of differentiation between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

The limitations help the readers to have a deeper understanding of the findings. They also help other researchers to replicate the study taking into consideration the limitations. For instance, a researcher may be interested in conducting a similar study but using a longer time period.

The reporting and analysis of data by Rodriguez et al. (2008) has been done ethically. First and foremost, the researchers make explicit the fact that the analysis could raise doubts about the measurement used. In order to erase such doubts, the researchers recommend replication and modification of the study.

Second, the researchers report the findings as they are and not how they thought they would be. This means that both positive and negative correlations between the variables were reported irrespective of the researchers prior anticipation. This is ethical because the researchers have not altered the results to make them more acceptable to themselves.

Unfortunately, the researchers failed to make explicit the limitations of the study particularly as far as the methodology, data collection and analysis are concerned. This makes it difficult for other researchers interested in a similar study to replicate the research taking into consideration the limitations.

Research Approach

Research approach used in the study and evidence

The study by Rau et al. (2006) made use of the experimental research approach. This approach classifies participants into two major groups: the experimental and the control group. This is evidenced in the study because the researchers divided the participants into the two groups.

In the experimental group, the researchers applied the experimenting media (SMS, email and online forum) to the participants. On the other hand, the researchers applied the traditional communication medium (face-to-face interaction) to the participants in the control group. The use of experimental research approach enables the researchers to compare differences or similarities in the results between the two groups.

The study by Rodriguez et al. (2008) made use of the theory verification approach. This approach entails the testing of various theories or perspectives to determine if they hold in different situations. In the Rodriguez et al.s study, several perspectives touching on the problem under investigation were first presented and then later tested through the sample of the graduate students.

Theoretical perspectives/theories used by the researchers and its implication on the approach

In the study by Rau et al. (2006), the researchers used the social presence and information richness theories and their application on media and how they affect the instruction and learning processes. Using the two theories, the researchers reviewed several literatures on: motivation in learning, media richness and social presence, the use of computer mediated communication in education, and the use of mobile communication technologies in education.

All the literatures reviewed in the study showed that information technology media have some influence on students learning process as well as the instruction process adopted by the instructors. Based on the rich background information, the researchers then proceeded with their study.

The theoretical perspective influenced the choice of the research approach used by the researchers. Because the literature review showed some significant influence, the researchers had to make use of the experimental research approach to determine if indeed the information technology media have any effect on student pressure, students learning motivation and students exam performance.

This could only be achieved by the use of the experimental design in which the participants are divided into two groups: the experimental and the control group. The experimental group makes use of the technology media under investigation while the control group makes use of the traditional face-to-face communication medium. Differences in the scores of the participants pressure, learning motivation and exam performance are then compared between the two groups (Carter & Little, 2007).

Rodriguez et al. (2008) used several theoretical perspectives in their study. These perspectives include: the multidimensional concept of online courses which encompasses the interaction between students and instructors, support services, technical support and the mode of delivery among others.

Other perspectives include the issue of comfort with technologies and computer, and satisfaction of students with web- and computer-based technologies. These perspectives help to illustrate the different perceptions of students enrolled in online courses towards the quality of the courses. These perspectives helped to determine the research approach used by Rodriguez et al. (2008). Specifically, the researchers used the theory verification approach to test whether or not the perspectives hold.

The theory verification approach entails collecting data from sample to test the correlation between the different variables of the perspectives. In the study by Rodriguez et al. (2008), the variables tested included comfort level with computer-based technologies, satisfaction with online courses, online delivery modes, level of face-to-face interaction between instructors and students, flexibility, self reliance, physical location, technical support, and quality standards of online courses.

In order to achieve their objectives and to answer the research questions, the participants were classified into three groups namely: participants with prior online-learning experience, participants with hybrid learning experience, and participants without any online learning experience. The variables were then tested in each of these groups to determine any differences or similarities.

Research paradigms used in the research studies and their justifications

The research paradigm used in the study conducted by Rau et al. (2006) is the post-positivist research paradigm. This research paradigm is based on the notion that theories developed to explain phenomena are only provisional and can therefore be challenged through research and new theories developed to modify the original ones. The research paradigm therefore calls for the testing of existing theories through observation and measurement.

The study by Rau et al. (2006) uses the post-positivist research paradigm because its aim is to test the social presence and information richness theories and their application on media and how they affect the instruction and learning processes. In short, the researchers want to know if indeed the theories hold and can be used to explain the differences between traditional and mobile/online communication media on students pressure, learning motivation and exam performance.

The post-positivist research paradigm used in the study by Rau et al. (2006) can also be justified by the research methodologies and methods used. The researchers use the experimental research methodology which is one of the methodologies used by post-positivists. In addition, quantitative research methods (collection of quantitative data and the use of statistical data analysis techniques) have been used by the researchers which further justify the research paradigm (Bernard, 2005).

Like in the study conducted by Rau et al. (2006), the research paradigm used by Rodriguez et al. (2008) is post-positivist paradigm. This research paradigm is based on the notion that theories developed to explain phenomena are only provisional and can therefore be challenged through research and new theories developed to modify the original ones.

The research paradigm therefore calls for the testing of existing theories through observation and measurement. Rodriguez et al. (2008) conducted their study to test the different perspectives discussed that relate the quality of online courses to comfort with technologies and computer, and satisfaction of students with web- and computer-based technologies.

Methodology and Methods

Relationship between the methodology and research methods

The methodology used in the study by Rau et al. (2006) is experimental which classifies participants into two groups: experimental and control groups.

The experimental group is the one to which the variables under investigation are applied while in the control group the status quo is maintained. In the Rau et al.s study, the media under investigation (SMS, email and online forum) were applied to the experimental group while the traditional face-to-face communication was applied to the control group.

Because the researchers wanted to compare the differences between these two groups, they had to use quantitative research methods (Mackenzie & Knipe, 2006). Quantitative data were collected pertaining to the number of participants in both groups who perceived that the medium of communication increased pressure and enhanced their learning motivation. Data were also collected on the participants scores in the exams administered to them at the end of every week.

The methodology used in the study by Rodriguez et al. (2008) is a theory verification methodology which tests the different perspectives that help to explain the phenomenon under investigation. In order to achieve this, the researchers used survey as the research method and analyzed the data using statistical tests such as Chi-square, percentages, Spearmans rho, standardized path coefficients, and fit statistics.

Methods used to generate and analyze data

Quantitative research methods were used to collect and analyze data in the study by Rau et al. (2006). A quantitative research is one that is interested in numerical data (Mackenzie & Knipe, 2006). To collect the data, the researchers made use of different measurement scales depending on the variable.

Data on motivation and pressure were collected using a five point scale that had six items while data on the learning performance of the participants were collected using scores of a quiz administered at the end of every week. In this study, the researchers make use of statistical tests such as one way ANOVA, students t-test, mean and standard deviations to analyze data.

The one way ANOVA was used to test the differences in leaning motivation and pressure between the two groups prior to the experiment. No significant difference was found between the two groups. Mean and standard deviation were used to test the exam performance of the four groups and also the perception of the participants in the two groups towards learning motivation and pressure.

The students t-test as also used to test the differences in the exam scores between the experimental and the control group. The use of the statistical tests lies in the fact that the researchers wanted to compare differences (or lack thereof) between the experimental and the control groups as far as the impact of wireless and online communication media on the students pressure, learning motivation and exam performance is concerned (Zikmund, 2003).

In the study conducted by Rodriguez et al. (2008), survey was the instrument used to collect data. The data were then analyzed using various statistical tests including Chi-square, percentages, Spearmans rho, standardized path coefficients, and fit statistics. The Chi-square was used to test differences between those students with online-learning experience, those with hybrid-learning experience, and those with no online-related learning experience, (Rodriguez et al., 2008, p. 108).

The Spearmans rho was used to test correlations between motivation to learn and level of comfort with advanced technology skills and correlation between motivation to learn and age (Rodriguez et al., 2008, p. 109). The fit statistics were used to test the goodness of fit of the models while the standardized path coefficients were used to make comparisons of the results between the groups.

Validity, Reliability and Rigor of the research

Validity of the research

Both research studies have ensured their internal validity. The internal validity of the study by Rau et al. (2006) and Rodriguez et al. (2008) is illustrated by the fact that their findings accurately describe the phenomena under investigation.

This implies that the two studies have systematically presented the results of their analysis in the order of the research questions they are trying to address (OToole & Beckett, 2010). Second, both studies are face valid. Face validity implies that a research study appears to measure what it says it will measure on the face value.

In the Rodriguez et al.s (2008) study, the main objective is to determine the perceptions of students towards the quality of online learning as influenced by comfort, motivation, satisfaction and experience.

On face value, this seems to be the actual case and the reader does not necessarily have to go through the entire document to determine this. The same case applies to the study by Rau et al. (2006) whose main objective is to determine how modern technology particularly mobile technology affects the motivation, pressure and learning performance of high school students.

Third, the study by Rodriguez et al. (2008) is externally valid while that of Rau et al. (2006) lacks external validity. External validity is gauged by the extent to which a studys findings can be generalized to the entire population. The study by Rau et al. lacks external validity because it used a homogenous sample, that is, a sample of participants with the same ethnic background, the same academic level and the same age bracket.

The findings might therefore have been different if a heterogeneous sample was used. On the other hand, external validity was ensured in the study by Rodriguez et al. (2008) because the researchers used a heterogeneous sample, that is, a sample of participants belonging to a wide range of age bracket and different academic levels. The findings could thus be generalized to the target population (Golafshani, 2003).

Reliability of the research

In the study by Rau et al. (2006) reliability as stability has not been ensured. This is because the researchers used two different samples in the two experiments yet the research questions in the two experiments were related. Reliability as stability would thus have been ensured if the researchers used the same sample in the two experiments (Golafshani, 2003).

In the study by Rodriguez et al. (2008), reliability as stability has been ensured because the researchers classified the participants into three groups based on their experience in online learning and then conducted the tests on the three groups separately.

Reliability as equivalence has been ensured in one of the research studies. In the study by Rau et al. (2006), this type of reliability has been ensured by measuring motivation and pressure of the participants by the same instrument both before and after the experiment. The same however cannot be said of the study conducted by Rodriguez et al. (2008).

Reliability as internal consistency has been ensured in both studies through the Cronbach alpha, or simply the alpha coefficient (OToole & Beckett, 2010). This coefficient has been used in both studies to enhance the reliability of the measurement instruments particularly those that measure multiple items.

Rigor of the research

A rigorous research is one that uses tools and techniques that are fit to meet the studys objectives (Neergaard & Ulhoi, 2007, p.113). The studies conducted by Rau et al. (2006) and Rodriguez et al. (2008) are rigorous. This is because both studies have made explicit the main objectives of the studies and the research questions to be addressed by the studies.

In addition, sufficient background information and literature review have been presented to support the study. Based on the objectives and research questions, the researchers in both studies adopted the most appropriate research paradigm and research methodology and used the most appropriate data collection and analysis tools and instruments (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005).

Conclusion

This paper has critiqued two peer-reviewed research articles. The ethical issues, research approach and research methodology and methods used in the studies have been reviewed. On the ethical issues, the paper has identified ethical practices surrounding the selection of participants, power in the studies, research question, and ethical practices in data analysis and reporting.

On the research approach, the paper has identified the research approach used, the paradigms used, and theoretical perspectives/theories utilized by the researches and how they influenced the approach.

On methodology, the paper has identified the relationship between methodology and methods, methods of collecting and analyzing data as well as issues of reliability, validity and rigor of the research studies. Through the critique, several weaknesses and strengths have been identified and recommendations made on how the studies could have been improved.

Reference List

Bernard, H.R. (2005). Research methods in anthropology: qualitative and quantitative approaches. London: Rowman Altamira.

Carter, S., & Little, M. (2007). Justifying knowledge, justifying method, taking action: Epistemologies, methodologies, and methods in qualitative research. Qualitative Health Research, 17, 1316-1328.

Golafshani, N. (2003). Understanding reliability and validity in qualitative research. The Qualitative Report, 8(4), 597-607.

Leedy, P., & Ormrod, J. (2005). Practical research: Planning and design (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson.

Mackenzie, N., & Knipe, S. (2006). Research dilemmas: Paradigms, methods and methodology. Issues in Educational Research, 16(2), 193-205.

Neergaard, H., & Ulhoi, J. (2007). Handbook of qualitative research methods in entrepreneurship. London: Edward Elgar.

OToole, J., & Beckett, D. (2010). Educational research: Creative thinking and doing. Melbourne: Oxford University Press.

Rau, P., Gao, Q., & Wu, L. (2006). Using mobile communication technology in high school education: Motivation, pressure, and learning performance. Computers & Education, 1-24.

Rodriguez, M., Ooms, A., & Montanez, M. (2008). Students Perceptions of Online-learning Quality given Comfort, Motivation, Satisfaction, and Experience. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 7(2), 105-125.

Zikmund, W. (2003). Business research methods (7th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Thomson/South-Western.

Memorizing Things

Working with children, one should remember that the memorizing processes of theirs are quite different from the ones going on in the brain of an adult person. Thus, the strategies applied must differ from the ones used in working with adults. Memorizing such simple things as the parts of a cell or the names of the first three presidents of the United States, children need a lot more concentration and effort than an adult person.

Thus, it is necessary to take specific measures for the children to remember all these things. Certain strategies are the most preferable for memorizing the data not connected logically and being merely several terms.

In the case when the students need to memorize the parts of a cell, it would be a good idea to provide each of the students with supportive visual material, which will serve as the image the students will take as the basis for the memorizing process. In this case, the students will be able to intertwine the image with the specific term, which will help them not to get carried away by the unknown words which they cannot associate with anything familiar. It would be also a good idea to hand the students the sheets to fill in the blanks with the new terms after they have considered the handouts.

Making children remember historical events has always been a problem for teachers. To make the kids memorize the names of the first three presidents of the United States, it is possible to employ the strategy of developing the clues for storing information (Thorne n.d.). Thus, George Washington is already a name memorable enough; while John Adams can be associated with Adam, the character from the Bible and Thomas Jefferson can be associated with Tom and Jerry cartoon  silly but efficient. With the techniques which make the students feel what they are trying to remember, the result will be worth trying.

The Civil War: A Hard Topic to Master

Since the subject of the Civil War is extremely important and just as hard to handle for an average student, specific techniques are required to help the students to memorize the pool of facts which they are diving in. Because diverse information is involved, including numbers, figures, the historical context, and other data which is hard to pull together, it is necessary to help the students pull through the different kinds of information and not to get lost in the attempts to catch every detail in the focus of their memory.

What the teacher must do in this situation is to incorporate three ingredients of the course so that the students could memorize the events and the dates with maximum efficiency. What they have to embrace is the relevance of the event, the emotion, and the historical context in the light of which the events are viewed. The teacher also has to demonstrate the connection between the emotion and the context within the topic.

To achieve the abovementioned, it is necessary to apply one of the specific techniques of memorizing. Since short-term memory which is usually involved in the process fails to hold all the data pouring into the brain (Mohs 2006), it is necessary to apply to those methods which are aimed at working on short-term memory development. In this case, splitting the information into portions (LiveScience 2009) will be of great help to the students.

As they are presented with all the pieces of information about the Civil War, it could be a good idea to suggest to them to assemble what they have already got. The discussion where everyone would be involved will be of great help to the students. In this case, the students will benefit twice, for they will keep the relevant data in their mind, evaluate the context of the information, and will be able to express their opinion on the subject. With the modern techniques of memorizing, the process of learning can increase times, and the teachers must make good use of it.

Reference List

LiveScience Staff (2009) Single Brain Cell Can Hold a Memory. LiveScience. Web.

Mohs, R. C. (2006) How Human Memory Works. Discovery Health. Web.

Thorne, G. (n.d) 10 Strategies to Enhance Students Memory. Center for Development and Learning. Web.