Category: Education

Behaviorist learning theory

The behaviorist learning theory focuses on visible behaviors that can be measured using specific scientific parameters. This theory is founded on the assumption that a learner is unreceptive and can only gain knowledge through interacting with the environment. This theory maintains that behavior results from the interactions between individuals and their environments. Conditioning is an important branch of the behaviorist theory which argues that behaviors are formed through the negative and positive reinforcement of certain patterns.

This happens because reinforcement determines whether a behavior is eliminated in the long term or reinforced and, therefore, likely to be repeated. Positive reinforcement involves the application of a stimulus, while negative reinforcement involves the elimination of an incentive that is associated with a certain behavior. There are two types of learning that apply the concepts of behaviorism, namely learning classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

Cognitivist learning theory

This theory deals with the role that cognitive information processing plays in the learning process. The three stages of memory are very important in learning. These stages include sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Schema refers to a unit of knowledge that comprises past experiences stored in an individuals memory and whose composition is determined by the perception of the individual. These units also contain information regarding the various ways in which the knowledge can be used. Schema helps in the interpretation of events and situations, as well as the assignment of meaning. The instructional objectives of this theory include providing organized information, improving the abilities of learners to encode and store information, improving learners abilities to control the activity of processing information, and arranging practice in a way that makes the learning process effective.

Solving problems is an example of a schema-based process. In that regard, schema helps learners structure knowledge in ways that facilitate problem-solving through the use of cognitive functions such as reasoning and reflection. The process involves associating certain aspects of a current problem to related information of past similar experiences stored in a schema. Schema signals such as words and concepts are critical during learning because they retrieve the appropriate unit of knowledge that is related to a problem the learner is trying to solve.

Constructivist learning theory

The theory states that people control their own learning and gain knowledge through their experiences and consequent interpretation of those experiences. It involves the active participation of learners and the minimal participation of instructors.

Collaborative learning is an important aspect of constructivist learning theory. It is important for learners to work together, share information and knowledge, and evaluate their conclusions against those of their colleagues. Collaboration allows learners to find solutions to problems through sharing their individual understanding regarding various matters.

According to Vygotsky, it is important to study the social and cultural contexts of learning in order to understand the individual development of mental faculties. He maintained that culture/language is important in the development of intelligence. Therefore, the advancement of human mental functions is associated with the cultural context of learners. Vygotsky also developed the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). This concept refers to the disparity that exists between assisted learning and individual learning. Cognitive development is primarily influenced by whether an individual learns without assistance or through the help of an instructor. Learners who get assistance acquire more skills than those who learn individually without any kind of assistance.

Developmental learning theories

Piaget was an opponent of the idea that knowledge is attained by experience and experimentation through the five senses. Her theory is different from other theories because its main focus is on the development of children. In addition, it explores the aspect of cognitive development. According to Piaget, children undergo several stages of development that have unique characteristics. Piagets theory of development explains how children develop the cognitive functions that enable them to grow into adults who can use their brains to think and reason. He outlined four main stages of development. Each stage represents a specific change in the childs cognition. The childs schemes and operations collaborate at each development stage to facilitate the performance of certain functions.

Online collaborative learning theory

Online collaborative learning (OCL) theory deals with the idea of shifting the education paradigm from knowledge building to knowledge transmission and from passive learning to active learning. One of the most important aspects of OCL is the formation of communities of practice that enhance information sharing, discourse, and dissemination of knowledge and ideas. This type of learning has impacted both formal and informal learning. Examples of tools used include file-sharing software, discussion boards and platforms, emails, and social media.

Online collaborative learning is impossible without the application of technology. It helps learners collaborate in various educational endeavors that facilitate the development of knowledge through discussions and dissemination of insights and information. Moreover, it encourages equal participation and divergent thinking that promote the generation of ideas and consensus regarding critical issues.

Motivation

Motivation is the process of initiating certain behaviors/actions and sustaining them until desired outcomes are attained. Lack of motivation is characterized by failure to complete tasks and poor performance of duties. Motivation is an important part of learning because it facilitates self-regulation among learners. Examples of common sources of motivation include self-efficacy belief, curiosity, and goals. Motivation can be either intrinsic or extrinsic.

Motivation is an important aspect that influences the completion of tasks. Factors that affect motivation include the ability of an individual to complete a task, the consequences associated with the completion, and the need to undertake the duty. Locus of control is a concept that refers to the degree to which people believe that they can control the situations and circumstances that happen in their lives. Locus control is either internal or external. People who exhibit strong internal locus hold the belief that their circumstances originate from their actions while people with weak internal locus believe that they are victims of circumstances.

On the other hand, people with strong external locus attribute their circumstances and situations to external factors that they cannot control. Learned helplessness is associated with having a strong external locus control. Helplessness also originates from a lack of confidence and ability to perform a certain task effectively. The main character trait of people who are helpless is the avoidance of certain tasks. Learned helplessness results from a propensity to embrace certain events and considering them to be beyond ones control. Self-regulated learning involves the setting of goals and achieving them by monitoring and regulating different aspects of the learning process. Learners control their motivation levels to ensure that they achieve the set goals. Individuals control aspects of motivation such as self-efficacy, attribution, and strategies for regulating learning and monitoring progress.

Self-regulation learning is controlled by metacognition, which refers to the ability to evaluate the demands of a task accurately and chose the most appropriate strategies to complete it. Metacognition involves activities such as reflection, thinking, analysis, and application of learning strategies. Achievement motivation affects learning because it influences the locus of control. If an individual believes that they possess the skills necessary to complete a certain task, they will have high achievement motivation and vice versa. On the other hand, the type of goals determines the level of achievement motivation. Performance goals are associated with specific outcomes, while mastery goals are associated with attaining the skills needed to perform a definite task. Mastery goals invoke stronger achievement motivation than performance goals.

Principles of instructional design

Instructional design refers to the process of creating models that facilitate the transfer of knowledge and skills form the instructor to learners. Examples of principles used in the instructional design include the ADDIE model and Gagne instructional model.

ADDIE model

Gagne instructional model

This model has nine events of instruction that play individual roles in the learning process. Gagne proposed five groups of outcomes that should be achieved in any learning process. The five groups comprise psychomotor, affective, and cognitive domains.

Constructivist approaches

The first girl belongs to the middle childhood stage and is 10-years-old. The girls physical fitness is evident through her ease in climbing the stairs, controlled breathing, and flexibility. According to the body mass index, the girl has a healthy weight with 17.5kg/m2 (Gallahue & Cleland-Donnelly, 2007). The girls physical ability to undergo physical tests is average, and she is interested in informal and formal sports. Some of the informal tests that she can comfortably participate in are cycling, kicking a ball around, hide and seek, dancing, and skating. The formal sports activities the girl can comfortably join in are badminton, running, jogging, and swimming. The girl respects regular sporting activity that involves the participation of four to six girls, although she takes less than 30 minutes a day for the action. The speed and power capability of her physical activities substantially increases with an increase in training (Bailey, 2006).

The second girl taking the physical ability assessment is 11 years old, and she is a fifth-grade student. The girl is familiar with physical ability tests and activities due to her previous participation. The girl is healthy to participate in a variety of activities with a body mass index of 19kg/m2 (Gallahue & Cleland-Donnelly, 2007). The girl demonstrates personal responsibility during participation in physical activities through observation of personal safety and self-respect. She engages in applied group dynamics such as athletics, volleyball, and basketball. In addition, she demonstrates concepts of fair play by making contributions to the group. Basing on her biological maturity and physical abilities, she requires an explicit training process and an increase in multi-skills activities. The girl has muscular endurance, is flexible, and has absolute strength through an increase in sports participation, unlike other girls in her age-group (Bailey, 2006).

The first boy taking the physical ability assessment is 12 years old with a body mass index of 20.5kg/m2. According to Gallahue and Cleland-Donnelly (2007), the body mass index of the boy is an indication that he is healthy and can participate in physical fitness activities. The boy is active, ready, and on time in a variety of physical activities. The major sporting activities of the boy are gymnastics, biking, swimming, and football. The games have an impact on a lifelong healthy lifestyle through improvement in muscular endurance, strength, cardiovascular function, and flexibility. The boy has necessary movement skills and understands the importance of fitness toward a healthy lifestyle (Bailey, 2006).

The second boy is 13 years old with a body mass index of 22kg/m2. The boy is at risk of being overweight, which is highly attributed to genetic factors and lifestyle (Gallahue & Cleland-Donnelly, 2007). The boy has a vivid understanding of the importance of a healthy lifestyle, hence making him active in personal fitness activities. The boy has the ability to coordinate movements that require skill and related fitness. According to Bailey (2006), unique skills and competencies make the boy participate in dancing, rugby, and hockey. The games require coordination, speed, agility, balance, and power. The boy uses skills and ideas gained from the sporting activities for the advancement and also leads a positive example. The boy is punctual in the training session and wears appropriate clothing for the sporting activity. The boy requires motivation, such as working as a team in order to perfect his sporting skills (Bailey, 2006).

References

Bailey, R. (2006). Physical education and sport in schools: A review of benefits and outcomes.

Journal of school health, 76(8), 397-401. Web.

Gallahue, D. L., & Cleland-Donnelly, F. (2007). Developmental, physical education for all children. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

America has been the nation of immigrants since it was discovered by Columbus (Moore, 2010). Immigrants from all over the world move to America in anticipation of getting a better life (Bekerman, 2012). America is often referred to as the land of opportunities, motivating many people to move there.

Immigrants from Somalia moved to America for the same reasons (Bekerman, 2012). The American citizens and their government have the responsibility of doing something to help the ever increasing number of immigrants. All the immigrants in America can not fulfill their dreams without the help of the American government (Moore, 2010).

There is no way immigrants can have better lives without education. This paper will highlight the importance of educating Somalian immigrants in Minnesota. Somalian immigrants can only become participatory members to the American society through education.

The first reason why the Somalian immigrants should be educated is for them to develop the necessary skills that are required in the American labor market (Atkins, 2008). The Somalian immigrants in Minnesota can not access employment opportunities in Minnesota and other areas if they are unskilled (Williams, 2010).

It is important to note that all immigrants need some training in order to meet the required qualifications in the American labor market (Mcilrath, 2007). The American government invests a lot of money in educating immigrants for them to make a significant contribution to the economy of the country (Williams, 2010).

The Somalian immigrants have a right to get an education similar to other minority groups in the United States. The available entrepreneurial opportunities can not be exploited if the immigrants do not have relevant entrepreneurial skills (Mcilrath, 2007). Among the major licensing requirements in the United States is a university degree which makes it difficult for Somalian immigrants to operate any business in Minnesota (Williams, 2010).

It is important for immigrants to be familiar with the language of the host country for them to get support (Mcilrath, 2007). Immigrants from Somalia do not know English which makes it necessary for them to learn some language skills (Darboe, 2003). The Somalian immigrants can not feel comfortable while interacting with the local people if they do not understand the native language (Darboe, 2003).

The Somalian immigrants can develop their vocabulary and language skills at local community centers through the help of interpreters (Mcilrath, 2007). The local people can assist them in learning the local language by organizing events for developing vocabulary and language skills (Darboe, 2003).

Schools and churches are some of the best places that Somalian immigrants in Minnesota can receive some language skills. The Somalian immigrants should be able to interpret and use the local language for them to communicate and work with the local people (Williams, 2010).

It is estimated that almost 70% of the Somalian immigrants in Minnesota are illiterate who were helped by educated family members in their migration arrangements (Moore, 2010). The majority of Somalian immigrants of the working age do not even have a high school diploma (Mcilrath, 2007). There is a very wide gap between the Somalian immigrants and the natives in Minnesota when it comes to educational attainment (Moore, 2010).

The economic performance of the Somalian immigrants entirely depends on their level of education (Williams, 2010). The American government should come up with policies that promote the education of immigrants in order to improve their economic performance. The improvement of the economic performance of Somalian immigrants is beneficial to them and other Minnesota residents (Mcilrath, 2007).

The poverty levels of Somalian immigrants in Minnesota are very high and the only way to solve that problem is by improving their literacy levels through education (Kruizenga, 2010). Illiterate immigrants find it difficult to cope economically because they can neither get jobs nor do business.

Economic empowerment can only be attained through education and training (Kruizenga, 2010). Recent research has shown that education plays a very significant role in improving the economic situation of immigrants (Grossman, 1982). The Somalian immigrants in Minnesota are the poorest compared to natives and other immigrants.

Educating immigrants leads to employment growth in Minnesota through the retention of local industries (Grossman, 1982). The social status of Somalian immigrants can also be improved by educating them (Darboe, 2003). Education is a very important factor in determining the social status of a person within the society (Moore, 2010).

The Somalian immigrants will continue to feel inferior to the natives because of their academic qualifications. Educating Somalian immigrants in Minnesota can help a great deal in improving their socioeconomic status (Butcher, 1991). The Somalian immigrants can not be aware of their civil rights and liberties without education. Education enables immigrants to be aware of their entitlements in the host country (Borjas, 1987).

Minnesota has benefited a lot from the fact that Somalian immigrants living within the region make a significant contribution towards economic growth (Bekerman, 2012). Educating Somalian immigrants helps in reducing the crime levels in Minnesota. Unemployment is one of the major causes of crime and this can only be solved through education (Bekerman, 2012).

Educating Somalian immigrants promotes economic and political stability in Minnesota because every person feels valued when he or she is educated. Minnesota has the highest number of immigrants, meaning that failure to create new opportunities through education leads to an economic instability (Bekerman, 2012).

An educated Somalian immigrant can create more employment opportunities that can benefit all the residents of Minnesota (Bekerman, 2012). The resources that are normally used on welfare programs can be used to fund other development projects because education reduces ones reliance on the American government for help (Darboe, 2003).

The Somali people are good in doing business, which can only be enhanced through education (Darboe, 2003). Equipping Somalian immigrants with entrepreneurial skills can improve the business environment in Minnesota. An increase in the number of businesses means that there will be more jobs for the local people in Minnesota (Atkins, 2008).

Education brings economic empowerment that enables people to have the spending power (Darboe, 2010). The spending power of people is what makes the local businesses thrive. Education enables people to be more creative and innovative (Atkins, 2008). Minnesota State needs people who can enhance socioeconomic growth in the region through their creativity (Williams, 2010).

Innovation helps in the creation of new systems and improvement of the existing ones. The creative capacity of a person can only be enhanced by education. The Somalian immigrants and those from other parts of the world have the potential to make a significant contribution to the socioeconomic growth of Minnesota if they are given the proper education (Williams, 2010).

In conclusion, it is important to educate the Somalian immigrants in Minnesota in order to improve their socioeconomic status. Many of the immigrants from Somalia are illiterate and therefore can not make any contribution to the local economy (Bekerman, 2012).

The poverty levels of Somalian immigrants are very high because the majority of them do not have the required skills to exploit the available economic opportunities in Minnesota (Atkins, 2008).

The American government should come up with educational programs that can enhance the socioeconomic empowerment of Somalian immigrants living in Minnesota (Moore, 2010). It is clearly evident from the discussion in this paper that educating Somalian Immigrants in Minnesota is very beneficial to the region (Moore, 2010).

References

Atkins, A. (2008). Creating Minnesota: A history from the inside out. New York, NY: Minnesota Historical Society.

Bekerman, Z. (2012). International handbook of migration, minorities and education: Undertanding. New York, NY: Springer.

Borjas, J. (1987). Immigrants, Minorities, and labor market competition. Industrial and Labor Relations, 40(3), 382-392.

Butcher, F. (1991). Immigration and Wages: Evidence from the 1980s. Economic Impact of Immigration, 81(2), 292-296.

Darboe, K. (2003). New Immigrants in Minnesota: The Somali immigration and assimilation. Journal of developing societies, 19(4), 65-79.

Grossman, B. (1982). The substitutability of natives and immigrants in production. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 64(4), 596-603.

Kruizenga, T. (2010). Teaching Somali children: What perceived challenges do Somali students face in the public school system. International Journal of Education, 2(1), 78-154.

Mcilrath, L. (2007). Higher education and civic engagement: International Perspectives. London. Ashgate Publishing Ltd.

Moore, M. (2010). What makes Somalis so different?. Web.

Williams, P. (2010). Exclusive: Small town America transformed by Somali Migrants. Web.

Introduction

The Puerto Rican immigrants have been reflected on the West Side Story film and the past paper assignments. The immigrants were a key historical element of immigration to the United States. The immigrants with Puerto Rican descent were among the many immigrants into America with the intention of obtaining suitable employment opportunities so as to better their lifestyles. Puerto Rico as a country was in crisis with a high level of poverty.

The people were lacking essential needs. Their status relating to health, education and housing were being affected. All these factors influenced the Puerto Rican immigration to the United States. They migrated to the U. S. in numbers since this was the best opinion to them (Whalen and Vi
ctor 17).

The immigration process was a great challenge to the Puerto Rican people. They had been affected by social and economic problems in their home country hence being forced to move. On arriving in a foreign country, things did not get any better. They faced new challenges that they were not aware of.

West Side Story Film

The West Side Story film is a musical film produced in 1961. The film is based on an American musical by the same name. The American musical has a book, music, conception and choreography done by different people. It was enthused by Romeo and Juliet, a play by Shakespeare.

The films plot was divided into two acts. This was intended at increasing more tension in the plot. The film shows the life of two gangs who are involved in music based tension in the Manhattan streets in the 1957 late summer. The gangs include the Jets and the Sharks. The Jets were a white American gang while the Sharks were a gang with Puerto Rican immigrants. The two gangs are rivals, and they harass each other.

The rift between the two gangs escalates. The two rival gangs agree to meet at an agreed location for a fight. The fight begins and ends up fatally with the two gang leaders being stubbed to death. The police arrive at the location and the other gang members flee away from the scene. Later on, the co-founder of the American gang is killed by a Puerto Rican gang member. The film ends with the arrest of the killer by police.

This film addresses the themes discussed in the previous assignments since it reflects on the lives of Puerto Rican immigrants. The film demonstrates the lifestyle of immigrants in a foreign nation. The film shows the elements that affected Puerto Rican immigrants. The film offers the perspective of the struggles the Puerto Rican immigrants underwent while in a foreign country.

Relationship Reflection

The film West Side Story and the past paper assignments support the same idea. The two consider the Puerto Rican migration and the challenges faced by them in a foreign country. The two show how it was difficult for immigrants to live a superior life in a foreign state.

The immigrants in both contexts were struggling with their settlement and their location. The immigrants who arrived in America ended up living in eastern parts of America, mainly New York. This is because they could not afford high rent rates in other areas. They did not get good employment opportunities that would sustain them to live better lives. Hence they were making a little income and could not afford to settle in good locations (Whalen and Vi
ctor 21).

The immigrants in both contexts were involved in crime. The immigrants were influenced by the areas where they lived. The crime rates in America were on the increase with the number of immigrants increasing. The immigrants were faced by financial challenges hence they forced to indulge themselves in crime. The location of the immigrants was a setting of low levels of civilization.

The immigrants in both contexts were involved in cultural events. They were involved in various activities that developed culture. They practiced their culture in the foreign country. They were involved in the establishment of a cultural life of sociality. They preserved their heritage on culture by being involved in social and political movements (Fitzpatrick 49).

The immigrants in both contexts faced discrimination. The area in which the immigrants lived, the locals there felt that the immigrants have come to take their position and opportunities. They discriminated them since they were in their country. The immigrants were mistreated by the locals in different ways and setting.

For instance in terms relating to employment, they received discrimination at work by being paid the lowest payment. In terms relating to where they lived, they faced discrimination from people who claimed that they are not supposed to live in those areas (Whalen and Vi
ctor 35).

Puerto Ricans

The film and the paper describe the Puerto Ricans on the island, the mainland, or the diaspora at large. The Puerto Ricans were people who targeted to improve their lives. Having faced hard times in their country, they were ready to make the changes essential in order to improve the status.

The Puerto Ricans were involved in social, cultural and political movements so as to influence change where possible. They indulged themselves in campaigns that would see them be recognized and be treated with acknowledgement.

Both the film and paper describe the Puerto Ricans on the island, the mainland, or the diaspora at large as people who valued their culture and were always protecting and promoting it. This is evident in the notable activities they used to be involved with. They practiced these so as to support their culture instead of letting it die off.

The Puerto Ricans were also shown to be people with unity. In the different locations they were, they linked themselves in one accord. This increased their popularity and strength as a community. They also helped each other in all situations in support of each other. When their own would get into a problem, they would come up with a solution that was meant to improve the situation (Fitzpatrick 14).

The message between the two contexts, the film and the papers, is that the Puerto Rican immigration into the United States was influenced by several aspects. This depended on the motive of the immigrants, with the main purpose of immigration was to gain employment.

Conclusion

The immigration of Puerto Rican people into the United States has impacted the social, political and economic aspects in different ways. The Puerto Rican people established a culture while in the foreign country.

This was among the several positive impacts they made. They practiced their customs and traditions that gained recognition by the locals. Their efforts to gain employment and work in the foreign country improve the economy status. Through immigration, the Puerto Rican people improved their status and that of their location (Fitzpatrick 77).

Works Cited

Fitzpatrick, Joseph P. Puerto Rican Americans: The Meaning of Migration to the Mainland. Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice-Hall, 1971. Print.

Whalen, Carmen T, and Vi
ctor Va
zquez-Herna
ndez. The Puerto Rican Diaspora: Historical Perspectives. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2005. Print.

Abstract

This paper will focus on the book titled Young gifted and black: Promoting high achievement among African-American students. The paper will start with an analysis of the most interesting parts of the book covered by each of the three authors and then proceed to look at African-American philosophy of education versus academic excellence of the performance of African-Americans. Changes in the understanding of achievement gap will last be analysis before the paper culminates with a recommendation of what schools should do differently to promote the achievement of African-American students

Interesting bits in the book Young gifted and black: Promoting high achievement among African-American students

This book is educational masterpiece authored by award winning scholars of African American Origin. The book is critical analysis of African American students academic success and life in school. The book is made up of three different essays each by a different person. The first essay is authored by Theresa Perry and she focuses on the theory of achievement by African Americans. The part essay starts with a description of the excellence of the black Americans who took part in the program dubbed education opportunity. The most interesting thing about this part of the essay is the mixture of the academic excellence of the African Americans is schools and academic programs with the many hardships like poverty, illiterate parents, racism and many other variables that do not impede their achievement in education. She claims that African American experience is related to African American achievement and this understanding will help in theory education from an African American point of view (Perry, Steele & Hilliard, 2003)

The other interesting part of the essay is her exposition of the African American philosophy of education which she sums up as the lived experiences of the people of that race riddled by struggle, denied opportunities and racism. According to her, this is the influences that motivate the philosophy of education of the African American. What empowers the reader in the understanding of her message is the use of various narratives in the modern sense that strike with the target audience. Some of the narratives cover the experiences of legends such as Malcolm X, Angelou and Gwendolyn Parker. The author message in these narratives is the constraints and struggles that precede academic excellence of the African Americans. The narratives give the reader a chance to identify the vital influences that these academic greats used to ride over the impeding elements. The other interesting part of the book is the essay by Claude Steel about the effects of racial stereotype on the academic achievement of down races, in this case, the African American. Stereotype is a negative depiction and creates fear in the subject of the stereotype in a way that they avoid doing something that is similar to the stereotype. She claims that stereotype is an influence the derails the academic achievement of the people of the African American background. She not only identifies stereotyping as a problem but also goes ahead to offer a solution. She claims that a good relationship between students and teachers can wipe out part of the problem. Institutional changes can be made to bring diversity and fairness for the diverse races in an academic institution (Perry, Steele & Hilliard, 2003). The other solution is the interpretating of intelligence using the principles of effort versus experiences instead of ones background. The other interesting part in an essay by Assay Hilliard about the gap in achievement where he challenges the old thinks that the gap should be construed as the difference between the achievement of the white Americans and that of their African counterparts. He claims that the achievement gap should be thought again to make it the difference between success and real performance.

African-American philosophy of education versus academic excellence of the performance of African-Americans

The philosophy of education is related to the achievement and the performance of the Africans in the education system. The African American philosophy is based not only on knowledge and innate capabilities but is highly grounded on the things that the African Americans have experienced in life. These lived experiences include denial of aces to quality education, illiteracy rates among the African Americans and very many other struggles.

This philosophy of education is very important in the understanding of the performance of the African Americans because it highlights the motivating factors behind this performance, which is a complete departure from conventional philosophy that did not factor in lived experiences. According to this philosophy, the performance of the African Americans in school is as a result of the struggles that the African Americans had to make in life (Perry, Steele & Hilliard, 2003)..The philosophy thus sums up the performance and achievement of the African Americans as an accomplishment made in an environment of significant constraints bring by the inferiority complex of the African Americans. The constraints are therefore strengths and the tactics that help the African Americans to excellently their learning because of a desire of future life without such constraints.

Change in the understanding of achievement gap

According to Hilliard, the achievement divide is usually thought using ethnic and gender fronts which is a misplaced notion. The traditional postulation that viewed achievement gap from cultural lines doses not have a place in any philosophy of education because it fails to capture the most significant elements of achievement. This traditional conceptualization of achievement gap therefore promotes mediocrity in education, but Hilliards point of view, brings a expert understanding of the achievement gap because it defines the gap as the difference between what is figure as excellence and the real performance. This understanding is very important because it defeats the illogic conventional postulation that saw the gap in learning opportunities presented rather then in the intelligence of the learners themselves. The understanding is also important because it factors the fact the whites are exposed to better education and environment than their African American counterparts and the traditional measure of achievement tends to favor the students who are privileged to get the better education opportunities. When achievement is seen on the levels of performance and not on ethnic and gender platforms, a level playing ground is created from which the achievement gap can be seen objectively.

What schools should do differently to promote the achievement of African-American students

There are things that schools should do differently to promote the achievement in academics of the subjugated race. One of these things is implementation of management strategies that will help dealing with the threat caused by stereotypes. This can be done by enhancement of relationships between the members of the various races and even between the teachers and the students in order to create a homogenous group devoid of hatred. The other thing that the schools can do is to create institutional amendments that promote justice and fairness for all and this will encourage the students to respect the cultural diversities that are there in the school system. Lastly achievement should not be interpreted from a gender or ethnic perspective but from a background of effort applied and lived experience. This will ensure that there is a level playing filed for the students of diverse races that will enable them compete favorably.

Reference

Perry, T., Steele, C., Hilliard, A. (2003). Young, gifted and black: Promoting high achievement among African-American students. New York: Beacon Press.

Introduction

Social theories and policies are part of the Australian education institution. These theories and policies affect individuals differently depending on their social and educational statuses. The government has instituted several initiatives that are aimed at improving the levels and qualities of education within the country. An example of a government initiative is the Higher Education Contributions Scheme (HECS). The HECS was started in 1989 and it sought to increase the intake of degree programs in the country (Chapman 738). The sociological and theoretical policies that apply to the institution of the HECS program touch on several educational theories and philosophies.

For instance, the context of the HECS borrows some aspects from Durkheim, Weber, Marx, and the Frankfurt schools of thought. Furthermore, HECS also bears aspects of globalization and neoliberalism. This essay explores the history and institution of HECS and it relates to several educational theories and concepts. The paper primarily focuses on neoliberalism and globalization among other theories and policies.

History of HECS

The formation and implementation of the HECS is very important to the Australian tertiary education history. The HECS policy implementation took a short time due to the political will of the Hawke Labour Government. The HECS represents one of the most significant changes in the history of Australian tertiary education. Previously, tertiary education in Australia was an individual effort and students had to pay their fees upfront. However, the government sought to address the needs of the students who could not afford to pay their fees upfront. Under the HECS, the government would provide loans to students and collect the money once the credited student started earning enough money.

HECS was a brainchild of the Wran Committee and it encompassed three major government ministries. The main concern for the ministries of employment, education and training, and finance was how to streamline the institution of HECS from the financing stage up to the debt collection stage. Nevertheless, the Wran Committee had to ensure that both the public and the Labour Party would welcome the HECS idea. During the period leading to the formation of the HECS, the labour party was exploring the idea of a government funded University education. On the other hand, the public was in support of the government-funded educational program.

Therefore, the Wran Committee had the challenging task of convincing the public to accept the burden of paying for its tertiary education. To avoid possible public backlash, the committee sought to institute a program that was different from the traditional fees systems. Consequently, HECS is primarily an income-contingent loan system. A student is only due for a loan repayment once he/she attains a certain level of income. The reasoning behind the HECS is that the benefits of the education that the student acquired from the government are undeniable by the time of repayment. The means of collecting the HECS financing was one of the primary concerns of the Wran Committee.

Several measures were put in place before the HECS idea was floated to the public. For instance, as a means of preparing the ground before the implementation of the program a paper titled The Challenge of Higher Education in Australia was published. A few months later, a paper titled Higher Education and Policy Discussion Paper appeared. The Wran Committee tabled the HECS report in May 1988 and the policy was implemented three months later.

By 1989, HECS was operational across Australia and it was also funded in that years budget (Gregory 237). The simplicity and success of HECS implementation was partly due to the straightforwardness of the program. For instance, the only important considerations of the HECS were the amount of fees that was to be credited to an individual, the level of interest to be charged, and the level of income that a student was to earn before he/she could start repaying the loan. Furthermore, the government did not impose any relevant exemptions to the policy. The HECS program triggers loan repayment as soon as a certain income threshold is discovered in an individual. So far, the HECS policy has been functioning well and with minimum hitches. The success of the policy has been due to the effectiveness of the program. For instance, the HECS policy is fair to the students and it enables students to achieve high levels of incomes before seeking repayments.

HECS Personal Influence

As a beneficiary of the HECS, I have a direct connection to the policy. Curretly, I am registered for the HECS and my main qualification is my middle-class status. First, the program enables me to acquire higher education even though I do not have to pay for it at the moment. This HECS element enables me to achieve both my educational and career goals. It is also clear that the quality of education has greatly improved under the HECS. Before the policy came into force in 1989, the Australian government was reeling from the constraints of funding higher education amid a rapidly rising population. Today, my university lectures are filled with students from all socio-economic classes.

Furthermore, all these students receive a homogeneous quality education regardless of their economic abilities. The HECS has opened educational doors for me because it enabled to enrol for the degree program of my choice. My situation is replicated in thousands of students across Australia whose economic handicaps have not impeded their quest for tertiary education. The HECS policy has opened economic and lifestyle doors of opportunity for me and for thousands of students across the country.

HECS and Neoliberalism

Many scholars have forwarded the argument that globalization is dominantly changing our world (Marginson 38). Neoliberalism is a general term that addresses capitalism, consumerism, and the inadequacy of the welfare state. Other schools of thought have dismissed neoliberalism as an improvement of the traditional liberalism. Consequently, neoliberalism has been defined as the revival of liberalism (****). One of the most common associations of liberalism is with economics. Neoliberalism is closely connected to neoclassical economics that advocate for stringent tax laws and wider tax nets. Regardless of its various definitions, neoliberalism is a dominant term in modern-global economics and politics.

Neoliberalism advocates for privately held resources hence its connection to HECS. According to neoliberalism, the government should not intervene with the free-flow of the economy. For instance, the private educational sector should be allowed to thrive without interruptions and non-capitalist policies. Therefore, the HECS policy is in line with neoliberalism because it seeks to eliminate the possibility of an educational system that is purely funded by the government (Thorsen 189).

Before the HECS policy was implemented, the Labour Party had proposed for a government-funded tertiary education system. Neoliberalism advocates have always been against a system that supports social welfare programs such as government-provided education and Medical care. Deregulation of tertiary education in Australia coincides with neoliberalisms philosophy of privatisation of public utilities and turning them into private companies. Since the implementation of HECS, the price of university education has gone up by fifteen percent (Keynes 58). Furthermore, private universities have become more vibrant under the HECS policy. The element of neoliberalism in HECS policy is unmistakable. Since HECS was implemented, higher education in Australia has become more capitalistic and the level of government interference has since declined.

HECS and Globalization

Globalization is a commonly used term in the current trade, communications, financial, and economics environment. Under globalization, nationally located enterprises are able to traverse transnational borders. Furthermore, under globalization a product that is specifically tailored for a national can gain acceptance from global consumers. Dillon notes that globalization is a trade-relation that has existed between countries but one that has lately developed in a larger scale (Eggins 47). Globalization is mostly used to advocate for policies whose impact traverses geographical borders.

Education is closely related to the concept of globalization as different regions seek to make their educational products appealing to a global audience. For example, Australia considers education as one of the countrys most valuable exports. HECS enabled the government to supply education to a several students within Australia but not to international students. The only reprieve for international students is the fact that since the inception of HECS the government can be able to offer scholarships to foreign students.

Previously, the cost of catering for higher education even for Australian students was too much for the government. However, the government recovers most of these education costs and this increases the availability of educational resources to both domestic and international students. HECS pushes the globalization agenda by making educational affordable to international students. If the concept of globalization is achieved, HECS services could be made available to international students. HECS connection to globalization depends on the future directions that will be taken by both policies (Swank 218). For instance, advancement of globalization might help the spread of HECS policy.

HECS and Relevant Theories

Emile Durkheim insists that education is sociologically relevant because it represents a basis for organic solidarity (Edwards 48). Therefore, restricting educational resources to a certain socio-economic group perpetuates inequality and social discord. There were two issues facing the implementation of the HECS policy. The first issue surrounded the pricing of a previously free service and the second issue involved making education more universal and increasing the number of individuals seeking tertiary education. The first issue could be contradicting the Emile Durkheim theory of education that supports a government funded education framework.

However, the fact that HECS increases the provision of education to members of all economic classes reconciles the policy with Durkheims theory. On the other hand, Max Webers believes that governments can easily use an education system to control their subjects. Therefore, government control of education systems should be limited. In addition, Weber recognizes the need for private proprietorships in education. HECS coincides with Webers ideology of lesser government control in education systems.

Conclusion

HECS is a policy that has greatly changed the education landscape of Australia. The government instituted the policy to ensure that education becomes available to individuals from all socio-economic groups. The policy has had positive impacts on several people including myself. Furthermore, the policy has aligned itself with neoliberalism agendas and also borrows support from the concept of globalization. Renowned education scholars such as Mark Weber and Emile Durkheim would gladly support the HECS policy as it aligns with their ideologies.

References

Chapman, Bruce. Conceptual Issues And The Australian Experience With Income Contingent Charges For Higher Education. The Economic Journal 107.442 (2007): 738-751. Print.

Edwards, Meredith. Social Policy, Public Policy: From Problem to Practice, Sydney, Australia: Allen and Unwin. 2001. Print.

Eggins, Heather. Globalization and reform in higher education, New York, NY: McGraw-Hill International, 2003. Print.

Gregory, Robert George. Musing and Memories on the Introduction of HECS and Where to Next on Income Contingent Loans. Australian Journal of Labour Economics 12.2 (2009): 237. Print.

Keynes, Maynard. The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money, London, United Kingdom: Macmillan. 2006. Print.

Marginson, Simon. Dynamics of national and global competition in higher education. Higher education 52.1 (2006): 1-39. Print.

Thorsen, Dag Einar. The Neoliberal Challenge. What is Neoliberalism? Contemporary Readings in Law and Social Justice 2 (2010): 188-214. Print.

Swank, Duane, and Hans-Georg Betz. Globalization, the Welfare State And Right-Wing Populism in Western Europe. Socio-Economic Review 1.2 (2003): 215-245. Print.

Introduction

Over the years, the teaching systems in a variety of schools have dwelled on continuous assessment tests and end-of-year exams to assess the level of understanding and learning. Alternative ways of measuring learning such as oral presentation are rarely used or rather, they are used in only specific classes; for instance English. The oral presentation has also been used in classes where a foreign language is being taught for the teacher to know whether the students have either grasped the language or if they are fluent enough to hold a conversation or if they have got the pronunciation right. About that, simply defined, oral presentation is all about talking about a specific topic in front of a teacher or students. It is also used as a tool that develops the communication skills of students (Lianghuo & Shu Mei, p.83) Speaking of a class environment, the teacher chooses a topic from a wide range of subjects such as science, culture, religion, and many more; and the students are expected to handle these topics through discussion and analysis. Later on, the teacher can be able to measure or assess their level of learning. So, how effective is this alternative way of measuring the level of learning? This essay will explore the strength and weaknesses of an oral presentation assessment and give personal input about the suitability of using it as an alternative source of measuring learning.

Strength of an oral presentation assessment

First of all, one good thing about oral presentation assessment is that the teacher can easily tell whether the student has understood the subject of choice. In other words, the students way of explaining the point and delivering it for the audience to understand is vital to the teacher. In light of that, for instance, the teacher can give a student a presentation on religion to measure the level of understanding, assess the students eloquence, observe the students mannerisms on the stage such as eye contact, and posture, self-confidence, and language. Hincks and Edlund (2009) agree with this view when they state that an oral presentation involves the use of temporal features such as speaking at a pace that is appropriate to the audience. All this will be analyzed to position the student academic wise. After the oral presentation, the teacher will have the capability of helping the student in the weak area. On the other hand, the student will benefit in many ways. One most crucial way that is of benefit to the students is that they will know their weaknesses and learn how to improve on them. They will also learn their strengths and bank on them. In addition to that, the student will develop self-confidence and learn how to carry oneself when standing in front of a crowd.

Another important way of assessing the level of understanding, especially when the teacher has a foreign class is to dwell on oral presentation. For instance, given a French class that is taught as a foreign language to a fluently speaking English class, a teacher can easily tell the eloquent students or those who are improving in pronunciation, grammar, and sentence construction. This is also an advantage to the students in that it gives them courage in speaking to a crowd while they can tell how to improve on their weak points.

Weakness of an oral presentation assessment

Normally, before an oral presentation assessment, the teacher will always tell the students the standards that will be used to determine their overall performance (Sweet, 1993). As common sense will tell, the students will dwell on and even cram, those areas and neglect the ones that may not seem important, but in the real sense, they are. For instance, if the teacher tells the students that the area of preference is an explanation of points in a given topic, any student who wants more marks will take the time to understand and cram the points. Right after the oral presentation, they will neglect or sometimes forget the information. The teachers will assess the oral presentation and give the best marks to the student who handled the explanation well yet did not assess how well understood the topic was. It is known that students can parade a list of points and yet the understanding is poor.

Personal Opinion

In my view, I think that oral presentation is a credible way of measuring learning in that it is a very direct and simple way of helping the teacher figure out whether the students have understood the subject. Therefore, I would freely recommend it as a way of measuring learning since questions and conflicts are resolved quickly (Graves, p3).

Conclusion

Thus, apart from just using exams as a way of measuring learning, teachers should also include the oral presentation in many of their subjects and exam timetables. In order to tell whether the students have got a hold of the subject instead of just cramming, the teacher should prompt the students with questions during the oral presentation.

Reference

Graves, R. (n.d). Oral Presentations: Advice and Tips. 2010. Web.

Hincks, R. & Edlund, J. (2009). Promoting increased Pitch Variation In Oral Presentations With Transient Visual Feedback. Language and Technology, 13 (3), 32-50. Web.

Linghuo, F. & Shu Mei, Y. (2007). Integrating Oral Presentation into Mathematics Teaching and Learning: An Exploratory Study with Singapore Secondary Students. The Montana Mathematics Enthusiast, 81-98. Web.

Sweet, D. (1993). Performance Assessment. Education Consumer Guide. Web.

Education is important and every government should make efforts to ensure that its citizens access education. Although education is expensive, scholars and researchers still believe that education is key to success. Therefore, making education accessible to all is the first step towards development and social change.

In Canada, people in the lower class face many issues and for some, attaining tertiary education is a big challenge. However, to ensure that needy students in Ontario access the college education, the Federal government of Ontario has been working together with the Central government of Canada to facilitate loans for such students. This paper will discuss extensively the OSAP tuition assistance program and funding of post-secondary education in Ontario, Canada.

Conclusion

The Canadian government has shown commitments to make certain that education is accessible to all citizens. To ensure that needy students realize their dreams, attain education, and achieve their career goals, the government of Ontario, through the Ontario Student Assistance Program (OSAP) has been instrumental in funding post-secondary education.

Although funding of this program has been a challenge, the Federal government of Ontario has jointed efforts with the Central government of Canada to ensure that all needy students access tertiary education. Various departments have been proactive to ensure success of this project.

The Federal government and Department of Human resource and Social development have been administering the OSAP program while the Ministry of Training in conjunction with tertiary institutions is responsible for fair administration of the program hence promoting transparency.

Because of commitment by various stakeholders, the implementation of the OSAP program has been very successful. As a result, needy students in Ontario are now able to attain their education and career goals. Since students are required to pay this loan after they have successfully completed their college education, it has been a big challenge for most of them because the current repayment program requires graduates to pay a certain fixed amount of money every month.

Since most young graduates do not get well paying jobs, there is a need to make amendments to the current repayment program. The best alternative is fixing the repayment schedule based on income level of an individual, which will enable graduate students to pay the education loan with ease. With such amendments, the OSAP program will continue to help needy students and families achieve their education and career goals.

Introduction

Essay writing is a major concept practiced in high schools, colleges and universities, regardless of the course that one is undertaking. Unlike creative writing, which can take any format, it is worth noting that essay writing has a method that has to be followed, especially for academic reasons. This paper explores the method of writing a good essay, with special focus on the format and main ideas that have to be considered during this type of writing.

Fundamentals to writing a good essay

While most people know that essays usually have an introduction, body, and conclusion, less emphasis is put on balancing the three components in actual writing. Oftentimes, most experts recommend that introduction, body, and conclusion should represent 10%, 80%, and 10% respectively (Helpsheet 2).

Essays, which do not adhere to this rule, are likely to score low marks, since it is considered as the basic structure of any academic essay. Secondly, the introduction of an essay depends on the research questions or the topic of research being considered. In general, the topic gives direction on how ideas are organized in the essay, and may take varied approaches. At this point, one may choose to turn the research topic into a question, as a way of introducing the essay (Langley 3).

Additionally, a good essay narrows its scope to limited issues, since not everything can be covered in a single essay. In other words, it is important to state what to be covered, areas under consideration, and possible comparisons, in order to give the reader a clear picture of the content of the essay.

Importantly, this method allows the writer to draw information from different disciplines, as a way of collecting enough materials to educate the reader, rather than reproducing other peoples ideas (Helpsheet 3). This also makes the essay authentic and interesting to read, as ones view of the topic is widened through different ideas.

In this line of thought, excellent essays are neither too general nor too specific. When the method is too general, it becomes hard for one to plan in terms of how to start, the content, and the final direction of the essay. On the other hand, too specific essays may lack enough materials, thus remaining shallow and boring to the reader. For this reason, a good essay balances the scope of the research with the reader in mind.

Besides having focused research questions and a plan of the essay, it is important for the writer to select a topic, which captures the entire area of study. This is to say that, the reader should be eager to know the content of the essay as depicted by the title. A good title can be in form of a question, a statement, or a combination of the two.

Notably, there has to be a direct link between the title of research and the content of the essay. Another important component of a good essay is a thesis statement, which states the position taken by the writer. This gives direction to the reader throughout the essay, as it forms the basis of all arguments presented. A thesis can also be a point of view taken by different authors on a given topic of research.

Conclusion

Above all, a good essay has a conclusion, which summarizes the ideas discussed, thus giving it a smooth flow that allows easy understanding. The three elements ensure the transition of ideas as the reader is able to tell the direction of the essay.

Works Cited

Helpsheet. Essay Writing Basics. The University of Melbourne, 2010. Web.

Langley, Lester. The Basics of Good Writing. SUNY Rockland Community College, 2006. Web.

Abstract

This case study seeks to analyse the role of voice of students in the development of their behaviour. It also looks at various issues that have been raised on the levels of students participation in academic issues and the views held on the issue of students consultations and participation in the implementation of change in educational institutions.

The aim of this case study is to show how ideas put forward by Foucault have helped shape behaviour of students in educational institutions in relation to their participation in educational matters.

Introduction

In the process of promotion of self-learning by students, the inclusion of their input and voices is of immense importance since it has the ability to empower them and to give them new experiences in learning. The level of student consultation and participation has been on the increase in almost all levels of education in the United Kingdom.

More and more students have a say on the school administration on various matters that affect their academic life. This has witnessed behavioral change in institutions of learning. Although this has been the case, very few seem to agree on the meaning of this new desire to give students an opportunity to air their opinions on various matters in the academic circle.

Numerous works done in this field by many contributors either seek to champion this cause or provide guidelines for effective students participation and consultation.

Foucault Theory

Foucault, in his theory explains power as a confrontation that involves two adversaries. He sees power as linking this adversarys together rather the question on government. In his theory, government not only includes political structures but also the way groups or individuals conduct could be directed.

Therefore, governmentality involves the effort to restructure human faculty or systems in order to function in a given manner. Due to this, the process of government would not be realized through struggle or linking the parties together, but in a mode of action that falls in between.

According to Foucault, power can only be exercised when subjects are free. Therefore to him slavery cannot be an exercise of power. Foucault theory presents a model that explains how oppression can be fought. The theory can be used to give an explanation of how institutions of education can employ concepts of the theory to shape behavior of students especially in regard to their participation in educational matters.

Students Participation

According to Potter (2011), students can be grouped into four different categories that constitute their voice in adult education. The conceptual framework for students participation proposed by Potter proposes a level of students agency as one that is increasing.

In the first view in this framework, the students are assumed to be sources of data and their assessment is based on the normative targets. In the second approach, students are assumed to be active in response to various questions where teachers are assumed to be able to listen to them with the view of responding to their analysis whenever they have the right and the freedom to raise their voices on various issues.

The third approach by Potter takes students as partners in research with an expanded role of education especially in the decision making process where teachers are also included. In the fourth level, the framework takes students as researchers of their own.

To add to the views of Potter, Sellar and Gale (2011), talk about the emergence of students voice in the recent past. The two talk about student participation and identity and view this as having risen from the struggle for equality and the need for recognition politically.

The voice of students is taken as a part of a project that seeks to emancipate students. This is done with the hope of bringing transformation not only to the individual students, but also to the educational institution, which are viewed as being oppressive to students, and also to bring transformation to the society as a whole.

Sellar and Gale on their part propose that students equity should be based on capacities such as voice, aspirations and mobility rather than on barriers that at present arise before them.

According to them, strengthened capacities help in developing networks (mobility), give shape to the future (aspirations) and also share the experiences gained or earned (the voice). This increases the peoples ability to have access to the benefits of social institutions and economic goods together with the transformation of these institutions.

Five principles that govern the voice of students have been proposed by Sellar and Gale. According to them, resource is an important component required by students. This is considered to be of significant importance since it determines the value attached to this voice and the recognition it gets from others.

They also suggest that voice requires participation of others in order to enable the exchange and narrations with them. The third principle according to Sellar and Gale involves the role of voice in relation to histories. According to the two, it is the voice that speaks for the embodied history of the society as a whole.

They also acknowledge in their fourth principle that the life of the society is composed of multiple narratives rather than just a single narrative. For the voice equality to exist, social relations must play a pivotal role. The voice, according to their last principle is denied in cases where the society is organised in a manner that give privileges to some voices while others are ignored.

In their contribution to the debate on learners participation, Rudd, Colligan and Naik (2006) proposed four main approaches that could be used by institutions of educational institutions such as schools and colleges, to enhance students activities in relations to their voices on various issues.

To them, the first step should be to identify the existing position of these institutions in the development of the voice of the students. Accordingly, the institutions should identify whether or not enough efforts are put in place to enhance the students voice.

Accordingly, effort should be put in place to ensure effective participation in situations where this is not available. This will be achievable if the institution is ready to listen to the voice of the students.

They also suggest the need to know the recognised voice in situations where there is a barrier to student participation in raising their views. In such situations, it is considered crucial to know the position of the institution in the development of the voice of the students.

The main question here should revolve around the issue of acceptance of an institution to give students freedom to air their views on various issues surrounding their academic lives.

The third question according to the three should be on the methods that these institutions use to approach the concept of students participation and in particular in airing their voices on various matters. The question should also address the tools that are employed by educational institutions to help students to air the voices.

However, Rudd, Colligan and Naik agree that not all areas should be opened for student participation and consultations. Therefore, they suggest that learning institutions should decide on the issues and areas where the concept of students participation should be employed.

To them, the students voice can be experienced in a number of levels. The first level is considered non-participatory in which case the actions of students are directed rather than being informed. At this level, students play a role indirectly in decision making without knowledge of their right to participate.

It also involves situations where students get information on changes without their involvements on the matter or without their input to the decisions reached. The three main types of participation here include manipulation, decoration and informing.

With just little acceptance of students participation in a more direct manner, the second level of participation consists of consultations, placation and partnership. At this level, students get full information on the intended decisions by the institution management which also encourages input from students although no consideration is made to their contributions.

The level is also characterised by the institutions efforts to inform students about, the intended changes, invite their views and listen to them, but guarantee is never granted that their views will be considered in the final output.

However, in some cases, consultations are done between institutions and the learners in which case students receive information on the intended changes from the management. Students views in such situations are taken into consideration which results into decisions that include students input together with that of the staff working in the institution.

The last level according to Rudd, Colligan and Naik empower students to take leading roles on various issues. In this case, the roles of students on matters affecting their academic lives are exclusively played by them. The institutions management plays the role of support where there is a need for that.

The students are also empowered in this level to the extent that they can initiate projects, manage various issues, delegate work to fellow students and also give shape to the way education should be approached. Here, the main type of participation includes the power to delegate and the students control.

Various studies done on the subject have come up with a general conclusion of lack of awareness on the part of the students on the existence of their role in shaping organization procedures. Most believe that the nature of the market, which is quite competitive, does not allow consultations between students and the institutions management to take place.

The situation is not different in those institutions that encourage participation. This is because, despite the contributions made by students in form of ideas on various issues, no implementation of their views is effected. This denies students the opportunity to develop fundamental disciplines in their lives and forced them to comply with the institutions regulation or where this is intolerable, take the option of leaving.

However, the voice of the learner was considered indispensable in classrooms. According to Braggs (2007), students voice is never allowed to be unmediated, but rather, it is always guided, supervised and facilitated using various means that make sure there is a limit to what students can say and the way those who speak think about themselves.

Various studies done by students have confirmed that given an opportunity to air their views and to participate fully in various issues affecting the life of the society, they are able to offer valuable input.

This can be confirmed by various authorities in the society such as teachers and managers who were amazed by the level of quality of research done by students through their self-initiatives and without supervision by the management of the education institutions.

Although Bragg considers the role of voice of students to be of great importance on various issues, he agrees with those who hold views that there should be limits put in place by stakeholders in the education sector in order to control the influence the voice of students might have in their institutions.

One form of students voice considered to be of great importance in the process of normalisation of students behaviour is opinion line. Opinion line, a form of the voice of the students, has the ability to normalise attitude, behaviour and to ensure proper development of the young generation into respectable citizens of the country through various forms of punishments.

Student participation also helps them develop new ways of behaviour at school. Through the participation of students in various issues, they are considered to develop forms of responsibilities and obligations that initially were not part of them. As a result of this, students are able to manage the environment and themselves in a manner that can be considered prudent (Turner 2001).

They also behave in a manner that indicates that they understand the role they have to play in the future as students. This influences the outcome of their environment with particular interest on the outcome around the institutions of education.

Conclusion

As predicted by Foucault, formation of behaviour is influenced heavily by formal institutions in the sense that all formal institutions have some forms bureaucratic procedures to be adhered to. It is these procedures that make actors accustomed to certain forms of behavior in order to fit within the institutions behavioural context.

Reference List

Bragg, S. 2007. Student voice and governmentality: The production of enterprising subjects? Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education Vol. 28: No. 3, pp.343-358.

Potter, J. 2011. Lifelong learning in Europe, European Journal of Education. Vol. 3, pp.174-181.

Rudd, T., Colligan, F. & Naik, R. 2006. Learner voice: A handbook from Futurelab, Cengage, Connnecticut.

Sellar, S. & Gale, T. 2011. Mobility, aspiration, voice: A new structure of feeling for student equity in education, Critical Studies in Education, Vol. 52, No. 2, pp.115-134

Turner, B. 2001. Profiles in Contemporary Social Theory. Sage, New York.