Category: Education

Introduction

A number of theories have been developed to explain adult learning. Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in behavior (Brooks 2005, p. 8). Adult learning theories provide insight into how adults learn. They can facilitate the development of an effective training program (Brooks 2005, p. 8). This essay examines three theories of adult learning in the workplace.

Andragogy Theory

Malcolm Knowles developed andragogy theory in 1980 (Colan 2010, p. 12). He developed the theory by identifying five factors that motivate adult learning. According to Knowles, adults are independent learners capable of directing their own learning, they possess a reservoir of life experiences, and are willing to learn when faced with new challenges (Colan 2010, p. 12). Adults are also eager to apply new knowledge immediately because of intrinsic motivation (Colan 2010, pp. 12-13). Andragogy has greatly influenced the practice of adult learning. However, some of the theorys principles are not exclusive to adult learning (Colan 2010, pp. 13-15).

Andragogy theory can be very useful in my training design. First, the theory proposes that adult learners are intrinsically motivated; hence, they are cooperative (Colan 2010, p. 23). Second, the theory stipulates that adults learn by doing. Therefore, the training design will have practical activities that aim at enabling adult learners to apply new knowledge. However, the theory is broad-based; hence, difficult to employ in all trainings (Colan 2010, p. 24).

Action Learning Theory

Reg Revans developed the action learning theory in 1984 (Dorothy & Johnson 2009, p. 46). Revans argues that learning should be action oriented. Therefore, learning requires both programmed knowledge and a questioning insight (Dorothy & Johnson 2009, p. 45). Revans developed the theory based on the following assumptions. First, adult learners should be organized into small groups and a learning coach selected for each group (Dorothy & Johnson 2009, p. 46). Second, the learning coaches should also form a group from which an overall group leader is chosen (Dorothy & Johnson 2009, p. 47). The overall group leader acts as a facilitator during the learning process.

Action learning theory has been used for a long period. Therefore, it has proved to be highly effective. It provides adult learners with a chance to direct their own learning (Dorothy & Johnson 2009, p. 47). The theory will be suitable for my training design because it is ideal for finding solutions to problems that do not have a particular answer (Dorothy & Johnson 2009, pp. 47-48). Therefore, individuals can learn from each other while in the small groups. However, reliability across all groups might be unattainable.

Experiential Learning Theory

David Kolb developed the experiential learning theory in 1984 (Brooks 2005, p. 13). He proposed a four-stage learning process. The four stages include concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation (Brooks 2005, p. 13). According to Kolb, the learning process can begin at any of the four stages (Brooks 2005, p. 14). The theory provides a holistic model of learning (Brooks 2005, pp. 14-15).

Experiential learning theory can suit my training design because it emphasizes reflection during the learning process. However, it might be challenging to assess learning outcomes using this theory.

Conclusion

From the preceding discussion, adult learning theories can enable a trainer to design an effective training program, which is capable of enhancing employees productivity.

References

Brooks, J 2005, Training and Development, Kogan Press, London. Web.

Colan, J 2010, Adult Learning, Oxford University Press, London. Web.

Dorothy, M & Johnson, J 2009, Action Learning: A Guide to Professional Management, Gulf Publishing Company, Houston. Web.

Science and politics have never seemed to have much in common. While the former follows a clearly established theory and operates with verified facts, the latter uses the existing facts to its advantage and often manipulates ideas to make itself look favorable. Whereas science is a thing in itself, politics is often out there for the public.

In contrast to science, where the outcomes can usually be easily predicted, in politics, the results of certain moves can be quite unexpected; the list goes on. Therefore, it seems hardly possible that the two could have the slightest impact on each other.

Despite the fact that a number of educational issues concern the political aspects of peoples lives, defining science must not be the concern of politics, otherwise the quality of education will drop considerably.

To give credit where it belongs, one must admit that at certain points of the states development, politics and education can cross. For example, in political science or history, where students learn the way in which states were formed and political issues were handled, it is often quite hard to offer an objective opinion on the past events (McLelland).

Since the students need to evaluate certain events, they need specific political ideas to use as a basis for their judgments. For example, the democratic principles can be used to assess the era when racism was not confronted. Therefore, without certain political ideas as a background for peoples judgments, it is hardly possible to address a certain political event in the past.

However, when the impact that politicians have on educational process is pushed to its limit, the equality of education is likely to decrease; and, which is even more threatening, the veracity of the offered information is likely to be reduced. The conflict between the educational establishments and the political leaders who meddle in the educational system is mostly caused by the discrepancies between the two opponents concerning the educational goals.

While politicians aim at shaping the educational system according to the current trends in politics and encourage learning the subjects that are currently considered essential, teachers are preoccupied with providing the students with vast knowledge and training the skills that will further help the students learn the chosen subjects even deeper.

To demonstrate the differences in the approach that the authorities in education and political leaders follow in their policy of education restructuring, the recent conflict concerning religion and education is worth analyzing.

According to Strauss, the recent law in Tennessee is likely to set education back several decades. Considered controversial and unverified, the theory of evolution, as well as cloning and a number of other scientific issues are temporarily extracted from the school curriculum, which raises the concern for the quality of education.

At the given point, the controversy between how the law is worded and the way it is implemented becomes obvious  it is officially announced that The law encourages teachers to present the scientific strengths and scientific weaknesses of existing scientific theories covered in the course being taught (Strauss para.2), which sounds innocent enough.

However, in practice, the given statement has driven to the following results: the only examples given in the bill of controversial theories are biological evolution, the chemical origins of life, global warming, and human cloning (Strauss para.2). The given situation is a clear-cut example of how bad the intrusion of political leaders into the educational system can backfire and what drastic results it can lead.

Left without such issues as the theory of evolution, global warming and cloning to learn, the students will not be able to learn about the variety of the existing species (Johnson para.1), the impact that people have on nature (Feldman, Maibach, Rosen-Renour and Leiserowitz 2) and the opportunities that organs cloning can offer for the people who need organ transplantation (Cibelli, Lanza and West 1).

Therefore, the students will lack a huge amount of information that a well-educated person is supposed to know and that provide the foil for the further educational process. Hence, it is rather questionable that the students who will be taught according to the new standards will be able to obtain further knowledge and have opportunities for high education, not to mention the fact that these students will not have the basic common knowledge about the issues in question.

Even though there is the time for innovations and restructuring of the educational system, it still seems that changes should not be forced onto educational system under the aegis of a current political regime. While politicians can offer reasonable suggestions that can make the educational system even more flexible and accessible for the students from all walks of life, when it comes to defining science, politicians should not interfere.

Professional issues in any field must be tackled by the true experts, which means that educational concerns must be solved by the members of the Educational Department, the school board, etc. Once allowing competent people handle the complexities, one can be certain that educational problems will be gone soon.

Works Cited

Cibelli, Jose B., Robert P. Lanza and Michael D. West 2001. The First Human Cloned Embryo. Web.

Feldman, Lauren, Edward W. Maibach, Connie Rosen-Renour and Anthony Leiserowitz. Climate on Cable: The Nature and Impact of Global Warming Coverage on Fox News, CNN, and MSNBC. The International Journal of Press/Politics 20.10 (2011): 1-29. Web.

Johnson, William. The Theory of Evolution Revisited. Quodlibet Journal 3.2 (2001): n.p. Web.

McLelland, Christine W. The Nature of Science and the Scientific Method. Web.

Strauss, Valerie, 2012. Tennessee Back to the Future with New Anti-Evolution Law. Web.

Introduction

The logical evaluation of a program is generally based on the matters of the assessment of its efficiency, its structure, and the helpfulness in solving particular aspects of the education. The ways of evaluating the evidence based character education program may be numerous, but the main aim of the evaluation should be closely associated with the matters of conducting the meaningful analysis, defining the potential benefits of the program, and outlining the key challenges which will arise when the program will be implemented.

Program evaluation

There is need to evaluate educational programs often for the purpose of upgrading it or identifying areas which need to be improved. Evaluation of the programs ensures that they are able to meet the changing needs of the learners or the market which it addresses.

Programs are not dependent on their own and there contents are determined mainly by the trainers it meant to train and the market needs which keeps on changing. It is evident that is program are not evaluated they end up being absolute, irrelevant or even substandard. The questions which I would propose to be used to evaluate the program are:

1. Whether the course is able to achieve educational objectives as it is affirmed in the materials it delivers. This question is mainly dependent on the changes which are expected in the program goal. I have decided to include this question for evaluation because most of the time objectives of the study are misunderstood or not evaluated properly and they are the main core activities which determines effectiveness of the program
2. There is also need to evaluate the learners on whether the program was able to meet their expectations. Learners are also a major stakeholder of the program because the program is designed for their purpose. Therefore, is need for their views to be taken in to considerations on whether the project is done minor or major overhaul.
3. How the instructional methods were used in the program. Instructional methods evaluates on the delivery mode of the project therefore it shows on how the project delivers its content to the intended users. Delivery of the project is paramount as it promotes understanding of the program when its being taught.
4. It should also measure the effectiveness of the program in relation to others which address the same issues. Efficiency of the program is paramount as it shows how the project is performing. Its change would increase on quality of the program which makes it much effective and of high quality.
5. Enquire on the topics which would be recommended to be included in the future programs. Changes in the topics to be included in future promote diversification of the project and it is able to accommodate new suggestions in the project. It also ensures that the project is up to date with needs of the future project.
6. Finally the evaluation should be able to rate the following attributes of the project; content quality, Usefulness and clarity of visuals, its delivery, hands on learning opportunity, and opportunity of leaners participations by asking questions. The rating to these questions should be grouped on whether they are excellent, good, fair, poor or not applicable.

Analysis

The necessity and capability of the assessment of the elaborated program may be featured with the opportunity to regard it from various perspectives. Thus, the evaluated logic model of the program entails everything that is required for the properly composed program, and the problem statement, which is regarded as the basis for the program. However, the problem statement of the existing program is weak, and the description can not be regarded helpful enough for the evaluation of the program.

The logical discussion of the provided identity of the program is closely associated with the matters of rationales and assumptions of the program. Considering the necessity to provide the analysis of the logical structure, it should be emphasized that this structure may be evaluated only from the position of outputs and external factors, as any program in general is the adaptation for the external factors and necessities of the environment. Thus, from the internal point of view the program may be perfect, while it may not fully suit the external requirements and the environmental grounds of the program.

Challenges

The main challenges of the program may be the weakness of the problem statement and the improper implementation of the valued goals into the program itself. The fact is that, the real requirements, associated with the problem statement, and the outline of the goals. Originally, the meaningful evaluation of the program requires the detailed and thorough analysis of the logic model of the program, which is a valuable tool for the planning and development of the program creation and implementation. The fact is that, the structure of the of the program, and its logical planning is closely linked with the necessity to think over the program strategy, which is responsible for the implementation of the innovations, and clarify, whether program is really required and suitable for the existing circumstances.

Another challenge is the communication strategy. The fact is that, the issues of communication define the interconnection of the particular elements of the program, and define the effectiveness of the links, arranged within the program. The process of communication is a properly created logic model, and may be regarded as a powerful implementation and performance tool. It can reveal the activities of the program, as well as the possible outcomes, thus emphasizing the connection between these two components (Wolf, 2004, p.150).

Potential Benefits

The benefits of the program implementation are closely associated with the matters of the adaptation for the educational requirements. The fact is that, all the benefits, linked with the implementation of the program, are based on the further extension of the educational program, and better structuring of the given materials. In the light of this statement, it should be emphasized that the real values of the program are covered in the factor of activities and outputs. Originally, the matter is not in the activities, required for the implementation of the program, but in the activities, which the program originates. Consequently, it should be emphasized that the benefits of the program implementation are closely linked with the better structuring of the entire process, consequently, the logic model, created for outlining the program is linked with the basic aspects of the program functioning. Originally, the necessity to structure the program, and control its logical model should be covered by the necessity to evaluate the entire principle, which the program is based on (Lindgren, 2007).

The key benefit of the program is aimed at the principles of better community interaction among students. The fact is that, the logic model of the program is aimed at demonstrating the real purpose of the identified goals of the program. Originally, positive results depend on the values of the achievements, and the resources, which should be used for accomplishing the program goals.

Conclusion

Finally, it should be emphasized that the real value of the program and the aim of the program analysis is based on the goals and achievements of the program implementation. Depending on the environmental purposes and the values of the program, its challenges and benefits vary essentially, as the changes of the environmental circumstances may turn positive evidence into challenges and vice versa. Therefore, the thorough analysis of the environment, requirements for the program, and the values, which are pursued, define the problem statement factor for the program implementation.

References

Lindgren, H. C. (2007). Educational Psychology in the Classroom. New York: Wiley.

Wolf, R. M. (2004). Evaluation in education: Foundations of competency assessment and program review (3rd Ed.). New York: Praeger Publishers.

Introduction

I find writing to be among the most fulfilling activities that I engage in. Through this media, I am not only able to express myself, but I also get in touch with my creative side and come up with fascinating material, which I believe my audience enjoys. While writing may seem to be a standard activity, I have come to appreciate that there is various kind of writers. Knowledge of the kind of writer that I am is of great importance since it enables me to capitalize on the positive attributes of my writing style while minimizing the negatives. In this essay, I will engage in a detailed exploration of the kind of writer I am and discuss what makes me this kind of writer. I will then consider my strengths and weaknesses as a writer and discuss my writing process.

My Style

If I were to describe myself as a writer in one word, the word would be spontaneous. The reason for this is that I do not limit myself in scope but instead let my writing guide me. While writers who are planners spend time coming up with a detailed plot of how their story will develop, spontaneous writers only have a rough plot and they let the story develop as it advances. When beginning my work, I only have an idea of how the story will eventually end; I do not know the various twists and turn that will lead to this ending.

I let my story evolve naturally and if an event that I had not previously thought about comes up or a character does something against my original plans, I do not stop them. Despite being a spontaneous kind of writer, I do come up with some plans for my work and I have a general idea of how my story will play out. In my mind, various key events will take place in my story.

I came to adopt this style of writing after I discovered that I could never come up with a full plan of how my story would play out beforehand. Whenever I tried to develop a detailed plan for my story, I always got overwhelmed and ended up not writing anything at the end. In addition to this, having a detailed plan of how my story would play out removed the sense of suspense and creativity since I had to ensure that my characters fitted into this pre-defined cast that I had made for them.

I remember a close friend of mine told me that while my stories were interesting, they were predictable and not very captivating. Following these revelations, I decided to adopt a writing style that did not inhibit my creativity.

Before I begin writing, I like to be well informed on the topic that I want to cover. This is especially useful when I am writing articles that are intended to be informative and my audience expects factual information. Being well informed is also valuable when I am writing fictional material since it adds to the plausibility of my story. I have also come to discover that fictional stories that are grounded in solid facts appeal to people more than those which are written with no regard to facts.

Strengths

My kind of writing has several significant strengths. Arguably the greatest strength of my writing process is that it keeps me engrossed since I do not have all the events figured out. The characters I am working with may do something unpredictable and I am encouraged to keep writing so that I can figure what happens next. In addition to this, I not get discouraged by my work as would be the case if I needed to figure every event in my writing beforehand. As such, I can begin writing with only a few vague ideas and as I progress, more material will present itself to me.

My writing style also complements the sources of my inspiration for writing. I get my inspiration from a wide range of places. As such, my inspiration may come from the sad and moving story on the 7 oclock news to a beautiful and scenic view observed as I am traveling by bus. Since these are very random sources of inspiration, having a flexible writing style allows me to merge the new information I get from my everyday inspiration into my writing.

Weaknesses

For all its strengths, my writing style has several significant setbacks. To begin with, my writing style is not well suited when writing research papers where the writer has to have a clear outline before he or she begins writing. My spontaneous style predisposes me to begin writing without a clear outline in mind and in the case where I have an outline; I sometimes find it hard to stick to it. This is a major disadvantage since research papers are supposed to be well structured and at times concise. I, therefore, have to make a conscious effort to adopt a more structured form of writing where I have to plan everything before I begin writing.

While spontaneity has its advantages, it sometimes results in the writer being overwhelmed. This is the case since there are so many possibilities for the writer to choose from. Without a pre-defined outline and plot, the writer may take up too much time trying to decide on the best cause of action. In addition to this, since the story may take a turn away from the projected ending, the writer may be forced to rethink the original outline. I have found myself faced with these setbacks many times and have had to abandon stories midway. I also sometimes veer from my original theme which affects the impact of my writing.

Conclusion

In this essay, I set out to explore the kind of writer that I am. Through this paper, I have shed light on my writing kind and highlighted the various strengths and weaknesses that I possess as a writer. As can be seen, my writing style has its inherent flaws, which deter me from being an effective writer. However, I believe that each writing experience is a learning effort and as I keep writing, I will fine-tune my writing style to the point where it is almost perfect.

Over time, I have come to see that the most suitable type of writing for me would be somewhere between spontaneous writing and strict structural writing. By adopting such a process, I will be able to enjoy the advantages that each style brings about and therefore improve my writing proficiency.

Practice for a Test

Teachers should use the best practices in order to support the needs of their learners. Classroom activities are critical whenever preparing students for their examinations. Teachers can use a Fun Review Activity (FRA) to help students learn the targeted information prior to their test. This activity will support the needs of every learner. The activity should take one or two lessons. The first approach is for the tutor to prepare a set of answers and questions. The tutor should augment the activity using different approaches such as a Question Game (QG). The fun review activity (FRA) should cover every topic studied in class. The activity should consider the learning goals of every learner. The activity should also encourage teamwork. The teacher should use the method in order to prepare every learner.

The suggested fun review activity (FRA) will help students learn every detail and information. The practice will identify the needs of every learner. The teacher will guide the learners throughout the activity. The teacher should customize the FRA activity depending on the targeted goals. A mathematics class requires the best FRA model in order to solve different problems. The fun review activity will encourage the students to answer and ask questions.

The teacher should include relevant concepts, ideas, and topics in the activity. The approach should encourage teamwork. This practice will ensure every learner participates in the fun review activity. The students will execute different activities in order to refresh their knowledge. The FRA approach will ensure every learner gains new skills. The teacher will also understand the strengths and weaknesses of his or her learners. The next strategy is to support and guide the learners throughout the activity.

Review for a Test

The learning process should continue after the learners complete their examinations. The teacher should examine the performance of every student. The approach will support the educational needs of these learners. The success of test reviews depends on the classroom activities. Teachers can incorporate the FRA into every test review. The teacher should use the test as a guideline for the FRA. The activity will address the needs of every learner. The teacher should use the answers provided by every learner. The teacher should use the same questions and encourage the learners to work as teams. The teacher can use a Question Game to answer the questions. The practice will make the learning process is successful.

This FRA approach is relevant because it supports the needs of many learners. The above discussion explains why I selected it for this paper. The activity examines every topic studied in class. The teacher should use the best questions and learning processes in order to address the needs of every learner. The exercise encourages every learner to ask questions and give answers. The activity will also address the gaps in the learning experience.

The activity ensures every student tracks his or her skills. Teamwork makes it easier to gain new ideas. Every teacher should use the best resources. This practice will address the changing needs of every student. The fun review analysis (FRA) is simple. The approach will examine the topics studied in every subject. Teachers and parents should utilize the approach in order to support the goals of every student. Every teacher should use these strategies in order to address the needs of every student. The practice will make every learning process successful.

Program Objectives

Character Education Program is the plan that is designed for instructors to learn the psychological peculiarities of students whose behavior and learning goals are partially predetermined by their character. Additionally, the program has also worked on different projects and testing for students to check the connection of skills and their abilities. The program under consideration is aimed at defining the role of character analysis and development necessary for improving learning skills. It is also focused on establishing specific educational and academic programs that will contribute to creating favorable conditions for the learning process. Finally, the character education program also emphasizes the design of different communication strategies for the improvement of an academic setting for students of different characters and tempers. In other words, the researchers intend to examine what academic tools should be introduced to meet the needs of students and to facilitate the process of knowledge acquisition.

To accomplish this task, the program is based on several steps. First of all, the program provides a questionnaire that serves to reveal negative character traits among the students and their reasons. These are different psychological tests and they consist of leading questions. Second, the program involves new curriculum plans that can contribute to shaping good positive features like friendship, curiosity, leadership, and communicability (McElmeel, 2002, p. xxiii).

Program Target Group

For purposes of the study, the identified target audience is two groups of students of different ages: freshmen and senior students (20 persons in each group; male and female participants are also equal). The variation in age is explained by the necessity to identify the effectiveness of the program in terms of age and level of knowledge and how character traits are connected with these two variables. Arising from this, the researchers use a mixed methodology thus applying quantitative and qualitative methods to the research.

When choosing the groups for further examination, the researcher is guided by the psychological and gender aspects to identify how the implemented programs will affect the knowledge acquisition of students and their actual interest in the learning process. In particular, the freshmen will be engaged in the character formation projects and testing and seniors should participate in programs defining their characters and their correlation with their skills and abilities.

Choice Justification

The experiment has some limitations connected with cultural and social issues. Hence, the results of the research are impossible to apply to all ethnic groups of the population and all age variations. Therefore, the research is valid for students of this particular age and nationality. In the program is evaluated according to external aspects, the given task has been accomplished, as the researcher has managed to identify specific generalized benefits of the program. About character analysis and development, the program has defined that it is easier to impose some restrictions and rules on freshmen learners and generate positive character traits creation. The implemented academic programs and testing have also defined that seniors have more distinct character traits and, therefore, they have a rigid level of knowledge acquisition. As a whole, despite the limitation imposed on the research, it proved to be reliable and valid. However, the finding obtained during this research cannot be applied to adult learners due to fact that their character traits are impossible to alter and develop (Boeije, 2009, p. 180).

Reference

Boeije, H. R. (2009). Analysis in Quantitative Research. US: SAGE Publications, Ltd.

McEmeel, S. L. (2002). Character education: a book guide for teachers, librarians, and parents. US: Libraries Unlimited.

Standards Alignment to Unit

The interdisciplinary unit on the topic of nutrition and eating habits consists of two lessons, which refer to such disciplines as Health and Science. The unit is developed for students of the 4^th Grade. The unit of instruction is based on North Carolina Essential Standards Grade 4 related to Science and Health Education.

The standard selected to be used in designing the unit of instruction in relation to Science is 4.L.2. Understand food and the benefits of vitamins, minerals, and exercise, and the objective is 4.L.2.2. Explain the role of vitamins, minerals, and exercise in maintaining a healthy body (NC Essential Standards 3-5 Science, 2014). The standard followed in relation to Health Education in Grade 4 is 4.NPA.2. Understand the importance of consuming a variety of nutrient-dense foods and beverages in moderation, and the objective is 4.NPA.2.1. Compare unhealthy and healthy eating patterns, including eating in moderation (NC Essential Standards Health Education  Grades 3-5, 2014).

The designed unit of instruction directly supports North Carolina standards and the local guidelines because the main goal of the unit is to promote the students understanding of the foods nutritional value in relation to vitamins and minerals and to draw the students attention to the healthy eating patterns to support their health and body. Standard 4.L.2 is addressed while discussing vitamins and minerals containing in food. Standard 4.NPA.2 is addressed while discussing students different eating habits and comparing their unhealthy or healthy character to develop the knowledge of the healthy eating pattern.

Evaluation of Internet Resources

Houghton Mifflin Harcourt: Education Place. Eat Right! Food Pyramid

This educational resource is important to develop the lesson on the topic of food and nutrition. The website provides age-appropriate materials because the lesson plans are categorized according to Grade and age (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt: Education Place, 2014). Thus, the materials for Eat Right! Food Pyramid is appropriate for the students of Grade 4.

The provided content is accurate because the proposed activities and lessons are worked out by professional teachers and educators. The resource is useful because lesson plans contain detailed instructions that can be effectively adapted to the needs of a certain class.

Technology: Teacher Guide to Food and Nutrition

This resource provides lesson plans and teaching tools to conduct the lesson effectively. The resource is appropriate for students of Grade 4 because of presenting the material in a simple language. The content is accurate and detailed because the lesson materials and plans are added by educators (TeAchnology, 2014).

Teacher Guide to Food and Nutrition is useful to design the lesson for Science and Health because a lot of important facts are presented in the resource.

Lesson Plan 1

General Information

• Lesson Title & Subject(s): Nutritional Value of Products & Science
• Topic or Unit of Study: Food and Nutrition
• Grade/Level: Grade 4

Instructional Setting:

Fourth-grade classroom, 18 students will be sitting around the large table in the middle part of the classroom.

Standards, Goals, and Objectives

Your State Core Curriculum/Student Achievement Standard(s)

Science Standards: 4.L.2. Understand food and the benefits of vitamins, minerals, and exercise; 4.L.2.2. Explain the role of vitamins, minerals, and exercise in maintaining a healthy body (NC Essential Standards 3-5 Science, 2014).

Lesson Goal(s)

• Goal 1. Students will develop their knowledge of nutritional value, chemicals, vitamins, and minerals.
• Goal 2. Students will learn the nutritional value of different products.

Lesson Objective(s)

Goal 1

1. After examining the Vitamins & Minerals Chart, students will improve their knowledge of different vitamins and minerals containing in products by 85%, while naming important vitamins and minerals correctly.
2. After listening to the teachers explanation, students will identify six categories of vitamins and minerals related to different products while grouping them.
3. By the end of the lesson, students will name 19 groups of products containing vitamins and minerals while answering the teachers questions.

Goal 2

1. After focusing on the Vitamins & Minerals Chart, students will describe 19 groups of most nutritional products while answering the teachers questions.
2. By the end of the lesson, students will discuss the nutritional value of their favorite products with 85% accurateness.
3. By the end of the lesson, students will state the nutritional value of different products with 85% accurateness while comparing them.

Materials and Resources

Instructional Materials:

Vitamins & Minerals Chart; PowerPoint Presentation; Worksheets.

Resources:

North Carolina Essential Standards 3-5 Science. (2014). Web.

TeAchnology: Teacher Guide to Food and Nutrition. (2014). Web.

Vitamins & Minerals Chart. (2014). Web.

Instructional Plan

The sequence of Instructional Procedures/Activities/Events (provide a description and indicate the approximate time for each):

• Identification of Student Prerequisite Knowledge and/or Skills:
  • Skills needed: Listening and reading skills, knowledge of the role of food for peoples life.
  • Terms: Nutritional value, chemicals, vitamins, minerals.
  • Purpose: Today, we will learn about vitamins and minerals and why they are important for our health.
  • The teacher asks students to discuss the role of food for peoples life and explains new terms.
• New Knowledge and/or Skills To Be Taught:
  • The teacher states the goals, demonstrates the Vitamins & Minerals Chart, and explains the terms and material.
• Modeling: I Do
  • The teacher identifies and explains six categories of vitamins and minerals related to different products while grouping them.
• Guided Practice: We Do
  • The teacher asks students to describe 19 groups of most nutritional products. Students tell about the nutritional value of their favorite products.
• Independent Student Practice: You Do
  • Students independently answer the teachers questions and name 19 groups of products containing vitamins and minerals.
• Culminating or Closing Procedure/Activity/Event:
  • Students review terms and state the nutritional value of different products.

Pedagogical Strategy (or Strategies)

Direct instruction, active listening, discussion.

Differentiated Instruction

English Language Learners are provided with an additional explanation of the terms.

Hearing-impaired students work more with separate charts and tables.

Technology Integration

PowerPoint Presentation is used to present the new audio and video material for students.

Student Assessment/Rubrics

Formative Assessment: Students answers will be graded according to the rubric, where the correct and adequate answer to the question is scored as 100 points.

Summative Assessments: Students are expected to state the nutritional value of different products with 85% accurateness while comparing them.

Lesson Plan 2

General Information

• Lesson Title & Subject(s): Healthy Eating Patterns & Health
• Topic or Unit of Study: Food and Nutrition
• Grade/Level: Grade 4

Instructional Setting:

Fourth-grade classroom, 18 students will be sitting around the large table in the middle part of the classroom.

Standards, Goals, and Objectives

Your State Core Curriculum/Student Achievement Standard(s)

Health Education Standards: 4.NPA.2. Understand the importance of consuming a variety of nutrient-dense foods and beverages in moderation; 4.NPA.2.1. Compare unhealthy and healthy eating patterns, including eating in moderation (NC Essential Standards Health Education  Grades 3-5, 2014).

Lesson Goal(s)

• Goal 1. Students will compare different eating patterns in relation to the idea of nutrition.
• Goal 2. Students will learn what eating patterns are effective in supporting their healthy bodies.

Lesson Objective(s)

Goal 1

1. After listening to the teachers explanation, students will describe their eating patterns with 75% accurateness, while answering the teachers question.
2. After viewing the PowerPoint Presentation, students will describe the elements of healthy eating with 75% accurateness.
3. By the end of the lesson, students will compare different eating patterns in relation to the idea of nutrition with 85% accurateness.

Goal 2

1. After listening to the teacher, students will identify healthy eating patterns with 80% accurateness.
2. After discussing the materials, students will answer the teachers questions with 75% accurateness.
3. By the end of the lesson, students will improve their knowledge of healthy eating patterns by 80% while discussing their eating patterns.

Materials and Resources

Instructional Materials:

Food Pyramid; PowerPoint Presentation; Eating Patterns worksheets.

Resources:

ADA. (2002). The American Dietetic Association Guide to Healthy Eating for Kids: How Your Children Can Eat Smart from Five to Twelve. USA: John Wiley & Sons. Web.

Houghton Mifflin Harcourt: Education Place. Eat Right! Food Pyramid. (2014). Web.

North Carolina Essential Standards Health Education  Grades 3-5. (2014). Web.

Instructional Plan

The sequence of Instructional Procedures/Activities/Events (provide a description and indicate the approximate time for each)

• Identification of Student Prerequisite Knowledge and/or Skills
  • Skills needed: Listening and reading skills, knowledge of terms nutritional value, chemicals, vitamins, and minerals.
  • Terms: Eating pattern, healthy food, Food Pyramid.
  • Purpose: Today, we will work to learn what food to eat in order to be healthy.
  • The teacher asks students to discuss notions of nutritional value, chemicals, vitamins, and minerals and explains new terms.
• New Knowledge and/or Skills to Be Taught
  • The teacher demonstrates the PowerPoint Presentation and discusses the Food Pyramid.
• Modeling: I Do
  • The teacher describes possible healthy eating patterns with the help of the Food Pyramid.
• Guided Practice: We Do
  • Students describe their eating patterns with references to the PowerPoint Presentation and the Food Pyramid.
• Independent Student Practice: You Do
  • Students compare different eating patterns as healthy and unhealthy and answer the teachers questions about their appropriateness.
• Culminating or Closing Procedure/Activity/Event
  • Students conclude what they should eat in order to be healthy and follow healthy eating patterns.

Pedagogical Strategy (or Strategies)

Direct instruction, active listening, discussion.

Differentiated Instruction

English Language Learners are grouped and provided with an additional explanation of the terms.

Hearing-impaired students work more with separate charts and tables.

Technology Integration

PowerPoint Presentation is used to present the new audio and video material for students.

Student Assessment/Rubrics

• Formative Assessment: Students answers will be graded according to the rubric, where the correct and adequate answer to the question is scored as 100 points.
• Summative Assessments: Students are expected to compare different eating patterns in relation to the idea of nutrition with 85% accurateness.

References

ADA. (2002). The American Dietetic Association Guide to Healthy Eating for Kids: How Your Children Can Eat Smart from Five to Twelve. USA: John Wiley & Sons. Web.

Houghton Mifflin Harcourt: Education Place. Eat Right! Food Pyramid. (2014). Web.

North Carolina Essential Standards Health Education  Grades 3-5. (2014). Web.

North Carolina Essential Standards 3-5 Science. (2014). Web.

TeAchnology: Teacher Guide to Food and Nutrition. (2014). Web.

Vitamins & Minerals Chart. (2014). Web.

Tests and assignments are vital assessment tools used by teachers in learning institutions. It is not possible for students to understand and know everything without using other sources. Academic sources provide examples and evidence that support arguments in research essays.

Primary and secondary academic sources should therefore be used in an ethical way to ensure students deliver quality assignments backed by credible evidence from external sources. Academic research entails referring to other peoples work to build ones ideas, theories and facts.

Academic sources should be made accessible to students when they are doing standardized tests. Standardized tests that determine peoples education, basically their lives, are not fair due to lack of information and materials that can help students perform well. Therefore, these tests should be restructured or should not be used as assessment tools.

Writing skills are essential in communication and language tests. Composition tests are meant to test the students writing techniques, and at the same time examine if their thinking is actually critical (Perelman 128). Compositions and other pieces of writing must always meet intellectual standards.

Any form of training that does not allow students to use outside information and materials is bound to lack substance. Positions taken by students when writing essays should have strong and credible evidence from outside sources (Perelman 129). Recent research indicates that the performance of students is poor when it comes to essay writing because their tutors do not permit the use of external sources.

It is always difficult for students to remember all the facts about a particular subject or topic without consulting other sources (Perelman 129). A student can only be considered as information literate if he or she is able access and evaluate information from sources in a critical and effective manner.

Ethical and legal access to academic information with appropriate application demonstrates that a student meets the required information literacy standards (Perelman 130).

Internet research has become very popular in recent times with many composition classes leaning towards the new trend of conducting academic research. Many publications have been done through the help of internet sources. Although internet sources have helped a great deal in academic writing, the credibility of some of the sources is what worries many scholars (McClure 53).

It is always a difficult task for students to determine which online sources are credible and useful. Some companies have commercial websites that they use to advocate for issues they support. These websites provide a perfect platform for customers to give their views about company products, services and campaigns.

Digital advocacy has become a common trend in companies and learning institutions (McClure 53). Conservative composition teachers are always reluctant to allow the use of internet sources by their students because they always question the credibility of some of the online sources.

It is always a difficult task to locate and understand information from traditional print sources compared to online sources. Some websites do not undergo editing and filtering, and which makes conservative scholars to question the use of online sources (McClure 54).

Digital advocacy is an initiative that has changed the attitude of many people towards the use online resources. Many students do not prefer the use of print sources in their academic research but are only forced to do so by their instructors.

Information location, analysis and application require some techniques but many students are not familiar with these essential research skills. Research techniques are also very fundamental when using both commercial and advocacy websites (McClure 54).

Students can only become effective writers if their instructors give sincere responses and comments on their work. The task of assessing students writing assignments consumes a lot of time and energy but many people dont seem to realize this.

A teachers comments helps students to always have the reader in mind while writing any piece of academic work (Sommers 152). Students are able to review their work and make the necessary revisions if their writing is assessed on a consistent basis.

The comments made by some teachers tend to influence students to write according to their teachers demands and not according to their original ideas (Sommers 152). There is a great difference between the comments made by editing software and a teachers comments. The tone of editorial comments plays a major role in determining whether students remain original in their writing or not.

A teachers comments should be thoughtful and not abstract in order to make students make the right amendments (Sommers 153). Plagiarism is one of the major issues highlighted by teachers when assessing the quality of their students writing. The use of external sources is permitted in writing academic work but it must be done in a legal and ethical manner.

Students who refer to external materials and information in their writing should make an effort of recognizing the sources used in their work (Sommers 153). Plagiarism is the use of another authors intellectual material without any form of citation. Plagiarism is a criminal offence liable for prosecution in a court of law if one is found guilty.

Teachers have a responsibility of teaching their students on how to use external sources. Paraphrasing and in-text citation should always be used by students in order to avoid plagiarism. All the sources quoted or paraphrased by students should be well documented using appropriate referencing methods as directed by the students instructors.

Some software has been developed to detect illegal use of sources by students (Sommers 154). The use of plagiarism detectors has become very common because it is difficult to identify plagiarism instances manually.

The content of a students work is determined by the amount of research conducted by the student. The errors found in the work of a student should always be highlighted to help students rearrange their work in a logical manner (Sommers 155).

The purpose and reason for writing a research essay should be made clear by teachers to make students write with some logic (Sommers 155). Research essays are an example of standardized tests offered in schools and colleges and therefore a lot of effort should be put in training students on how to write research papers with intellectual substance.

In conclusion, the use of external sources by students should be allowed in schools to enable students come up with quality research essays and compositions. Advocacy and commercial websites are currently being used for academic and commercial purposes.

The response and comments made by teachers on their students work should help a great deal in enabling students come up with quality essays. Students should cite all external sources used in their work to avoid plagiarism by all means.

Standardized tests can only become fair if students are allowed to use external information and materials to support their work. Credible Internet and print sources help students write about different topics and subjects with reliable evidence.

Works Cited

McClure, Randall. Examining the Presence of Advocacy and Commercial Websites in Research Essay of First-year Composition Students. Writing Program Administration 32.3 (Nov 2009): 50-72. Print.

Perelman, Les. College Composition and communication. ProQuest Education Journals 60.1 (Sep 2008):128-141. Print.

Sommers, Nancy. Responding to Student Writing. College Composition and Communication 33.2 (May 1982): 148-156. Print.

Introduction

Some students in the education sector have certain learning shortcomings. Their condition qualifies them to be regarded as special needs learners. In spite of this, Anderson (2008) points out that these students have the same academic competencies as regular learners. All they need is to be provided with the proper incentives to learn.

The current report is written against this background. In this report, the author highlights the experiences of special needs learners in contemporary society. The report will examine the impacts of the implementation of a token reward system in a special education unit (SEU). The setting of this research is a classroom of special needs learners.

As already mentioned above, special needs education is associated with students who face various certain learning challenges. The special needs in the reference are as a result of numerous disabilities hindering the capacity of these individuals to participate in education. Addressing these needs requires planning and systematic monitoring of teaching approaches (Richard, 1974). The aim is to enhance the learning capabilities of these students. Consequently, learners exhibiting special needs are able to succeed in school and become self-sufficient.

In efforts to examine special needs education, the author of this report relies on the critical review of existing literature to come up with proposals on how to implement the token system. Learning, physical, and communication disabilities are some of the major issues affecting learners in SEU (Scales, 2002). A major challenge arising from these disabilities is inappropriate behaviour in classrooms. However, through a rewards program, some of the impulsive behaviours exhibited by these learners can be dealt with.

Significance

Education is a universal right that every child is entitled to. However, students with impairments face difficulties in learning. The token economy proposed in this report is beneficial in ensuring that the universal access to education is made a reality. Oliver (2006) points out that through such an award system, learners with disabilities record improvements in class. During the implementation process, the learners are required to modify their behaviour. Such a move helps to improve the students self-esteem.

Primary education is essential in moulding the character of learners. The token economy suggested in this report is significant in the following ways:

1. It enhances character development among learners.
2. It promotes the early development of cognitive skills.
3. It ensures learners with disabilities have a fair chance to education.

In terms of professional practice, the token economy encourages the advancement of new educational techniques. Other professional benefits include:

1. The development of new teaching practices.
2. The improvement of education for the challenged learners.

Background Information

The token economy approach is viewed as a behavioural model in SEU. According to Albers (2008), the approach is used to observe several learning outcomes. Albers (2008) argues that as a teaching module, a token economy is quite effective among students with special needs. Within the SEU program, the token economy is characterised by a number of principles that are largely drawn from the reinforcement theory (Albers, 2008). The technique is beneficial with regards to its ability to address the instability of students with special needs.

A token economy approach encourages behaviour based on specific desired outcomes. In a study carried out by Higgins, Williams and McLaughlin (2001), it was established that tokens are seen as incentives. Whenever the teacher intends to have the learner remain calm, all they need to do is make a promise of an award.

There are certain instances where the token approach may not yield the expected results. Under such circumstances, the model may also be regarded as misleading to the learners. Aitkenhead (2009) advances this notion by pointing out the systems narrow approach to the issue of special education. Aitkenhead (2009) further argues that the token economy only focuses on the measurable aspects of learning and understanding in a classroom setting. Separately, Anderson (2008) holds the opinion that this educational model ignores certain unobservable aspects. Anderson (2008) adds that the approach exposes students to the risk of relying heavily on extrinsic and unessential rewards to achieve success.

The SEU is increasingly becoming relevant in the current educational frameworks. Higgins et al. (2001) point out that there was a time when children with disabilities were not considered as the worth of education. However, with the advancement of human rights, all children are entitled to a decent education. To this end, this report comes up with a suitable token economy for a model classroom. A timeline for its implementation is also outlined.

Research Questions

As indicated earlier in this report, principles of human rights require all children, regardless of their disabilities, to access quality education. According to Robinson (2005), developing a suitable program requires responding to the prevalent challenges. In light of this, the author of this report formulates a number of research questions.

Major Research Question

What impacts does the implementation of a token economy reward system in a special education unit classroom have on impulsive behaviours of students?

Specific Research Questions

1. What are the impacts of a token economy when used as a reward system in an SEU classroom?
2. What happens when money is used as the preferred award token with regards to the learners impulsive behaviour?

Responding to the research questions will help to address the challenges of the proposed SEU program. Robinson (2005) argues that understanding a token economy and its effects on learning is the best way to determine the suitable plan to implement in a school setting. Further, it is important to understand the subject and its various definitions. The following are some of the terms that are used in this report and which may need a preliminary understanding:

1. Special needs education.
2. Token.
3. Award System.

Methodology

The report assumes both a qualitative and quantitative research design. According to Christensen, Burke and Turner (2010), it is possible for a research undertaking to adopt the two approaches.

Data Collection Methods

There are several studies, on token economy, which have been published over the years. Using qualitative analysis, this report analyses the existing literature on the impacts of a token economy on SEU. Studies like those conducted by Oliver (2006), Olsson (2007), and Anderson (2008) examine behaviour management. Some of the recommendations made to manage behavioural aspects in a class setting properly include token award systems.

A total of 16 sources will be used in the study. Most of the articles will be obtained using a comprehensive online survey. The same will be achieved by using keywords and phrases on major databases. The following keywords will be used for online research:

1. Token economy.
2. Token economy+ special needs students.
3. Token economy+ impacts on learning+ special education units.

The study will also rely on primary materials. According to Christensen et al. (2010), primary information can be obtained from interviews and questionnaires. The information for this study will be obtained through a series of interviews and a review of articles in the field.

Sample Size for Interviews

The participants of the study are mostly children in lower elementary levels of education. There will be a total of 50 participants (N=5). Twenty-six will be females, while the remaining 24 will be male. The children will be drawn from 3 SEU classes in my school. The interviews will be carried out once the consent forms have been returned with approval from the parents. Each interview will be approximately 10 minutes long.

Data Analysis

The information from the literature review will be handled using thematic analysis. To this end, the information from the articles will be clustered according to topics. The data obtained from the children who are less than ten years is likely to be mixed up. To address the problem, the researcher will focus on the responses that indicate the effects of the token economy on the learners.

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Selected Methodology

The two-tier research approach adopted is beneficial to the research undertaking. For example, the primary information improves the accuracy of the study. Secondly, the secondary material used will come from academic journals that are recent. The approach improves the credibility of the study. The only weakness associated with this methodology is the incoherent responses from the children.

Ethical Considerations

As mentioned in the previous section, the report adopts a qualitative and quantitative research design. The qualitative design is aptly illustrated by the secondary sources for the literature review. However, Christensen et al. (2010) point out that a quantitative research design requires primary sources. The implication of such an approach is that there will be participants involved. As such, certain ethical considerations are included in the study.

Consent

The study will include learners and teachers. It is important to secure the consent of these participants. According to Stringer (2008), special needs students are a vulnerable group. Consequently, a study involving their participation will require consent from their parents and educational authorities. Christensen et al. (2010) emphasise that consent forms are necessary for ensuring the authenticity of the participants responses.

The current research will be carried out in three special needs classrooms. In each of these classes, consent forms will be distributed to the parents of willing participants. According to Christensen et al. (2010), the form is required to illustrate the nature of the study alongside the preferred methods. The forms used in this study will respect the said rule. In addition, the potential risks associated with the study are indicated. For instance, when some learners are left out of the award system, there may be some tension in the classroom. However, teachers are trained to contain such situations by ensuring the safety of other children.

Sensitivity

The current study relies on, among others, information from children with special needs. The studies used in the literature review and the primary sources are both sensitive materials. According to Abbott and Boydell (2011), action research in special needs schools involves personal details of individuals. Some of the details include medical records, which require an element of privacy owing to their sensitive nature. The current researcher will ensure that the results of the survey are handled by independent parties to enhance privacy. In light of this, names and home addresses will be kept private.

The backbone of the action research is the advancement of a token award system in schools. One of the major assumptions in the study is that the incentive provided by tokens is responsible for controlled behaviour among learners. In such cases, it is prudent for the researcher to be sensitive to the reactions of the learners who do not respond positively to the intervention. Similar sentiments are echoed in the study by Powell and Houghton (2008). Powell and Houghton found that behavioural management can be enhanced by the use of parameters other than incentives. As such, it is insensitive to rely on the token award system as the only means of controlling behaviour.

Credibility

Research undertakings should be credible for them to be propagated into policy. The current research will analyse information from special needs students and reviewed literature in this field. One way of enhancing the credibility of a study is by outlining the primary sources of information (Christensen et al., 2010). According to Stringer (2008), action research must be current. Consequently, the sources used in the literature review will be those published from 2000. However, there may be some sources that were published before 2000, but which are relevant to the study.

Action

Special education requires an equally special approach to the learners who, in this case, our children. According to Savage and Young (2006), SEUs in many jurisdictions are adopting the token economy approach. With the help of this model, learners earn points for their participation in class. The benefit of such a system is that the tokens can be redeemed for extra credits, which count towards their course grades. There are certain cases where the tokens are exchanged for items. In the study carried out by Savage and Young (2006), it was found that tokens can be exchanged for such items as food, toys, money, and school equipment. As such, whenever such an economy is introduced, the exchange has to be something valuable to act as an incentive to the learners.

In a school setting, a token economy can be described as a system used to manage the behaviour of learners. In the opinion of Oliver (2006), the approach is perceived as a contingency management system. To this end, it allows participants to earn tokens whenever they accomplish certain tasks set before them. A positive behaviour among the students is awarded. The earnings can be accumulated over time and exchanged for a preferred alternative.

Token economy has been applied in other aspects of society. It has been used to evaluate the behaviour and performance of people in general. According to Stringer (2008), token systems are used to influence positive behaviour among individuals. In a class setting, a teacher can opt to introduce the system to encourage participation among students. In such a scenario, learners who participate in in-class activities, including responding to questions, are awarded points.

Over the past couple of decades, the token economy has gained acceptance in many SEUs. The popularity of this technique lies in its ability to link specified behaviour to outcomes (Oliver, 2006). However, there are various shortcomings associated with the token economy. Stringer (2008) insists that there are a number of approaches that can be used to motivate learners to perform desired tasks. Without the pecuniary value attached to the tokens, the said system would not be beneficial in SEUs.

Token delivery entails providing contingencies when learners are engaged in little or no disruptive behaviour. Removal, on the other hand, involves the withdrawal of the contingency. The removal is carried out following any disruptive behaviour from the learners. The study by Richard (as cited in Stringer, 2008) used four learners enrolled in special education classes. The outcomes indicated that the token delivery system was ineffective in reducing disruptive behaviour.

Combination of delivery and removal, coupled with instructions on conditions under which this is carried out, proved effective in the study by Richard. According to Stringer (2008), instructions, behaviour, and earnings from tokens can collectively be used to improve the technique. Similar opinions are held by Albers (2008). Albers (2008) insists that the quality of the system is realised through constant modifications.

The token system can be pegged on performance in classrooms. One of them is academic performance. Oliver (2006) carried out an experimental study using a control group of students with intellectual disabilities from selected schools. The study sought to analyse the improvements made by the students in their science classes. According to Oliver (2006), academic performance corresponds to the value of the exchange item in the token economy.

Token economy and social reinforcements differ in terms of the value the students attach to them. The latter involves encouragement, appreciation, and paying attention to the student (McNabb & Webster, 2010). Token economy, on the other hand, rewards learners with valuables. One aspect that makes this approach the preferred system is the incentives involved. According to Oliver (2006), learners respond better to awards. However, as they grow, it is advisable to supplement the system with social reinforcements.

The token economy focuses on the cognitive faculties of learners with special needs. McLaughlin (2004) compared this approach with social reinforcements. McLaughlin (2004) obtained favourable results from the token economy approach. Significant improvements in sciences were recorded following the application of the reward system in a separate study carried out by Olsson (2007). Social reinforcements also indicated improved performance in the subject. However, the use of a token economy was more successful compared to the application of social rewards.

The system is also used to gauge the behaviour of learners in pre-school settings. To this end, a comparison is made between an individual and a class-based economy. According to Scales (2002), concrete responses are recorded when the system is applied in the entire classroom as opposed to just on one individual. Scales (2002) observes that disorderly behaviour is drastically reduced when the approach is used in a class setting. As such, the model can be used to improve behaviour.

The participation of students in a classroom can be improved through the introduction of rewards. According to Stringer (2008), participation can either be directed or undirected. In addition, response and learning rates increase with the adoption of this approach. Withdrawal of the token economy often leads to a decline in the improvements noted earlier. Such a notion is illustrated in a study carried out by Wolf, Giles, and Hall (1968).

At the beginning of the study, correct responses and appropriate behaviour among learners were reinforced with verbal approval. Tokens introduced for a certain period were exchanged for toys, edibles, and other appealing valuables. Withdrawal of rewards for a given duration of time indicated declining performance and an increase in disruptive behaviours (Wolf et al., 1968). Withdrawal of tokens, availability of rewards, and introduction of bonuses has effects on learners who are behaviourally disturbed. As such, it is in the interest of the teachers to sustain the token economy.

There is increased productivity and adoption of appropriate behaviour following the introduction of bonus tokens. Students in groups without tokens often exhibit deterioration in behaviour and level of productivity. The significance of the approach to behaviour is made clear. In addition, the classroom approach provides comprehensive generalised results. The study by Richard (as cited in Oliver, 2006) seems to complement the one by Wolf et al. (1968) and other earlier works. Wolf et al. (1968) conducted an experiment that used a remedial classroom of low performing students from a poverty-stricken urban area. The study examined the impacts of token reinforcements on the performance of the learners. However, the research did not include students with special education needs.

The study by Wolf (as cited in Oliver, 2006) revealed changes in attitudes and increased participation among students in the remedial class. The performance of the students impacted positively on other learners in regular classes. The perspective introduced in this study indicates the positive influence of the token economy on education.

Timeline

A reasonable timeline for the implementation of a token economy is about three years. Stringer (2008) posits that a long timeframe is essential in determining any potential shortcomings.

Table 1: Timeline.

Within a three year timeframe, it will be possible to establish tangible results as far as behavioural changes are concerned. The proposed timeframe will provide the teachers with time to evaluate the trend of the academic performance of individual students and the class (McLaughlin, 2004). The timeline will start with the identification of the idea and preliminary research on the system. It will end with the implementation and review of the proposed system.

References

Abbott, C., & Boydell, T. (2011). Learning to be an action learning facilitator: Three approaches. In M. Pedler (Ed.), Action learning in practice (pp. 54-76). Aldershot: Gower Publishing. Web.

Aitkenhead, A. (2009). The compatibility of action learning with inner game coaching. Action Learning: Research & Practice, 6(1), 71-76. Web.

Albers, C. (2008). Improving pedagogy through action learning and scholarship of teaching and learning. Teaching Sociology, 36(1), 79-86. Web.

Anderson, L. (2008). Critical action learning: An examination of the social nature of management learning and development (Doctoral dissertation). University of Leeds. Web.

Christensen, B., Burke, J., & Turner, A. (2010). Research methods, design and analysis. Chicago: Allyn and Bacon. Web.

Higgins, J., Williams, R., & McLaughlin, T. (2001). The effects of a token economy- Employing instructional consequences for a third-grade student with learning disabilities: A data-based case study. Education & Treatment of Children (ETC), 24(1), 99. Web.

McLaughlin, D. (2004). There can be no learning without action and no action without learning: A case study. European Journal of Marketing, 38(3-4), 433-445. Web.

McNabb, D., & Webster, M. (2010). Qualities and practices of professional social work leadership in an interdisciplinary mental health service: An action learning approach. Action Learning: Research & Practice, 7(1), 41-57. Web.

Oliver, J. (2006). Developing a service management strategy facilitated by action learning: An empirical study from the UK health & fitness industry. Action Learning: Research & Practice, 3(2), 213-220. Web.

Olsson, A. (2007). Transformation to a customer-oriented perspective through action learning in product and service development. Action Learning: Research & Practice, 4(1), 45-59. Web.

Powell, J., & Houghton, J. (2008). Action learning as a core process for SME business support. Action Learning: Research & Practice, 5(2), 173-184. Web.

Richard, B. (1974). Relative efficacy of two token economy procedures for decreasing the disruptive classroom behaviour of retarded children. Web.

Robinson, G. (2005). Action learning: Developing critical competencies for knowledge era workers. Action Learning: Research & Practice, 2(1), 79-88. Web.

Savage, Y., & Young, M. (2006). Guidebook for action learning set members. Edinburgh: Young & Associates. Web.

Scales, K. (2002). A guide to action learning. Guildford: Regional Action & Involvement South East. Web.

Stringer, E. (2008). Action research in education. Columbus, Ohio: Pearson Merrill Prentice-Hall. Web.

Wolf, M., Giles, D., & Hall, R. (1968). Experiments with token reinforcement in a remedial classroom. Behavior Research and Therapy, 6, 51-64. Web.

Empirical learning is based on observation whereby either an experiment is carried out and observations made on the results or something happened without the influence of the observer and the results observed. Empirical normally implies that there is no way the results are made to fit into a theory and if there is a trial to do so then there can be no any success. Generally the theory is supposed to predict the outcome of an experiment, mistakes should be discovered in the experiment and resolved and mistakes should be observed in the theory and resolved. However the theoretical knowledge may not be enough to elucidate the results.

Theoretical learning is mainly concerned with hypotheses or theories rather than practical or sensible consideration. It usually deals with theories other than how they are applied practically or on theoretical analysis instead of practical analysis. No experiment is carried out and results observed so as to prove the hypotheses.

Formation of leading activity in middle childhood

During middle childhood, kids face challenges of developmental changes and events which lead to rise in responsibilities and maturity. The major problem is acquisition of productivity logic and not a sense of inadequacy. They is also an expectation of achieving extra developmental tasks at this stage which makes a child to have a sense of identity and the achieved skills enables the children to have a sense of self esteem in the later age. Work and play are seen as the major activities that help children to develop new motives and abilities which outgrow their current activities and this marks a transition to a new stage of development. The children are supposed to acquire a positive attitude towards work and responsibilities. When children develop a positive attitude towards responsibilities and work, the learning children are able to complete their assignments without being regularly reminded by teachers and parents. They are also able to handle their work to the required standards.

The overall reaction or feeling should surface during this stage of life in accomplishment of a wide range of skills and in demonstration of individuals dependability in carrying out the assigned work. Play is unstructured activity that children involve themselves at their own leisure time, not directly connected to school and may be indoor or outdoor games.( Brunstein 2005)

When children are playing they are not directed or monitored by the adults and this gives the children a chance to work as and cooperate as a team. They are able to come up with new ideas, direct themselves and resolve conflicts. Play enables the children to improve on how they relate with each other and with the adults. Play mostly involve physical activities and the time and the time spent in playing enables the children to discover new activities which means that the invented activity has come from the previous activity and therefore a change is important and they are able to cope with changes in teen and adult life. Play and work are important since children learn best by doing

Consequences of lack of formation of leading activities

During middle childhood, children work hard so as to be responsible, to be good and to do things the right way. Failure to incorporate children in work means that they cannot learn to be responsible and are there not able to accomplish their duties either at home or at school. Lack of responsibility makes the children feel inferior since they feel as if they are unproductive. (Erikson 1999) Play allows children to cooperate with each other, eager to learn new skills and accomplish the complex activities at play. So if the children are denied the chance to play they are not able to relate freely with each other and this means they are likely to be withdrawn from each other.

References

Erikson, H. (1999). Identity and the Life cycle. New York: International University Press.

Brunstein, C. (2005). Implicit and self attributed motives to achieve. Journal of personality and psychology, 89,205-222.