Category: Education 2143

Children are inclined to associate new concepts with ideas that they have regarding certain objects and phenomena. Therefore, they can experience difficulties while working with concepts and terms that have different connotations in various situations. For instance, it is often difficult for children to distinguish between objects and materials that were used to manufacture these objects. Thus, children often associate the word glass with an object rather than material. Such words as gravel, sand, or clay are also not perceived as related to different types of substance or matter (Driver, Rushworth, Squires, & Wood-Robinson, 2005).

The same problem is observed while discussing the word material because children have more associations with the word fabric than with the word matter. As a result, students are often confused when teachers speak about drawing or building materials because children can experience difficulties not only with connotations but also with distinguishing between tangible and non-tangible things or meanings related to the same word (Driver et al., 2005). Also, students need to improve their knowledge regarding different types of material and substance, as well as regarding various connotations related to certain terms, to understand what matter or object is meant in the concrete situation.

Students previous experiences. How students experiences with water and air can lead to misconceptions.

Having certain experiences in observing water and air or working with them, children develop ideas that all liquids contain water, and they are associated with water. In this context, liquids are runny and watery (Driver et al., 2005). Furthermore, the previous experience with air does not allow students to understand the idea of mass about air and gases, as well as the fact that air is a mixture of different substances.

As a result, it is possible to observe certain misconceptions associated with childrens visions of liquids and gases. If liquids are runny, it is rather difficult to understand the evaporation and condensation concepts, and typical misconceptions are associated with changes in masses related to different water conditions (Driver et al., 2005). Furthermore, there is a misconception that gases have no masses. Also, children are inclined to develop the idea that air and gases have different qualities that can be discussed as good or bad (Driver et al., 2005). The reason is that children discuss air as good for breathing and gases as dangerous and harmful concerning their previous experiences and adults explanations.

Misconceptions associated with concepts of dissolving and melting

Children can experience difficulties while trying to understand the concepts of dissolving and melting because of the necessity to realize processes associated with changing a condition of substances. As a result, children can develop a range of misconceptions. First, students can ignore differences between the processes of dissolving and melting and use the words or terms that describe these processes interchangeably. Second, students often think that the process of melting does not depend on the temperature, and it can be regulated concerning other factors.

Furthermore, while discussing the process of dissolving, children are inclined to state that substances disappear or turn into water (Driver et al., 2005). These misconceptions lead to forming wrong ideas regarding masses of substances. For instance, many students think that sugar disappears in water when it dissolves. However, speaking about the process of melting, students expect to find some particles in a sugar solution because of misconceptions regarding processes and changes in conditions of substances. Therefore, concepts of dissolving and melting should be explained by teachers properly to avoid the development of misconceptions in students.

Reference

Driver, R., Rushworth, P., Squires, A., & Wood-Robinson, V. (2005). Making sense of secondary science: Research into childrens ideas. New York, NY: Routledge.

The major goal of fostering professional learning is to help educators acquire the information and abilities needed to provide students with more meaningful possibilities once they graduate. Examining the data on student accomplishment is the first step in designing effective professional learning development that aids in defining the educational requirements of pupils and identifying the information and abilities needed to meet those needs (Park et al., 2019). A teachers better professional practice is the result of their professional learning. The long-term objectives of professional practice are primarily focused on raising student accomplishment goals. The data-driven student learning requirements, the supporting data for the identified student needs, and the adult learning requirements should all be recognized via an active professional development system.

Teachers have considered professional development to be the ideal solution. The five crucial stages of education, which are prior knowledge, new material, challenging feedback, and repetition, should be used to assess the subjects for competent learning. The professors can promote professional development initiatives at their institution (Karlberg & Bezzina, 2022). The gathering and examination of crucial criteria are required for practical topic evaluation. A thorough inspection should not be difficult but requires careful planning. The subjects should be able to test ethical questions and understand how to obtain the right responses. The evaluation offers useful data that instructors may utilize to decide responsibly on the outcomes of professional learning development.

Therefore, since there are fewer time and space restrictions online, many educators have opted to use professional learning networks (PLNs) to further their careers alongside colleagues. The understanding of teaching as a complex activity carried out by experts with cognitive, social, emotional, and identity demands is reflected in a whole teachers viewpoint (McPherson et al., 2021). In other words, similar to students, instructors are full people, not just a collection of traits that may be addressed in different places. Teachers might benefit from wide, comprehensive, and adaptable networks as they traverse altering professional settings if they are to improve their practice continuously (Liang-feng & Yuan, 2022). Extensive PLNs ability to react to educators different interests and needs at any time and from anywhere seems to present opportunities for fostering the professional development of full teachers.

PLNs may be viewed as educational systems constructed on a participation-based design that might emerge with or without particular aims. These systems see studying as continual adaptations by which systems preserve their coherences under dynamic settings. Individual agents participate in these networks in transactional ways, ranging from devoted involvement to more oblique lurking (Prenger et al., 2021). Put another way, individuals alter a system as they engage with it, and the system changes them. Teachers may have access to the interactions and resources they need to advance professionally, thanks to PLNs responsive design.

With a varied network of people and resources, PLNs provide new platforms for professionals to learn and develop as specialists. Professionals can interact with people beyond their face-to-face networks, get assistance when needed, and gather professional information anytime, anywhere, thanks to recent technological advancements and widespread Internet access. Digital technologies like social media platforms allow users to interact and engage with others. Each of these names designates a certain method of social interaction. A PLN is a larger, more complex system that frequently consists of several communities, practice networks, and websites supporting online and offline learning (Mhlanga et al., 2022). Researchers have yet to investigate PLNs as intricate networks of individuals, resources, and technological resources. However, PLNs aid teacher development in the vibrant, social, intellectual, and identity domains, and as a result of PLNs, almost all participants said they changed their teaching methods.

Finally, technology impacts all theoretical ideas by supplying skills and innovative teaching methods. Every new theory or notion that is put out deserves careful consideration as it might aid pupils in learning more effectively (Duke et al., 2019). When dealing with a diverse population, it is vital to use various teaching methods. Through a range of networks, connectivism provides that diversity, enabling younger generations to work together to discover answers to an ever-growing number of problems.

References

Duke, B., Harper, G., & Johnston, M. (2013). Connectivism as a digital age learning theory. The International HETL Review, 2013(Special Issue), 4-13.

Karlberg, M., & Bezzina, C. (2022). The professional development needs of beginning and experienced teachers in four municipalities in Sweden. Professional Development in Education, 48(4), 624-641.

Liang-feng, D., & Yuan, L. (2022). Design of performance evaluation algorithm for diversified talent training in modern universities considering innovative thinking. Mobile Information Systems, 2022.

Liang-feng, D., & Yuan, L. (2022). Design of performance evaluation algorithm for diversified talent training in modern universities considering innovative thinking. Mobile Information Systems, 2022.

McPherson, F. M., Smith-Lovin, L., & Cook, J. M. (2021). Birds of a Feather. Personal Networks: Classic Readings and New Directions in Egocentric Analysis, 51, 444.

Mhlanga, D., Denhere, V., & Moloi, T. (2022). COVID-19 and the Key Digital Transformation Lessons for Higher Education Institutions in South Africa. Education Sciences, 12(7), 464.

Park, J. H., Lee, I. H., & Cooc, N. (2019). The role of school-level mechanisms: How principal support, professional learning communities, collective responsibility, and group-level teacher expectations affect student achievement. Educational Administration Quarterly, 55(5), 742-780.

Prenger, R., Poortman, C. L., & Handelzalts, A. (2021). Professional learning networks: From teacher learning to school improvement? Journal of Educational Change, 22(1), 13-52.

The concept of investment in children is both intuitive and appealing. The relevance of welfare and education of children is applicable to any political and social context and aligns well with the fundamental psychological and social values of humanity. The following paper provides an overview of areas consistent with the concept and indicates gaps in their practical applications by exploring the manifestations of its erosion.

Manifestations of the Concept

The concept of children investment can be traced back to the early theories of education. Most prominently, the child-centered approach to learning conceived from the aggregated notions of Comenius, Rousseau, Locke, Dewey, and Montessori, among others, is based on the ideas about the importance of exploration, the focus on real experiences and real-life tasks, and care for children starting as early as possible (Platz & Arellano, 2011).

These ideas can be detected in numerous modern approaches to what can be considered investment in children. In addition, numerous arguments can be invoked to support the importance of such investment. From the educational standpoint, the exposure to experiences grants superior results for childrens academic performance in the school setting. Even more importantly, it determines their success in future and, by extension, allows for improvement of future prospects of the community and the nation (Cooper, Moore, Powers, Cleveland, & Greenberg, 2014). Both outcomes resemble the concept of return on investment.

Even more prominently, a growing body of research provides evidence of direct economic improvement associated with investment in children. A study by Engle et al. (2011) evaluated the effects of early interventions on the later development of preschool children. Among other things, the researchers observed a significant increase in future wages among individuals exposed to preschool enrollment. The effect ranged from $6 to $17 per dollar invested and, according to the modest estimates, promised long-term economic benefits of $11 to $34 billion (Engle et al., 2011). Another aspect of child care that can be considered an investment and can be traced back to early theories is healthcare for unborn and newborn children (Platz & Arellano, 2011).

According to Grimm (2010), there is an indirect relationship between the reduction in child mortality and the long-term increase in the countrys GDP. In addition, the welfare of the population is also related to the availability of equal opportunities in child healthcare as well as the quality of education of children and their parents (Grimm, 2010). In other words, the impact of investment in children is observable in political, family, social, and economic contexts.

Viewpoint Erosion

However, despite the academic consensus on the matter, there is evidence of deterioration of the investment concept. A report by Sorenson (2014) outlines the steady trend of decline in state spending and a consequent drop in the number of children receiving necessary care. According to Sorenson (2014), such situation inevitably leads to numerous adverse outcomes in the business setting and, by extension, undermines economic performance. A similar situation was identified in the report of the National Childrens Bureau (2017). The inquiry detected several shortcomings of the country-wide investment efforts. Most notably, an overwhelming majority of senior managers in child care stated their inability to provide the necessary care to children in need due to funding and resource shortages (National Childrens Bureau, 2017).

Conclusion

As can be seen from the information above, there is an apparent gap between the theoretical implications of benefits of investment into children and the compliance with the formulated statements. Thus, in order to ensure the economic, social, and cultural welfare of the state, it is crucial to review the policies related to the areas related to investment in future. Such alignment is expected to provide stability and sustainability of the social and economic progress and therefore should be considered a top priority.

References

Cooper, B. R., Moore, J. E., Powers, C. J., Cleveland, M., & Greenberg, M. T. (2014). Patterns of early reading and social skills associated with academic success in elementary school. Early Education and Development, 25(8), 1248-1264.

Engle, P. L., Fernald, L. C., Alderman, H., Behrman, J., OGara, C., Yousafzai, A.,& Iltus, S. (2011). Strategies for reducing inequalities and improving developmental outcomes for young children in low-income and middle-income countries. The Lancet, 378(9799), 1339-1353.

Grimm, M. (2010). Does inequality in health impede growth? ISS Working Paper Series/General Series, 501, 1-31.

National Childrens Bureau. (2017). No good options: Report of the inquiry into childrens social care in England. Web.

Platz, D., & Arellano, J. (2011). Time tested early childhood theories and practices. Education, 132(1), 54-63.

Sorenson, P. (2014). Failure to invest in high-quality child care hurts children and states economy. Web.

Introduction

In any education setting, testing forms an integral part of any learning process, it is one of the primary methods of ascertaining whether learners have mastered all the content learned in class. Because of the dynamic nature of the learning process, which results due to the differences in learners learning abilities, background, motivational levels, and experiences of testing can also help to ascertain areas of learners weaknesses. On the other hand, testing plays an important role in informing parents and guardians of their childrens level of educational performance.

Although most parents and other stakeholders receive results of learners performance, sometimes it is hard to understand the results, because of the terminologies that have been used. Therefore, to be able to interpret the results and offer learners the required guidance, one must know the testing terms that are commonly used during testing. In addition to parents, teachers and curriculum developers need to understand any testing terms used, as this may act as an important tool for facilitating the testing process. This paper will define and discuss the most primary terms, which are used in the education testing process, some of which include age equivalence, stanine, Z-score, standard score, raw score, reliability, percentile rank, and norm-referenced (Clark, 2010, pp. 1-2).

Testing Terms

One of the most commonly used terms in testing is age equivalency. Age equivalency primarily means comparing a childs educational performance concerning a set standard performance score, in which learners of a certain age are supposed to score under normal learning conditions. For example, if a learner who is twelve years old gets a raw score of forty-five in an examination; a mark is required to be scored a learner who is fourteen years; then the age equivalence of such a student is fourteen. Age equivalent test scores help to consider the level of performance between learners of a certain age group and in ascertaining the level of performance of a learner.

Closely related to age equivalency is another term; chronological age. A learners chronological age is the exact age from the time of birth to a certain specific time that a learner is taking a specific test. Chronological age is one of the most important tools during the assessment because it gives educators an opportunity to using any test results to obtain different categories of test scores. Such information is important when it comes to educational placement or formulation of curriculum guides. To obtain the chronological age of a learner, one has to ascertain the exact date of birth followed by subtracting it from a specific time, in which a learner took a specific test (McPherson, 2011, p.1).

Another term that is commonly used in testing is criterion-referenced tests. It is used to refer to tests administered on learners to test the level of mastery of skills or to ascertain the effectiveness of the adopted teaching programs. This is the most common form of tests that are administered in most learning scenarios, because of the numerous skills and ideas that are learned within a specific period. Criterion-reference tests normally are designed with one hundred points (Valenzuela, 2010, p.1).

Another term that is used in the assessment is grade-level equivalency. This term is used to imply how typical learners of a certain level of learning should perform on an examination that has been administered. A learning institutions grade-level performance is the median score of a tests norm group. Grade equivalency primarily shows the grade level and the month, which learners scored a certain median value. For example, students examined in November to a norming group, of seventh grades, and the median score obtained was 480, the grade equivalent for a scale score 0f 480 on the examination is 7.2.

The 7 represents grade seven and 2 represents the month of November, as September marks the commencing of the school year. Closely related to grade-level equivalency is another term norm-referenced tests. These are standardized tests that are used to compare learners skills within a certain age group. The process of developing a norm-referenced test includes selecting test items, followed by administering them on learners, after which statistical and another set standardized and highly structured methods are used to gauge learners, after the norming process. Common examples of norm-referenced tests are multiple-choice tests that are used to test the basic skills of learners (Harvey, 2004, p.1).

A seventh term that is used in testing is percentile rank. It is used to mean the percentage of marks in a certain frequency distribution that is either the same or fall below a certain frequency distribution. For example, a test score that is above 25% of the overall frequency distribution of a cohort of learners who did an examination will be at the 25^th percentile rank. They are commonly applied to ascertain the percentage of the total frequency whose performance is below a certain percentile measure (Stockburger, 2009, p. 1). Before, making any interpretation of learners performance, raw scores have to be collected first.

Raw scores are the original scores of learners, which have not been converted into any form, for example, standardized scores. It is important for a test administered to obtain collect raw scores to be reliable, because of the significance of getting the same results when such tests are administered to other students of the same learning level. Reliability simply means the ability of a testing instrument or method that has been used to collect data to yield similar outcomes when used repeatedly. It is also important for a test to have some level of validity, being one of the primary ways of ensuring that a test achieves its primary goal.

The validity of a test means the ability of a test to assess all concepts it is supposed to assess (Key, 1997, p.1). After raw data has been collected and converted into any desirable form, different measures can be applied to the data, for example, standard deviation. Standard deviation is used to show the variation of the test scores from the average; hence, providing a mechanism of determining the amount of confidence to put on statistical conclusions (the University of Iowa, Department of Education, 2011, p. 1).

Using the values of standard deviation obtained, an one can calculate the standard error of measurement (SEM) using the following formula; SEM=S Ö(1  R); where, S- represents the standard deviation obtained, r- is the reliability coefficient, and Ö- is the square root sign. SEM primarily means the value of error that is normally used in analyzing a learners test score. Learners test scores can also be analyzed using set standard scores (St Ambrose University, 2006, p.1).

Standard scores are set performance levels upon which a learners or a classs test scores are gauged against. It obtained by calculating the difference between an entire classs mean from an individual score. The formula for calculating the standard score is Z=(X-muoversigma); whereby, X-is the raw score, which needs standardization, mu- is the mean of the population and Ã- is the standard deviation. To obtain reliable and dependable results educators should administer standard tests. These are a form of tests that are normally administered and marked and graded, and interpreted regularly, for example, the continuous assessment tests done after completion of every topic.

There exist three types of standards scores namely T-scores, stanines, and Z-scores. Z-scores are statistical measures that are used to show how single pieces of raw data compare with standard data. They usually show how many standard deviations a raw score is from the overall mean of the test results being analyzed. For example, if the mean of test scores is 1000, and the standard deviation is 200, a score of 900 would have a Z-score of (900-1000)/200=-0.5 (Popham, 1999, pp. 9-14 and Azzolino, 2005, p.1).

Just like Z-scores, a stanine is also a standard score, however, the stanine is used to scale test scores. Unlike Z-scores that can be negative or positive, stanine values are positive and range from one to nine. To get the stanine of a certain test score, one should divide the normal distribution of scores into nine intervals. Each of these distributions should have a width of a half a unit standard deviations, exclusive of the first and last ones. The process of getting a stanine of a test score starts with ranking test scores from the lowest to the highest, followed by assigning each test score a stanine value depending on where it falls. For example, if a classs test scores are 8, 13, 18, 23, 28, 33, 38, 33, and 28, these values should be distributed between one and nine. In this, like a scenario, the stanine of test score 13 is 2 and that of 33 is stanine 8 (Azzolino, 2005, p.1).

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is of great significance educators to understand all terms that are used in testing, as they are very important tools in any testing process. Such should the case primarily because, different learners have different abilities; hence, the need to assess such needs and formulate strategies of meeting each learners needs and offering them some academic guidance. Also, the understanding of such terms is important for curriculum developers, because of the need to match a curriculums content with learners abilities.

Reference List

Azzolino, A. (2005). A standard normal distribution with nine specific intervals. Web.

Clark, D. (2010). Kirkpatricks four level training evaluation models. Web.

Harvey, L. (2004). Analytic quality glossary, quality research international. Web.

Key, James. (1997). Research design in occupational education. Oklahoma State University. Web.

McPherson, K.F. (2011). Chronological age. 

Popham, W.J. (1999). Why standardized tests dont measure educational quality. Educational Leadership, 56(6), 815.

Stockburger, D. W. (2009). Introductory statistics: concepts, models, and application; Score transformations. Web.

St. Ambrose University. (2006). Psychological tests and assessment. St. Ambrose University. Web.

University of Iowa, College of Education. (2011). Interpreting test scores. University of Iowa. Web.

Valenzuela, S. (2010). What is criterion-referenced assessment? Web.

Introduction

The purpose of this paper is to examine various logical fallacies to avoid when developing an introduction. First, an introduction with fallacious arguments will be presented. In the next section, those fallacious arguments will be identified and discussed using margin comments. Finally, a revised version of the introduction will be presented using sound arguments.

Introduction with Fallacious Arguments

The current educational model adopted in the majority of elementary schools in the USA is highly inefficient and provokes negative outcomes in the students performance. According to statistic data, in 2012, the US students performance in mathematics was below average. Therefore, the departmentalized structure can unarguably provide a better way of teaching.

According to researchers claims, the generalized or self-contained model implemented in the schools provokes many problems both for teachers and students (Diamond, Maerten-Rivera, & Rohrer, 2013; Strohl, Schmertzing, & Schmertzing, 2014; Nelson, 2014). In the self-contained settings, a group of students receives instructions on the multiple subjects from the same teacher every day. Although the generalized organization is implemented in the majority of elementary schools across the country, the previous research papers have indicated some disadvantages of the given model that affect the teachers and students performance negatively (Strohl, Schmertzing, Schmertzing, & Hsiao, 2014). The negative results on teachers include the lack of in-depth knowledge of subjects, heavy workloads, low self-efficacy, and a high level of stress that leads to a decline in job satisfaction (Stewart, 2015). Based on this evidence, the schools administration should implement the alternative models of education, i.e. departmentalization.

The findings and observations demonstrated in the statistic reports and the previous research make it clear that the elementary education models efficiency is an up-to-date issue, and the alternative educational structures must be investigated. Departmentalization of elementary school can be regarded as a potential method for the existing dilemmas resolving (Strohl, Schmertzing, Schmertzing, & Hsiao). Evaluation of the positive and negative impacts on the teaching and learning processes is of increasing interest and importance because it can support the detection of the areas that need to be improved, and the understanding of how these improvements are to be made.

According to Nelson (2014), teaching in departmentalized settings provokes teachers professional development (p. 8). In opposition to teaching in the self-contained model, the different groups of students receive instructions from the same specialist in one class. When the educational process is organized this way, teachers are provided with sufficient time for the lessons preparation and design (Strohl, Schmertzing, & Schmertzing, 2014). Other advantages of departmentalization include the decrease of workloads that reduce the chance of teachers burnouts, higher level of professionalism and knowledge of the subject content, improvement of teachers professional self-perception and confidence (Strohl, Schmertzing, Schmertzing, & Hsiao). After a transition towards the departmentalized organization of education in elementary schools, the students performance will be drastically enhanced because of the positive changes in the teachers functioning and abilities.

Although there is a sufficient amount of investigation devoted to the impacts on the teachers efficacy in the departmentalized settings, the findings in the research of changes in students performance in this educational structure are controversial. The lack of arguments and clear-cut facts about the departmentalizations positive impacts on students level of knowledge create the obstacles for the adoption and recognition of the model by the schools administration.

According to Parker (2009), in the period of transition from the self-contained form of education to the secondary departmentalized structure, the students are exposed to stress that interferes with their successful acclimatization in the new educational environment and absorption of knowledge (p. 325). As a result, academic performance may be deteriorated. The students performance in mathematics and science classes is low in both elementary and secondary school. The adult U.S. citizens are not interested in science and cannot make a contribution to the American and global society.

Based on the results of the literature review, it is possible to say that the further research of the issues related to the improvement of the students self-perception, abilities to learn and absorb knowledge, communicate with peers and adults, and perform in the variety of subjects in the one-content settings will help to provide more evidence for the potentials of the model. The research needs to investigate the causal factors that influence the improvement of the students learning abilities. It may support verification of the previous research results and may stimulate the models acceptance in schools.

Identifying the Fallacies

The current educational model adopted in the majority of elementary schools in the USA is highly inefficient and provokes negative outcomes in the students performance.

Fallacy

The statement isnt valid and is not properly defended. The relevance rule is violated. Some numbers or statistics could be used to advance the argument.

According to statistic data, in 2012, the US students performance in mathematics was below average. Therefore, the departmentalized structure can unarguably provide a better way of teaching.

Fallacy

The freedom rule is violated. The statement is arguable.

According to researchers claims, the generalized or self-contained model implemented in the schools provokes many problems both for teachers and students (Diamond, Maerten-Rivera, & Rohrer, 2013; Strohl, Schmertzing, & Schmertzing, 2014; Nelson, 2014). In the self-contained settings, a group of students receives instructions on the multiple subjects from the same teacher every day. Although the generalized organization is implemented in the majority of elementary schools across the country, the previous research papers have indicated some disadvantages of the given model that affect the teachers and students performance negatively (Strohl, Schmertzing, Schmertzing, & Hsiao, 2014). The negative results on teachers include the lack of in-depth knowledge of subjects, heavy workloads, low self-efficacy, and a high level of stress that leads to a decline in job satisfaction (Stewart, 2015). Based on this evidence, the schools administration should implement the alternative models of education, i.e. departmentalization.

Fallacy

The argument scheme isnt applied correctly. The conclusion made in the paragraph cannot lacks credibility, and the claims do not necessarily lead to this conclusion.

The findings and observations demonstrated in the statistic reports and the previous research make it clear that the elementary education models efficiency is an up-to-date issue, and the alternative educational structures must be investigated. Departmentalization of elementary school can be regarded as a potential method for the existing dilemmas resolving (Strohl, Schmertzing, Schmertzing, & Hsiao). Evaluation of the positive and negative impacts on the teaching and learning processes is of increasing interest and importance because it can support the detection of the areas that need to be improved, and the understanding of how these improvements are to be made.

According to Nelson (2014), teaching in departmentalized settings provokes teachers professional development (p. 8). In opposition to teaching in the self-contained model, the different groups of students receive instructions from the same specialist in one class. When the educational process is organized this way, teachers are provided with sufficient time for the lessons preparation and design (Strohl, Schmertzing, & Schmertzing, 2014). Other advantages of departmentalization include the decrease of workloads that reduce the chance of teachers burnouts, higher level of professionalism and knowledge of the subject content, improvement of teachers professional self-perception and confidence (Strohl, Schmertzing, Schmertzing, & Hsiao). After a transition towards the departmentalized organization of education in elementary schools, the students performance will be drastically enhanced because of the positive changes in the teachers functioning and abilities.

Fallacy

Poor argumentation. Lack of evidence.

Although there is a sufficient amount of investigation devoted to the impacts on the teachers efficacy in the departmentalized settings, the findings in the research of changes in students performance in this educational structure are controversial. The lack of arguments and clear-cut facts about the departmentalizations positive impacts on students level of knowledge create the obstacles for the adoption and recognition of the model by the schools administration.

According to Parker (2009), in the period of transition from the self-contained form of education to the secondary departmentalized structure, the students are exposed to stress that interferes with their successful acclimatization in the new educational environment and absorption of knowledge (p. 325). As a result, academic performance may be deteriorated. The students performance in mathematics and science classes is low in both elementary and secondary school. The adult U.S. citizens are not interested in science and cannot make a contribution to the American and global society.

Fallacy

No relevance to the theme of the paper.

Based on the results of the literature review, it is possible to say that the further research of the issues related to the improvement of the students self-perception, abilities to learn and absorb knowledge, communicate with peers and adults, and perform in the variety of subjects in the one-content settings will help to provide more evidence for the potentials of the model. The research needs to investigate the causal factors that influence the improvement of the students learning abilities. It may support verification of the previous research results and may stimulate the models acceptance in schools.

Introduction with Sound Arguments

According to statistic data, in 2012, the US students performance in mathematics was below average. Among all the thirty-four countries represented in Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), such as Germany, Japan, and Israel, the United States was ranked only twenty-seventh (Results from PISA, 2012).

The statistical numbers make it clear that the current US educational system may be regarded as ineffective and inefficient. Many researchers see the ground of the problem in the commonly accepted elementary school teaching model that is called a self-contained or generalized model (Diamond, Maerten-Rivera, & Rohrer, 2013; Strohl, Schmertzing, & Schmertzing, 2014; Nelson, 2014). In the self-contained settings, a group of students receives instructions on the multiple subjects from the same teacher every day. Although the generalized organization is implemented in the majority of elementary schools across the country, the previous research papers have indicated some disadvantages of the given model that affect the teachers and students performance negatively (Strohl, Schmertzing, Schmertzing, & Hsiao, 2014). The negative results on teachers include the lack of in-depth knowledge of subjects, heavy workloads, low self-efficacy, and a high level of stress that leads to a decline in job satisfaction (Stewart, 2015). Since the teachers play a crucial role in the effectiveness of the knowledge transition to students, their inability to perform at a high level negatively affects the students performance in class as well.

The findings and observations demonstrated in the statistic reports and the previous research make it clear that the elementary education models efficiency is an up-to-date issue, and the alternative educational structures must be investigated. Departmentalization of elementary school can be regarded as a potential method for the existing dilemmas resolving (Strohl, Schmertzing, Schmertzing, & Hsiao). Evaluation of the positive and negative impacts on the teaching and learning processes is of increasing interest and importance because it can support the detection of the areas that need to be improved, and the understanding of how these improvements are to be made.

According to Nelson (2014), teaching in departmentalized settings provokes teachers professional development (p. 8). In opposition to teaching in the self-contained model, the different groups of students receive instructions from the same specialist in one class. When the educational process is organized this way, teachers are provided with sufficient time for the lessons preparation and design (Strohl, Schmertzing, & Schmertzing, 2014). Other advantages of departmentalization include the decrease of workloads that reduce the chance of teachers burnouts, higher level of professionalism and knowledge of the subject content, improvement of teachers professional self-perception and confidence (Strohl, Schmertzing, Schmertzing, & Hsiao). The claims in the multiple studies show that after the transition towards the departmentalized organization of education in some elementary schools, the students performance has drastically enhanced mainly because of the positive changes in the teachers functioning and abilities (Nelson, 2014; Stewart, 2015).

Although there is a sufficient amount of investigation devoted to the impacts on the teachers efficacy in the departmentalized settings, the findings in the research of changes in students performance in this educational structure are controversial. The lack of arguments and clear-cut facts about the departmentalizations positive impacts on students level of knowledge create the obstacles for the adoption and recognition of the model by the schools administration.

According to Parker (2009), in the period of transition from the self-contained form of education to the secondary departmentalized structure, the students are exposed to stress that interferes with their successful acclimatization in the new educational environment and absorption of knowledge (p. 325). As a result, academic performance may be deteriorated. Therefore, it is possible to say, that implementation of departmentalization in elementary education can enhance the situation in a secondary school as well because, in this case, the students will become familiar with the modes and standards of studying and communication accepted in the middle-school.

Based on the results of the literature review, it is possible to say that the further research of the issues related to the improvement of the students self-perception, abilities to learn and absorb knowledge, communicate with peers and adults, and perform in the variety of subjects in the one-content settings will help to provide more evidence for the potentials of the model. The research needs to investigate the causal factors that influence the improvement of the students learning abilities. It may support verification of the previous research results and may stimulate the models acceptance in schools.

References

Diamond, B. S., Maerten-Rivera, J., & Rohrer, R. (2013). Elementary teachers science content knowledge: Relationships among multiple measures. Florida Journal of Educational Research, 51, 1-20.

Nelson, K. (2014). A Study Comparing Fifth Grade Student Achievement in Mathematics in Departmentalized and Non-Departmentalized Settings. Doctoral Dissertations and Projects, 829, 1-194. Web.

Parker, A. K. (2009). Elementary organizational structures and young adolescents self-concept and classroom environment perceptions across the transition to middle school. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 23(3), 325-339. Web.

Results from PISA. (2012). Web.

Stewart, L. L. (2015). Teachers perspectives on self-contained and departmentalized instructional models. Web.

Strohl, A., Schmertzing, L., & Schmertzing, R. (2014). Elementary teachers experiences and perceptions of departmentalized instruction: A case study. Journal of Case Studies in Education, 6, 1-17.

Strohl, A., Schmertzing, L., Schmertzing, R., & Hsiao, E. (2014). Comparison of self-contained and departmentalized elementary teachers perceptions of classroom structure and job satisfaction. Journal of Studies in Education, 4(1), 109-127.

Introduction to campus parking issues

According to recent statistics, the lack of parking spots on campuses represents one of the major problems for students. The results of a cohort study with the sample comprised of 1.200 full-time U.S. students revealed that 16 percent of respondents consider inadequate parking the biggest organizational issue at their universities (Jacobs par. 2). Parking represents a challenge at Florida National University (FNU) as well because more and more students enroll in the school annually while the parking space remains limited.

Effects on students

Although the lack of adequate parking is clearly an organizational problem, it may have a negative impact on the academic outcomes of learners (Barata et al. 406). Students who commute by cars often lose time searching for a spot to park and frequently have to compromise the safety of their vehicles, accept the risk of being fined for inappropriate parking, or pay extra money for parking tickets at the nearby facilities. This situation puts a lot of pressure on individuals, distracts from studying, and significantly increases the level of stress. Therefore, it can be detrimental to students well-being.

Attitudes to driving

Nevertheless, the inconvenience associated with insufficiency of parking spots is only one side of the problem. Nowadays, students and teachers prefer to drive cars everywhere no matter how far or close their destination may be. The unwillingness of car owners to switch to other modes of transportation presents another issue. Researchers suggest that in order to deal with campus parking problems in an effective way, institutions should design a holistic strategy aimed both at the increase of available parking space and the discouragement of car use among students and employees (Barata et al. 406; Burr par. 1). By promoting the use of alternative transportation modes, such as buses or bicycles, FNU may significantly improve the overall college environment and decrease the risks to the health and safety of students. Moreover, when the general orientation to driving everywhere is diminished, the university could strengthen a sense of community on the campus (Burr par. 1).

Financial costs

According to Burr, the cost of building extra parking spaces is one of the major barriers to resolving the parking issue (par. 1). He notes that nearly $ 2.000 is required to construct merely one slot in an open-space parking lot, while the cost per parking slot in a garage increases sevenfold (Burr par. 1). Therefore, it may be difficult for FNU to solve the problem by just building more parking spaces as it will put pressure on the university budget. However, in order to reduce financial costs, the institution may introduce parking fees. However, it should be considered that although the given political decision may partly contribute to the promotion of the desirable behavior among car owners, it can also create financial difficulties for lower-paid employees and financially disadvantaged students.

Conclusion

Overall, to minimize possible negative impacts of inadequate parking, the university should develop a comprehensive strategy aimed at more than one area of concern at once. It should aim to provide sufficient physical space for parking and, at the same time, encourage the shifts in behavior and attitudes. It will likely be impossible to remove all car driving and parking completely. Nevertheless, through the analysis of the university traffic, as well as the current situation with parking, not only FNU may decrease financial costs but also improve the quality of the campus and the community life, learning environment, and the overall image of the institution.

Works Cited

Barata, Eduardo, et al. Parking at the UC Campus: Problems and Solutions. Cities, vol. 28, no. 2011, pp. 406-413.

Burr, David. Is University Parking a Common Grievance?. Parking Today, 2011.

Jacobs, Peter. The Three Biggest Problems on College Campuses. Business Insider, 2014.

Childrens education is one of the most important social institutions that guarantee existence and the further development of our society. For this reason, the level of interest devoted to the issue has always remained high. Thus, today we can observe numerous attempts to improve the outcomes of the academic activity and guarantee that children will be able to function in diverse communities and become successful.

However, the complexity of the conditions under which they will exist in their independent lives and health problems they might face introduces the necessity of the comprehensive investigation of the sphere with the primary aim to determine the most beneficial conditions and factors that might impact students and their healthy habits.

For instance, in the article by Baker (n.d.) Single-Gender Education: Reinforcing and Challenging Gender, the author revolves around a theme of gender difference and the impact single-gender education might have on students. Delving into the issue, Baker (n.d.) states that traditionally one-gender schools have been considered privileged institutions. The fact is that they are focused on the provision of the specific education regarding gender differences and stereotypical roles women or men should play in society.

However, drastic changes in perspectives on stereotypes resulted in the necessity to reconsider the approach to single-sex education. These schools responded by introducing new plans and methods to teach girls in a way that could help them to become successful and cultivate their femininity. However, their approaches still revolve around gender stereotypes, which could be dangerous for the modern, tolerant society.

The issue of gender stereotypes and education aimed at the cultivation of femininity and masculinity is also discussed by Kehler in his article Behind Lock Room Doors: Knowing Why Some Boys Stay Away From Each Other. The author assumes that despite the fact that physical exercises are traditionally associated with men, numerous boys in schools are reluctant to engage in these activities (Kehler, n.d.). For this reason, the author assesses the ways boys experience a sense of their bodies and how this aspect could be impacted by particular external factors (Kehler, n.d.). He comes to the conclusion that these changes reflect the shift in attitudes to the domination of males and their power.

In such a way, both these articles touch upon an essential issue, which is the cultivation of appropriate gender behaviors in boys and girls under the impact of radical changes in perspectives on their roles that are now observed in society. The authors are sure that disregarding these processes, we can undermine the future of children who will not be able to live in the community. Speaking about single-gendered schools, Baker (n.d.) admits their limited opportunities to engage girls in specific activities needed to cultivate particular qualities in them. Kehler (n.d.) also emphasizes the pernicious impact problems with boys unwillingness to do physical exercises traditionally attractive to them have on their health and development of obesity.

Altogether, these papers could be analyzed regarding the current processes and tendencies that emerge in a coherent society. The modern educational sphere should reconsider some approaches that now turn out to be less or even not effective. The shift of priorities in peoples mentalities resulted in the appearance of new perspectives on gender roles and stereotypes. For this reason, it is dangerous to disregard these alterations. Boys and girls should be provided with fresh information related to their future life.

References

Baker, J. (n.d.). Single-gender education: Reinforcing and challenging Gender. In Society and Education (pp. 139-154).

Kehler, M. (n.d.). Behind lock-room doors: Knowing why some boys Stay Away from each other. In Society and Education (pp. 155-167).

Introduction

DREAM (Development, Relief, and Education for Alien Minors) was a legislation that was developed to provide the opportunity for undocumented students to attend university or even at least college. This legislation stipulated that states would be allowed to offer in-state tuition rates to those foreign students who had lived in the state for over five years and under the age of twenty-one. DREAM aimed at providing an easier path for legalization of the immigrants especially the youth and young adults (Aleinikoff, Martin and Mortomura 112).

The introduction was by Senators Richard Durbin and Orrin Hatch. The goal of this program was to enable immigration reforms that are comprehensive, each time being supported in senate discussions. Durbin and Howard Berman reintroduced this legislation in 2009. Beneficiaries had an opportunity of joining the military or pursue an education in university or college. The bill provided special incentives for alien students who got enrolled in secondary school or in elementary school (Paul 112).

Criteria for Meeting the Dream Act Status

• The youth should have lived in the United States before age 16.
• One should have been present continuously for at least five years in the United States prior to the legislations enactment.
• The minor should have obtained some education especially a high school diploma or an equivalent such as General Education Development diploma.
• One should be 35 years and below of age.

Recipients for this conditional status would be allowed to work in the United States, attend school, and travel freely within and outside the country. This would, however, last for only six years (Paul 98). The recipient or immigrant could then apply for Permanent citizenship as governed by the law. That is, the immigrant must have obtained a higher education degree in at least two years and must have shown good character.

George W. Bush, the former United States president, also reiterated on the rights of the young people by saying, If their parents are undocumented or in immigration limbo, most of these young people have no mechanism to obtain legal residency even if they have lived most of their lives here (Aleinikoff, Martin and Mortomura 100). Yet, many of these young people may wish to join the military and have the attributes needed, such as education, aptitude, fitness, and moral qualifications [CQ Congressional Testimony; Immigration and the Military; July 10, 2006].

Human capital to be offered by the young people would be an ultimate resource for societies and the legislation will give stability and opportunity to these young Americans with limited education or limited prospects in a career (Siegfried 16).

Conclusion

The DREAM Act aims at providing an easy path for immigrants of a young age, who are unauthorized, in the United States, to pursue education and a consequent registration to a permanent resident status (Paul 445).

A large number of people especially the youth could prefer to pursue a permanent legal status if the DREAM Act would be passed. The act would bring about a good opportunity for many youth and young adults. Moreover, they will be able to acquire permanent legal status something that will go along to increase significantly their investment in the labor capital and service to the United States of America (Paul 45).

Works cited

Aleinikoff, Alexander, David Martin, Hiroshi Mortomura and Maryellen Fullerton. Immigration and nationality laws of the United States. New Jersey: St. Pauls West Printing Press, 2010.

Paul, John. Strangers No Longer: Together on the Journey of Hope. A Pastoral Letter Concerning Migration from the Catholic Bishops of Mexico and the United States. Vatican, 2010.

Siegfried, John. National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education. Sydney: Routeledge CA, 2009.

College Textbooks

Rising costs of college textbooks is a significant problem for students of Florida National University that has to be addressed to reduce the financial pressures that can damage academic performance. The question of ever-increasing costs of tuition has been discussed ad nauseam in media over the last decade; however, it seems, that the issue of the financial burden that has been put on students by the rise of book prices has been omitted from the public discourse. Recently, there have been only a few publications dedicated to this problem in the mainstream press. Considering how important the issue of the rising costs of college textbooks for an average student of Florida National University is, it has to be discussed at length on the university campus.

It can be argued that students forced to pay for textbooks, prices of which have skyrocketed over the last decade, experience problems with their academic performance. According to the PIRG report Fixing the Broken Textbook Market, nearly seventy percent of college students opted against purchasing a textbook because of its high price (Weisbaum par.6). Almost fifty percent of the respondents of the same survey reported that the cost of college textbooks was an important factor in the decision on how many classes they took (Weisbaum par.7). The findings of the report showed that the majority of students were willing to risk their grades to skip the purchasing of an expensive textbook (Weisbaum par.7).

There is a notion that educational resources available over the Internet will soon render traditional textbooks obsolete; however, until this happens, the university faculty has to facilitate the problem resolution process. A report published by the National Association of College Stores (NACAS) showed that college students were paying $655 on average for their textbooks in 2012, which constituted an approximately ten percent decrease in comparison with the previous years numbers (Weissman par. 3). The NACAS claims that the reduction in annual spending on educational materials was brought about because they promoted used books (Weissman par. 3). It stands to reason that if Florida National University and its students concentrate their efforts on the spread of second-hand books, the literature expenses could be cut even more. It is an indisputable fact that publishing modern academic textbooks is an enterprise that requires significant financial resources making the products extremely expensive (Weissman par. 3). However, because of the unscrupulous marketing practices, the costs of textbooks have been driven up far above their real market value (Weissman par. 3). According to a contributor of Slate Kevin Carey, college students are similar to the patients who do not have any other choice but to pay for expensive drug prescriptions (qtd. in Weissman par. 2). He also argues that the practice of bundling textbooks with software excludes the option of using second-hand books (qtd. in Weissman par. 2). Therefore, it can be said that this marketing strategy increases publishers profits at the expense of academic performance.

Ever-increasing costs of college textbooks is a considerable issue for the majority of students of Florida National University. It has to be properly addressed by the university faculty to assist their students in improving academic performance. The promotion of the use of second-hand books could significantly reduce the decline in educational achievement thus helping the institution to attain its main learning outcomes. Moreover, the popularization of the used textbooks could create a positive ripple effect for the entire nation.

Works Cited

Weisbaum, Herb. Cost of College Textbooks out of Control, Group Says. 2014 Web.

Weissman, Jordan. Why Are College Textbooks so Absurdly Expensive? 2013. Web.

Introduction

Unemployment is a grave concern for college students. Earning a college degree is an expensive proposition; students often accumulate large debts in finishing their education and require employment to sustain themselves. During periods of economic instability, finding a job is an issue for most people. However, statistics indicate that an individuals level of education may be crucial in gaining employment. This paper will show that although college graduates are more likely to be employed in periods of recession, this may not be sustainable in the long term.

Why College Graduates Fare Well

Catherine Rampells article on the topic of employment for college-educated citizens states that college students are much more likely to be employed than people without higher education (Rampell). Yearly statistics on unemployment show that over the last 8 years, the percentage of unemployment in the United States has gradually decreased (Bureau of Labor Statistics, Unemployment Rate). In addition, citizens who have graduated from college have always represented a smaller percentage than those having less education (Bureau of Labor Statistics, Unemployment Rate: College Graduates).

Rampell explains this trend in terms of a change in the way businesses began to attract more educated applicants because the latter needed work (Rampell). Positions that require medium-level education are being filled by people having a college education, and positions requiring low-level education are then filled by people who have a medium-level education. This change, however, leads to a much smaller pool of available employment options for less-educated people.

Immediate Issues

Multiple negative outcomes for this change are evident. The most obvious is in the way uneducated people are left without employment. As previously stated, the disparity in employment between educated and uneducated citizens has always been high. However, when educated people start to fill jobs that do not require education, uneducated workers lose employment opportunities. Rampells article states that a large percentage of service jobs, including food services, are now filled with educated employees.

People who have spent years on studies in complex, specialized fields are now filling positions that do not exercise their knowledge and skills. This situation can be demoralizing and lead to a sense of unfulfillment. Furthermore, the wages those jobs provide do not take into consideration the need to pay off college loans. Therefore, college-educated people are forced to live on lower funds than the jobs provide. Rampell asserts that when the United States economy improves, college-educated people will be able to improve their condition (Rampell).

However, this might not be a guaranteed solution to their issues. While the job market is currently more favorable than it was during the recent recession, the situation is not entirely different. Educated people are still likely to work in jobs unrelated to their education. The current political climate does not have a focus on resolving this concern, and the problem of employment for less-educated citizens is receiving even less attention.

Future Issues

Even if this issue will eventually result in a positive outcome and college-educated people start to recover financially in a more beneficial economic environment, their jobs are far from secure. In recent years, advances in neural networking, 3D printing, robotics, and mobile computing have shown great potential in job automation. The targets for automation are in most cases located in the service and retail sectors.

Projects for fully automated malls, stores, and delivery services are already being tested, and it will not take long for these options to become a more commercially viable solution than employing living persons. Mass implementation of such technologies will no doubt lead to unrest among those they are designed to replace, but it is unlikely that the workers themselves would be able to stop it. Millions will lose their jobs and face even fewer prospects for employment. College graduates who cannot find specialized jobs will remain unemployed, and with college loans exerting a constant drain on their resources, they will not be likely to be able to fully support themselves.

Subsequently, new generations of college-educated people entering the job market will have to contend with finding work but will not have the option of choosing a lower-level job. Automation is likely to increase unemployment overall, but it may have a larger effect on college-educated people than in previous years. Moreover, if it proves successful, it might spread to other industries, further reducing job opportunities.

The Value of College Education

The cost of a college education, even in a relatively low-priced institution, is high. Many students are forced to take out loans to pay for their education, which can take years to pay off in the absence of a high-paying job. The stress imposed by difficult curriculum may also have a negative effect on the psychological condition of the student. In the worst cases, students have committed suicide after failing tests or from the stress of exams.

A college education is an expensive and difficult goal to attain, and at times it may seem as if it is not worth the trouble. However, this is not the case. Despite the difficulty and the requirement to pay excessive amounts of money, a college education is still extremely valuable, and in consideration of the change in the job market as described in the article, perhaps it is even more valuable than before.

A college education still offers a primary advantage in gaining employment and building a career. During the interview process, education level can be used to judge an individuals commitment and professionalism. An unfinished education might suggest that the applicant is less capable of meeting the required tasks and therefore may be less preferable in the eyes of job recruiters. When applying for a specialized job, a high level of education in the related subject matter is essential to be considered as a potential employee. The competition for such positions is always high, and people must pursue any possible advantage to offer the recruiting company.

Moreover, after becoming employed, an educated person is more likely to gain promotion if the individuals education provides additional skills. For example, a college student hired as an analyst may be promoted to the position of team manager if the individual also has management and leadership education. Starting a career in a position unrelated to ones educational background may be unsatisfying, but with time, this education may lead to greater achievements and higher-paying jobs. People with a college education have historically earned more money than those without it, and this trend continues to this day. Their job opportunities are much more varied, and the skills they possess are powerful tools for career growth. Therefore, the value of a college education is still high despite the downsides.

Conclusion

Employment is essential for college-educated people. Currently, workers have resolved this need through filling positions that previously did not require a high level of education. However, this solution has created a number of problems. People lacking formal education are now less likely to find a job. College-educated individuals must accept the reality of lower wages that may not allow them to live a full life due to the burden of college loans, and the jobs they currently have are not secure because automation may lead to future unemployment. While college currently allows for a greater chance of employment overall, higher education does not guarantee success. Nevertheless, the issue is not in the college education itself but in the opportunities available to students to work at the jobs they have studied to attain.

Works Cited

Bureau of Labor Statistics. Unemployment Rate. United States Department of Labor, 2018. Web.

. Unemployment Rate: College Graduates: Bachelors Degree and Higher, 25 Years and Over. FRED, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, 2018. Web.

Rampell, Catherine. College Graduates Fare Well in Jobs Market, Even Through Recession. The New York Times. 2013. Web.