Generally speaking, the environment is an important component in all societies the world over. It is safe to argue that environment is the giver and sustainer of life to all fauna and floral living components, Boorse and Wright (2010). This fact explains why at national and international levels there are institutions charged with the responsibility of safeguarding and managing the environments. At the international level for instance we have the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), an agency of the UN that mobilizes the member states to institute an environmental law that meets the international standards and to practice environmentally friendly activities. In this talk, we shall look at the anthropological disturbances of the Millers Dale ecosystem in the UK.
Location of Millers Dale Ecosystem
An ecosystem is synonymous with the environment and simply refers to the ecological unit comprising of the fauna, floral and their physical surroundings and the interactions with each other and their environment, Park (2001). Millers Dale Ecosystem is found in Derbyshire in the United Kingdom, Lanzenby and Tow (2001).
Anthropological Disturbances and their Damage to this Ecosystem
According to Lanzenby and Tow (2001), this particular ecosystem was deserted after far-reaching disturbances during mineral extraction in ancient times. They further argue that anthropological disturbances like the industrial activity mentioned above occupy great regions of land. An example is given of the opencast coal pits in England which according to Lanzenby and Tow (2001) entail severe interruption over large hectares of land.
Generally, a disturbance of the great scale like the one associated with mineral extraction effectively prevents the founding of many connections between the re-established and the peaceful ecosystems Lanzenby and Tow (2001). Our ecosystem of interest in this task is no exception off course so that disturbance must have disconnected it from the uninterrupted ecosystems for some time. In addition, an ecosystem rising within an interrupted land is often geographically isolated and has limited opportunities of recruiting the absent species Lanzenby and Tow (2001). Lanzenby and Tow (2001) explain that Limited recruitment of the absent species, in turn, restricts the rate of colonization of appropriate plant species.
The Millers Dale Ecosystem Recovery
Recovery of an ecosystem like Millers Dale Ecosystem involves a compromise of the natural assortment processes. According to Lanzen and Tow (2001), natural processes at Millers Dale led to the founding of an exceedingly varied community over many years. These authors further clarify that successional dynamics have confirmed that ecosystem founding is inhibited by the development of both plant recruitment and fertility improvement. Millers Dale Ecosystem recovery proceeded naturally.
Conclusion
The environment is no doubt the giver of the resources that provide for our needs and therefore disturbed ecosystems should be brought back to use promptly or be allowed to recover so as to minimize conflicts over the meager resources. Governments and other concerned stakeholders bear the responsibility of spearheading such endeavors everywhere. Individuals should take pleasure in protecting their environments.
References
Park, C.C. (2001).The environment: principles and applications. London: Routledge. Print.
Tow, P.G. and Lazenby, A.. (2001). Competition and Succession in Pastures. New York: CABI. Print.
Wright, R.T. and Boorse, D. (2010). Environmental Science: Toward a Sustainable Future. Canada: Pearson Education. Print.
Examples of species coexisting in a symbiotic relation, their mutual benefits and to the wider society
All living things have a form of relationship with organisms different from them in the ecosystem. Those relationships are beneficial and vital for the survival of each of the participating species. There are different types of mutual relationships existing among species, which include animal-animal, animal-plant and plant-plant relationships. Let’s take an example of an animal-plant relationship that involves bees and flowers. It’s noticeable that bees move from flower to flower in search of nectar (Mathew 22).In the process, pollen from flowers stick on bee’s hair and on the legs and as it moves to the next flower, some pollen is rubbed off and enters the flower (140).
Mutual relationship is evident here, in that flowers require the pollen for reproduction. Since plants cannot move around and mingle, the bees make the reproduction process an easy exercise for the plants. On the other hand, bees need nectar for making honey and in the absence of flowers, this would be impossible. This further benefits the wider society in that flowers add an aesthetic value to the enviromnt, and bees provide honey which is used by human beings. Survival of both is therefore beneficial to themselves and the ecosystem around them.
Strategies and characteristics as ecosystems respond to change in development
Development in ecosystems comes about with changes especially in the food chain. The complexity of the relationship between the organisms in the ecosystem depends largely on the composition of the population (Wilson 16). The species possessing and improved reproduction rates have high possibilities of survival in the less crowded places compared to those with low productivity (23). Quantity production is a characteristic of the young ecosystem, while quality marks the older ones (112).
Diversity among the species influences their stability in ecological changes. The organisms with varied and diverse characteristics are prone to survive regardless of the natural changes. Genetic changes in species also contribute to how they adapt to natural changes. Invasion of stress or rapid changes in the ecosystem, retards growth of microorganisms; making it complex for survival. Nature’s response to change is exhibited in ecological changes, especially climate. Many organisms are becoming extinct due to extreme weather changes in both metabolism and ecology. It affects negatively the flora and fauna and in general diminishes their way of coexistence. The ecological perspective to human changes is that human beings are the key participants in the environment. Therefore, their social and economic behaviour in the ecosystem influences their survival regarding how positively or negatively they respond to the ecological changes (Starr 34)
Online-ecological footprint calculators
A footprint estimates the extent to which our utilization of the environment exhausts the natural resources, in comparison to how much nature is able to provide. Calculating the mode of consumption in my village, in comparison to how nature is able to provide; my village is about 40 hectares, with approximately 200 homesteads, therefore the population amounts to almost 2000 people. The village has various business activities like five bars, ten shops, two banks, two hospitals and a post office. It also has an education centre with three high schools. We find out that, the amount of resources that the village demands from nature is too much for it (nature) to provide. There is overconsumption leading to lack of sustainability.
Works cited
Mathew, Pelican. Symbiotic Relationships. New York: McGraw Hill, 2002. Print
Ecological integrity may also be referred to as ecological health or ecological damage.
As the names suggest, these are symptoms that prove that the ecosystem within a particular duration has experienced a certain loss that has slowed its capability to execute the nature’s services as well as its carrying capacity possibly as a result of pollution (Noss 16).
Most measures of ecological integrity tend to be referred on the ecosystem. The mission of my action plan is to come up with an education program that can help reduce the negative activities that cause ecological integrity, particularly environmental degradation.
Causes of Ecological Damage
It has been undoubtedly proved that most of the human beings’ systems on natural resources, done for the sustainability of their interests hurt the ecosystem. The misuse of resources by human beings is done widely leading to an imbalance in resources either directly or indirectly.
To begin with most individuals have taken part in excessive mining which is an act of misuse. I was not aware that the excessive use of unscientific water from the ground affected the ecosystem.
Deforestation of forests for commercial and fuel purposes which has had a serious impact on the ecosystem never missed on my list. I encroached through the forests while looking for agricultural land. All these activities are done by human beings lead to environmental degradation.
Consequently, my educational program will focus on educating human beings on how some of their activities like mining and deforestation have caused harm to the environment.
Given that there could be better mining approaches, the program will engage in an interactive approach to enable us to come up with these approaches. We shall discuss the best way to ensure survival not just for us but also the environment.
Background
Environmental degradation may be defined as the weakening of the environment through the exhaustion of resources (soil, water, and air) as well as the devastation of the ecosystem (Hunter 22). The negative impacts of degradation outweigh the positive ones.
Considering the negative effects of degradation, it leads to the extermination of different species of plants and animals the thus reducing the ecosystems adaptability to the environment.
Deforestation by human beings has at largely affected soil erosion due to the exposure of soil to the susceptible conditions.
The vast droughts and floods experienced in various countries of the world have at large affected the ecosystem. The various changes in the environment lead to the depletion of the ozone that increases the susceptibility of living things to many diseases.
The hazardous production of wastes causes pollution in most of the groundwater sources. The warmer climate that may be created as after deforestation may not be favorable for most living things within the environment (Hunter 12).
The benefit that may be achieved from environmental degradation is that fuel is availed for use within the environment.
Through most of these activities, people lacked freshwater for not only consumption but also industrial uses and agriculture. This was the biggest problem socially. In addition to this, the build-up of a lot of garbage led to poor smells that affected most of the nearby residents.
The higher extinction rate of most plants and animal species and climate changes pose a threat to food shortage which also affected people.
Given the above arguments, my plan will allow individuals to understand the role of their activities in the security of their future.
My action will, therefore, allow individuals to continue using natural resources to benefit them. However, the approaches developed after discussion with stakeholders will be environment-friendly.
Action Plan
Regarding the serious impacts that were imparted to the ecosystem plus the effects to the individuals around, I came up with some goals preferably sustainability objectives which I think if followed, then ecological integrity will be a thing of the past.
As one philosopher said, knowledge is an investment that never depreciates. By assuming education as my favorite approach, I believe that the knowledge shall remain in everyone who will be taught. They shall later teach their children and their neighbors.
My themes will include:
teaching people on several preservation sites of the unscientific groundwater should be increased.
Educate people on the importance of the sustainability of the environment.
Promote most of the health care programs among individuals on plants and animals all over the ecosystem.
Emphasize a lot on the forest conservation programs.
Create and conserve forest reserves.
All projects as well as restoration efforts to be towards the maintenance of ecological integrity.
The timeline for my action plan is one year. In this duration, all the necessary awareness among people on the forest conservation measures as well as its importance will be complete. Beyond this period, most of the negative impacts will have declined. The following is my timeline:
Time Activity
March-May- Request the various authorities to increase the sites for preservation of the groundwater.
June-September- Educate the people on the importance of sustaining the environment and the ecosystem in general.
October-December- Educate and promote new healthcare programs towards different plant species and animals
January-February- Emphasize a lot on the various forest conservation programs as well as forest reserves.
Works Cited
Hunter, Malcolm. Wildlife, forests, and forestry: principles of managing forests for diversity. Prentice Hall: Englewood Cliffs, 1990. Print.
Hunter, Malcolm. “Benchmarks for Managing Ecosystems: Are Human Activities Natural?” Conservation Biology (1996): 10-26.
Noss, F. Reed. “From plant communities to landscapes in conservation inventories: a look at The Nature Conservancy.” Biological Conservation (1987): 11-37.
The modern world is teeming with technology to the point that detailed exploration of space bodies, electric machines, supersonic rockets, and everyday electronic devices no longer seem like something fantastic. In the pursuit of scientific progress, humanity has turned its gaze to the sky, forgetting what remains out of sight. The truth is that with every milliliter of seawater, all aquatic creatures and humans are gradually being poisoned by plastic waste.
In the post-industrial era, plastic production has become so plentiful that its surplus production cannot be recycled everywhere and is therefore dumped by the tons into the marine strata. This paper will repeatedly affirm that plastic littering of aquatic ecosystems is a critical mistake of humanity, as it entails severe problems for the entire biosphere. The purpose of this essay is to present science-based facts in support of the author’s words to convince the reader of the criticality of the ecological problem.
The best strategy for studying the problem of plastic pollution is to be familiar with the source of the phenomenon in general. Plastic waste is an integral part of companies’ production processes, and therefore it would be pointless to expect total elimination of waste. It is in the interest of manufacturers to reduce raw materials so that it raises the overall operational efficiency, but it is also in the interest of the manufacturer to create a corporate image of a nature-conscious production. This is why the green business industry has grown so enormously in recent years, encouraging manufacturers to be resource-efficient and environmentally responsible.
As a result, today’s companies are looking for a way to effectively recycle plastic waste in a way that meets the social demands of ecological communities. The difficulties begin when an entrepreneur looks for such a way: globally, no more than thirty percent of plastic waste is recycled, with the major centers of adequate recycling being developed countries (EPA). Consequently, plastic businesses from poor or developing countries cannot afford to recycle the materials profitably, and therefore the cheapest and least expensive solution is to dump plastic waste into water systems illegally.
In turn, plastic litter in marine ecosystems poses several critical threats not only to the aquatic environment but to the biosphere as a whole. This statement is not unsubstantiated or subjective but has been repeatedly confirmed by independent groups of researchers working in different fields of oceanography and ecology (Kurtela and Antolovic 55).
First of all, it should be noted that plastic sediments in water do not necessarily sink to the bottom but instead can float either in the thickness or on the surface of the sea. This phenomenon has two negative factors for aquatic creatures at once. On the one hand, when fragments of large plastic are free-floating in the water column, hydrobionts often mistake it for a victim. This leads to the entanglement of marine organisms in plastic nets (Figure 1) and, as a consequence, death due to the inability of functional viability.
Figure 1. A sea turtle entangled in plastic debris underwater (Chias).
On the other hand, plastic debris in ocean waters has detrimental effects on plant life in ecosystems as well. As it is known, plastic drifting on the surface tends to aggregate into conglomerates so as to form large clusters. One of the largest such conglomerates is Plastic Island, which has an area of 1.6 million square kilometers, just six times the size of the United States (ABC News). Thus, this substantial plastic patch prevents sunlight from penetrating the water column, depriving aquatic organisms of a vital source for existence. Plants that do not receive sufficient light cannot photosynthesize, and as a consequence, die. In turn, reduced photosynthetic intensification disturbs the balance of chemicals in the environment, leading to the death of animals.
Figure 2. Schematic representation of plastic islands on the world map (RESET).
Nevertheless, the problem of plastic waste is not only the accumulation and obstruction of marine life. On the contrary, the key and the most discussed threat from plastic is not visible but invisible to the human eye: it is microplastics. Microplastics are tiny particles of plastic, no larger than 5 mm in size. Such particles are formed either as a result of natural breakdown by light or by constant abrasion due to the mechanical action of waves. As a result, billions of tiny particles are suspended in the water and penetrate all livings either through nutrition or adsorption on the skin.
It is a mistake to think that microplastics are a myth or an imaginary threat. A minimum estimate is that 51 trillion microplastic particles — which, by the way, is twice the number of micro fragments — were in the world’s oceans in 2020, and this number is only expected to grow (Condor). Microplastics have several pathways into aquatic environments: in addition to the already mentioned degradation of large parts, textile compounds, car tires, urban dirt, and cosmetics should be noted (Figure 3). Each of the described sources contributes to the contamination of the seas through natural cycles, which means that it is extremely difficult to trace the specific pathway of microparticles.
Figure 3. Main sources of microplastics in water (Wood).
In fact, by now, the academic community lacks a formed vision of the problem of microplastic buildup in organisms. While recognizing the deposition of particles in the digestive, respiratory, and even reproductive systems, researchers have sought to determine the negative effects of plastic (Bour et al. 1220).
In doing so, general considerations make it clear that such fragments in a fish, turtle, squid or human above the rest in the trophic chain are not body-neutral. First of all, the abrasive properties of microplastic particles can negatively affect the integrity of the body’s soft tissues. Acting like a scrub, microplastic particles have the potential to scratch internal organ walls, initiating blood loss and ulcers. Second, microplastics tend to absorb toxic substances, especially chemical toxins, whether oil or organic solvents from industries. When a particle enters the body, microplastic will release poisons outward, poisoning the host body from within.
To form a fairer view, alternative points of view should be considered. Although the existence of microplastic cannot be denied, there is still no reproducible evidence in favor of its unconditional harmfulness to the body. In addition, although microplastics have been shown to be transmissible from predator to prey, such observations have not yet been published for humans (Athey et al. 160). Finally, urban dwellers are already in constant contact with the billions of polluted particles that form the atmosphere of urban centers. City dust, machine exhaust, and industrial waste all combine to poison the lives of urban dwellers, and so the threats from microplastics, while they may be relevant, seem excessive.
Nevertheless, the lack of direct evidence does not mean that there is no real problem. Microplastics exist, and the question of their adverse effects on organisms will likely be resolved in the next decade. Even now, society should take the first steps to inhibit the amount of plastic waste. This can be accomplished both by changing individual consumer behavior and by forming bills to limit the possibilities for illegal dumping of waste.
In conclusion, it bears repeating that among the environmental problems associated with marine systems, plastic is one of the central ones. Plastic, in both macro and micro forms, has serious adverse effects on the health of marine ecosystems. The plastic itself has been shown to be a severe hazard to marine systems. First of all, it concerns the creation of significant conglomerate accumulations, which prevent sunlight from penetrating the water column.
In addition, floating plastic causes animals to become entangled in it and die. On the other hand, microplastics are an equally pressing threat with their invisibility to the human eye. Microplastics can accumulate in the body and probably lead to serious health problems. Given the connectivity of biological environments, problems with the seas will undoubtedly respond to other systems as well, leading to a global biosphere crisis. To prevent such a scenario from being reinforced, both individual and state behavior regarding plastics needs to be addressed.
Athey, Samantha N., et al. “Trophic Transfer of Microplastics in an Estuarine Food Chain and the Effects of a Sorbed Legacy Pollutant.” Limnology and Oceanography Letters, vol. 5, no. 1, 2020, pp. 154-162.
Bour, Agathe, et al. “Presence of Microplastics in Benthic and Epibenthic Organisms: Influence of Habitat, Feeding Mode and Trophic Level.” Environmental Pollution, vol. 243, no. 2018, pp. 1217-1225.
EPA. “Plastics: Material-Specific Data.” US Environmental Protection Agency. 2021. Web.
Kurtela, Antonia, and Nenad Antolović. “The Problem of Plastic Waste and Microplastics in the Seas and Oceans: Impact on Marine Organisms.” Croatian Journal of Fisheries, vol. 77, no. 1, 2019, pp. 51-56.
RESET. ” Plastic Ocean — The Great Pacific Garbage Patch.” RESET. 2020. Web.
Standby power is the power consumed when most of the electrical products are switched off. Unknown to most consumers, most electrical products consume power when switched off unless the power cable is unplugged from the power supply. Therefore, in most households in the developed world power is consumed round the clock. Research shows that between the years 2011 and 2012, domestic power consumption was second after industrial consumption as shown in the diagram below (World population balance, 2013).
Standby power consumption
Although a single electronic device consumes an insignificant amount of power on standby mode, many devices will consume a significant amount. In a normal American household, more than 20 electric devices can be found (World population balance, 2013). These include a refrigerator, a microwave, oven, a television set, a DVD player, a radio, among other gadgets considered to be necessities. This is not the case in the developing world like India. This is why America is the greatest power consumer in the entire world. Standby power is still a concern in modern societies which impedes efficient energy consumption.
Standby power is a problem in the modern society
Effective consumption is threatened by the current modernization in emerging countries due to technological improvements. Many electronic gadgets are being introduced in the market and some have almost become basic requirements. Take for instance the use of computers in the modern world. Almost every household owns a computer or two in Canada. This further increases the consumption of standby power. Technology has changed the kitchen as we knew it and nowadays most of the things that were done manually can be done with an electric gadget. The challenge is that most of these products are regularly used so most people find it tiresome to plug in and out whenever they need to use them. This increases the number of electrical gadgets on standby hence increasing the power consumed in standby mode in a single household.
How to address the issue of standby power
To address the issue of standby power consumption, the national committee should consider a sensitization campaign. The power used in standby mode is vaguely known to many people. This is the easiest way of reducing the amount of energy wasted on standby mode. The public should be sensitized and informed of the amount of power they pay for while their gadgets are off. In addition to encouraging the public to unplug their electronics when they are not in use, the prices of gadgets that lessen the amount of electricity used should be reduced. There are surge-protected appliances that automatically go off when the electronics connected to them are switched off. Such products should be made available at fair prices to the public. This can significantly reduce the amount of wasted power on standby.
Defining an ecosystem
An ecosystem is generally defined as a community of living organisms and non-living components and how they interact as a system (Whitman, 2008). For instance, a river ecosystem is characterized by several factors. This study will concentrate on the biotic factors of a river’s ecosystem. They include; flow, light, temperature, chemistry, and substrate (Whitman, 2008). The basic factor of the river ecosystem is the water flow, which influences the entire system. Water flow affects the shape of the streambed through processes such as erosion and can create a variety of habitats (Whitman, 2008). River flow is influenced by the nature of the slope.
Factors influencing a river ecosystem
Light on the other hand affects the system by providing the necessary energy that supports other processes of production through photosynthesis. Through light, the growth of plants provides shade, food, and refuge for prey species in the ecosystem (Whitman, 2008). The other factor is the temperature which affects and influences the flow of a river as well as its turbulence. Temperature greatly depends on the level of shade surrounding the river, it is level of elevation, and the climatic conditions around (Whitman, 2008). Temperature influences another process such as photosynthesis, which ultimately affects the water flow as mentioned earlier.
The chemistry of a river is greatly determined by the inputs from the surrounding geological components. Rivers with great turbulence expose their water to the surface and therefore such water absorbs more oxygen, which is a vital component to other elements in the ecosystem. Lastly, the substrate factor of a river ecosystem includes the materials eroded and transported by the river flow (Whitman, 2008). This greatly depends on the gradient of a river.
Applying the concept of the ecosystem
Through studying the river flow ecosystem, we can derive several principles when it comes to industries. Just as in the ecosystem, every element is vital and it influences the other. In the industries, we have to acknowledge and appreciate that every industry’s action has an impact on human existence. This can help us to pay attention to what we do by acknowledging the impact of our actions on the people around us. Industries will realize that their waste products are causing damaging effects on the ecosystem hence reducing the quality of life among humans. The concept of the ecosystem can be applied in industries to foster careful interactions among humans and natural resources.
Biodiversity is the description of the natural state of the planet. It is not something that humans can create, they can only manage it. Biodiversity is an important aspect of the earth’s ecosystem. It is extremely unfortunate that mankind will realize this when it is already too late. The most urgent problem right now is to maintain the level of biodiversity in this world but it has to begin with a more in-depth understanding of how different species of flora and fauna can be saved from extinction. The lack of knowledge is the main reason why many are apathetic when it comes to conservation of the earth’s natural resources, especially when it comes to maintaining the earth’s biodiversity.
Three different but related scientific works will be consulted in this study in order to have a more well-rounded view of biodiversity as well as to reach a level of understanding that humans are part of the earth’s ecosystem. Humans must be active participants in conserving planet earth because he could not afford to be indifferent to its plight. Apathy will only bring destruction because no matter how technologically advanced the human race has become, it will not be able to survive without living organisms. According to Lovelock, they are man’s partner in keeping this planet alive. Every organism, including man is dependent on the integrity of the earth’s ecosystem.
Urgent Need to Reform Behavior
There is a common thread that weaves through the works of E.O. Wilson, John Cobb, and James Lovelock. It is the idea that humans must have a heightened awareness of its destructive actions. Wilson said the rate of decline is impossible to measure because of the numerous species that are in the wild and that no one really has an accurate data on every single species of flora and fauna that existed since the beginning of time.
But there is one way to get a basic understanding of how biodiversity has declined in recent centuries. Wilson’s article will help provide this insight when he described the current state of tropical rainforests. Referring to rainforests Wilson wrote, “….although these habitats cover only 7% of the Earth’s land surface, they contain more than half the species in the entire world biota” (Wilson, 8). Knowing that tropical rainforests are being threatened by human activity one will have a basic knowledge of the rapid decline of biodiversity in the planet.
Cobb has the same basic premise but he wanted to emphasize the reason why humans are indifferent to the plight of the earth’s ecosystem and threatened species of flora and fauna. Cobb said that “In the pursuit of economic gain, most people do not want to be bothered by questions about biodiversity” (Cobb, 481). But instead of simply appealing to the scientific mind – the path that Wilson took – Cobb appealed to human life outside the scope of biology. From reading Cobb’s arguments one can get the idea that human life is more than eating nutritious food and inhaling fresh air. By destroying forest cover, killing species of fish and birds man has forever lost the chance to enjoy the interaction with these plants and animals.
Decades from now a beautiful mountain covered with evergreen trees will appear as an eyesore with its bald spots – unable to sustain a single tree. In other words there is more at stake than what was previously thought. The fight for biodiversity is not just about nature but also about the richness of human experience forever lost. Cobb also asserted that Western thought has perpetuated the idea that man is the most important being on this earth and that everything must be done to ensure that man live comfortably and if the acquisition of material possessions require the destruction of the environment then so be it.
Lovelock pointed out that the utter disregard for the condition of the planet is dangerous not only to the species that are pushed to the brink of extinction but also to human life. It is therefore ironic that in man’s desire to build a city that will sustain the survival of his species he has created a trend that will lead to the destruction of every living organism on this earth. Lovelock provided convincing arguments that the earth is not just a piece of giant rock where man, animals and plants use as their habitat but in reality it is also a living organism. Lovelock said that like the astronauts who had the rare chance of seeing the planet in its entirety, humans must also endeavor to see the whole planet not divided by regions and politics but as one whole, and each part is needed for its survival.
Maintaining Biodiversity
In order to maintain biodiversity one must be prepared for an uphill battle. There is very little incentive to protect the planet much less to protect a seemingly insignificant insect living in an island far away from home. Who really cares if a species of ant in Borneo must be conserved for future generations? Life is so short to be bothered by those kinds of problems. This is the main problem faced by conservationists and scientists who are predicting more problems up ahead. Still this is no excuse to give up the fight. As human population has gone past the 6 billion mark it is time to work harder to find ways on how man and diverse living organisms can share this planet.
Biodiversity is one standard that can be used so that concerned citizens will know if they are winning the battle to save planet earth. It is no longer enough to simply plant trees on denuded mountains. It is no longer enough to protect oceans, rivers and streams from pollution. There is now the urgent need to maintain biodiversity. Biodiversity is about maintaining a fragile ecosystem that relies on different species of flora and fauna to attain sustainability.
A basic example is the relationship between predators and the smaller animals that they prey on. If predators are eliminated from the equation there can be no way to maintain the normal number of animals that they consume for food. An imbalance in this scale can be amplified if other organisms are made extinct. The imbalance can create a chain reaction of events that will lead to the destruction of plants and animals needed by humans. Imagine for a moment if all the bees are dead, then who will take care of pollination? Without thinking of biodiversity in the long term man may experience more serious problems aside from the need to eat hamburgers and fries every weekend.
Cobb and Lovelock
The views of Cobb and Lovelock are very important to the discussion of biodiversity and the need to rally humans to take a more responsible outlook when it comes to taking care of planet earth. Cobb’s contribution is in pinpointing the root cause of man’s indifference to this issue. Aside from the need to make profit, the average person was made to believe that he is the dominant species on this planet and therefore lower life forms exist to satisfy his needs. This mental hurdle must be dealt first. Wilson’s rhetoric will not make any sense as long as man believes that his survival is of utmost importance.
Lovelock adheres to this view but he finds a better way of convincing people that it is time to change their ways. Lovelock made a convincing argument that flora, fauna, and Homo sapiens are in the same boat. In other words man has no choice but to help because his apathy will lead to his destruction. Lovelock was able to achieve this by pointing out the scientific evidence that the earth is a living organism and that all the organisms in this planet behave in such a way to maintain life on earth. It is just ironic that while plants and animals cooperate in the process of sustaining planet earth, man is ignorant about this truth. It is time to heed the warning of Wilson that there is a need for further investigation and a need to disseminate information about the current state of biodiversity on planet earth.
According to Beaver, “tourism is the temporary, short term movement of people to destinations outside the places where they normally live and work, and their activities during their stay at these destinations; it includes movement for all purposes as well as day visits or excursions” (313).
Beaver argues that tourism arises from a number of factors (313). “Tourism arises from the movement of people to and their stay in, various destinations” (Beaver 313). Tourism is made up of two major components: “the journey to the destination and the stay including the activities at the destination” (Beaver 313). Usually, the journey and the stay take place in an area that is different from the normal place of work or stay.
As a result, tourism gives rise to activities which are different from those done while at work or at home. On the other hand, “Dickson defines ecosystem as a community of living organisms with the physical processes which occur within an environment” (2).
Ecosystems often interact in a variety of ways through their biotic and abiotic components. Ecosystems often encounter stresses imposed by human activities and physical environments. In addition, they encounter changes which may be caused by human activities.
An example of human activities which cause changes in the ecosystem is tourism. One of the most difficult problem facing environmental scientists is diagnosing the nature of environmental change.
Not only is the extent and rate of change often hard to detect, and even harder to predict, but it may also be very difficult to distinguish between those components of change which are part of a natural process and ecosystem dynamics, and those which are as a result of human impacts.
Yet unravelling all of these issues is vital if ecosystem function is to be sustained and irreparable damage to the biosphere avoided. This paper attempts to analyse the impact of tourism on the ecosystem.
According to Bio Intelligence Service, “people are great consumers when on holiday” (1). Recent studies have indicated that the ecological footprint in some parts of the world is almost same as that of residents. Bio Intelligence Service notes that, when arrival transport account is put into consideration, this ecological footprint escalates. Tourism forms the backbone of many economies around the globe.
However, it has been found to exert indirect and direct pressure on species and habitats and, as a result, it poses a significant threat to conservation. Furthermore, tourism often disturbs wildlife and heightens environmental pollution due to increased transportation of people. The negative impacts of tourism on ecosystem are aggravated by the fact that tourists tend to consume more than the local communities.
In addition, tourists tend to consume more when they are on vacation. A study was conducted recently in Val di Merse, Italy, to determine the ecological footprint of tourists in this region. This study found out that Val di Merse receives a total of 685 tourists per day. As a result, the local population is increased by 5 percent.
The researchers “gathered data on arrival transport, on food and fibre consumption, on accommodation, on land use, utilities and waste, on local transport and on activities of tourists on holiday in Val de Merse region” (Bio Intelligence Service 1).
The study revealed that arrival transport contributes 86 per net of the total tourist impact on ecosystem. The study indicated that “the total impact of one tourist is 38.08 gha/per year” (Bio Intelligence Service1).
RAMP notes that “while recreational activities that take place in lakes, streams, wetlands, and their riparian areas are most likely to negatively impact the aquatic environment, land based activities can also impact the environment” (1).
RAMP indicates that tourist activities such as fishing and hunting of sea animals often lead to the decline in the pollution of aquatic species (1). Tourist activities also alter the aquatic habitat. For example, predator prey interactions are likely to be altered. Aquatic habitat is likely to be distorted by pollution and alterations in the neighbouring habitats.
“Off highway vehicles, including all terrain vehicles, Argos, dirt bikes, and off road vehicles, driven trough or across steams and other water bodies can lead to habitat destruction and degradation, including loss of stream bank stability and erosion” (RAMP 1). On the other hand, when tourists come into contact with wildlife, wildlife behaviour is often affected.
Johnson notes that the growth of tourism around the globe has overlooked concerns of increasing ecological resource use (2). Of late, various tourist attraction sites and infrastructures have been identified as sites of resource overconsumption.
Johnson argues that ecological footprint is essential in the evaluation of different types of tourist behaviours and choices. According to Johnson, “an ecological footprint examines the amount of natural resources required to support a specific type of behaviour, business or process” (2).
A recent study funded by World Wildlife Fund sought to evaluate the use of ecological footprint in the evaluation of the impact of tourism on ecosystem. The study collected data “on bioreproductive land, Bioreproductive Sea, built land, energy land, and area for biodiversity” (Johnson 6).
During the study, “the ecological footprint of each resort was broken into a number of key areas of ecological impact; air travel, waste, food, and hotel energy use” (Johnson 6). The research was conducted in Ontario. The study revealed that tourism has a total impact of a 45.79 gha/per year on the selected region (Johnson 6).
On the other hand, GDRC indicates that tourism has a number of physical impacts (1). It causes trampling. In this case, vegetation and soil are often disturbed when tourists use the same route over and over again. Anchoring activities also degrade the ecosystem.
“Anchoring, snorkelling, sport fishing, scuba diving, yachting and cruising, are some of the activities which can cause direct degradation of marine ecosystems such as coral reefs, and subsequent impacts on coastal protection and fisheries” (GDRC 2).
In addition, tourist activities might alter the ecosystems in a number of ways. “For example, wildlife viewing can bring about stress for the animals and alter their natural behaviours when tourists come too close” (GDRC 2).
As noted earlier, tourism forms the backbone of the economy of many countries in the world. Many governments have invested heavily in the promotion of their tourist destinations. Some of these developments have a significant impact on nearby ecosystems.
For example, many natural lands located close to wildlife ecosystems are being cleared to create space for the construction of centres which will accommodate the growing number of tourists. In addition, most governments have converted natural wildlife ecosystems into national parks and game reserves. Confining wild animals in national parks and game reserves significantly affects their behaviours.
The reproduction of these animals is restricted and this can result into the extinction of the confined species. In addition, their natural feeding habits are affected. Some of these animals are fed on synthetic foods which might hamper their health. Furthermore, the confining of wild animals into national parks alters food chains and food webs in the natural world.
Hotels and recreational centres which are located close to water bodies often discharge wastes into these water bodies thus affecting the aquatic ecosystem.
Moreover, there is an increase in the consumption of sea foods. Many resorts located close to water bodies often offer sea food to visiting tourists as one of their special meals. Tourism contributes to the increase in the demand of sea food and indirectly affects the aquatic ecosystem due to overfishing.
In summary, this paper has noted that “tourism is the temporary, short term movement of people to destinations outside the places where they normally live and work, and their activities during their stay at these destinations; it includes movement for all purposes as well as day visits or excursions” (Beaver 313).
Beaver argues that tourism arises from a number of factors. “Tourism arises from the movement of people to, and their stay in, various destinations” (Beaver 313). Tourism is made up of two major components: “the journey to the destination and the stay including the activities at the destination” (Beaver 313).
Ecosystems often encounter stresses imposed by human activities and physical environments. In addition, they encounter changes which may be caused by human activities. An example of human activities which cause changes in the ecosystem is tourism.
One of the most difficult problem facing environmental scientists is diagnosing the nature of environmental change. Not only is the extent and rate of change often hard to detect, and even harder to predict, but it may also be very difficult to distinguish between those components of change which are part of a natural process and ecosystem dynamics, and those which are as a result of human impacts.
Yet, unravelling all of these issues is vital if ecosystem function is to be sustained and irreparable damage to the biosphere avoided.
Experts argue, “people are great consumers when on holiday” (Bioscience Intelligence 2). Recent studies have indicated that the ecological footprint in some parts of the world is almost same as that of residents. Bio Intelligence Service notes that, when arrival transport account is put into consideration, this ecological footprint escalates. Tourism forms the backbone of many economies around the globe.
However, it has been found to exert indirect and direct pressure on species and habitats and as a result it poses a significant threat to conservation. Furthermore, tourism often disturbs wildlife and heightens environmental pollution due to increased transportation of people.
The negative impacts of tourism on ecosystem are aggravated by the fact that tourists tend to consume more than the local communities. In addition, tourists tend to consume more when they are on vacation.
Tourist activities such as fishing and hunting of sea animals often lead to the decline in the pollution of aquatic species (RAMP 1). Tourist activities also alter the aquatic habitat.
For example, predator prey interactions are likely to be altered. Aquatic habitat is likely to be distorted by pollution and alterations in the neighbouring habitats.
“Off highway vehicles, including all terrain vehicles, Argos, dirt bikes, and off road vehicles, driven trough or across steams and other water bodies can lead to habitat destruction and degradation, including loss of stream bank stability and erosion” (RAMP 1). On the other hand, when tourists come into contact with wildlife, wildlife behaviour is often affected.
Works Cited
Beaver, Allan. A Dictionary of Travel and Tourism Terminology. Derby: Macmilan, 2010. Print.
Bio Intelligence Service. Environmental Impacts of Tourism. 2010. Web.
As it is evident from their name, rainforests are located in regions with a high amount of annual rainfalls. In addition, such forests require high amounts of sunlight, which determines the location of these regions along the line of the equator in South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia. An example of a rainforest is an Amazonian rainforest located on the territory of Brazil.
Carbon Cycling
The carbon cycle in the rainforest can be characterized as fast-paced. The main actors of the process are the plants and wildlife abundant in the jungle. Mainly, the carbon circulates in this environment as a part of photosynthesis. Plants and other entities use photosynthesis (bacteria, fungi) to obtain microelements needed for survival and reproduction. They consume carbon dioxide and methane from the atmosphere and convert them into oxygen as a byproduct. At the end of their lifecycle, they produce methane and carbon dioxide through the decomposition of their foliage or other parts. As such, the rubber tree actively partakes in photosynthesis during the summer period. Its leaves fall in December until in February the blossoming period starts again.
Disturbance and Recovery
Possible disturbances in the ecosystem can be caused externally and internally. As for internal ones, a drought, for instance, could cause one or the other species to prevail in the food chain, increasing its population. An increased population would soon degrade to its normal size due to the lack of food, and the equilibrium will, therefore, be restored. The human-induced disturbance can be exemplified by deforestation. Exercised as a resource-gathering initiative, cutting down perspective species of trees such as rubber trees, humans violate the balance by diminishing or completely eliminating certain species. In addition, by exercising deforestation, people banish wildlife from their natural habitat, which pushes them to extinction, as they do not have time to adapt and evolve.
Rainforests are one of the greatest suppliers of a variety of materials. For instance, heavy industry utilizes tree oils, rubber, and timber produced from certain tree species. Particular plants such as Catharanthus roseus are utilized for producing medicine against leukemia (Aruna, Prabha, Priya, & Nadendla, 2015). Rainforests are also a source of fruits and other foods for both indigenous and urban people.
Assistance to the Ecosystem Recovery
One of the ways to sustain the flow of valuable resources while maintaining the equilibrium of rainforests is to give them time to heal and assist the process. Nowadays it is called sustainable logging. For instance, in the case of cutting down rubber trees, humans should plant new ones and control their population in order not to erase the species completely. However, this still does not address the problem of wildlife.
Humans can assist in rainforest recovery from past invasions by increasing the use of intensive agriculture, building productivity upon technology. This could help decrease the need for deforestation. By funding the projects to save and preserve rainforests, countries can contribute to a sustainable future. In addition, people could help protect the equilibrium of the ecosystem in rainforests by allocating more resources into control for and protection from unauthorized access to its resources. For instance, governments could sponsor and encourage local communities to exercise surveillance and reporting of poaching. Not only passive measures should be practiced. Active restoration is also in order. Planting and cultivating flora and breeding fauna can also become the milestones of a new strategy to save rainforests from danger, which human race has put them.
Reference
Aruna, M. S., Prabha, M. S., Priya, N. S., & Nadendla, R. (2015). Catharanthus Roseus: Ornamental plant is now medicinal boutique. Journal of Drug Delivery and Therapeutics, 5(3), 1-4.
The variety of living organisms, in all its forms and interactions, represents biodiversity, which is a complex but the most vital feature of the planet. The term “biological diversity” was initially coined in 1985, but the significant losses in biodiversity are now becoming apparent and represent a crisis equaling climate change. Biodiversity is comprised of several levels that start from individual species, communities of creatures, and entire ecosystems, ranging from forests to coral reefs, where living beings interact with the physical environment. The unique interactions between the organisms have made the planet habitable for billions of years.
Biodiversity loss represents a significant challenge for modern ecology and refers to the decrease of interactions between species and ecosystems within a given geographical area or Earth as a whole. This means that there is a decline in the number, the variety of species, and their genetic variability, which have multiple consequences. The Amazon is of particular concern in terms of biodiversity as the region is currently experiencing significant biological issues. Such problems as deforestation, commercial fishing, biological piracy and smuggling, mining, and logging all contribute to the decreased biodiversity and cause the overall decline in environmental quality (Mathewson, 2015). Thus, the purpose of the current exploration is to discuss the specific issues caused by biodiversity loss in the Amazon and find solutions targeted at their addressing.
Problems Caused by Biodiversity Loss
The loss of biodiversity has many consequences for the ecosystem of the Amazon. One of the most challenging issues is the economic cost of losing biodiversity in the region. The growth of the human population and the expansion of global economies have contributed to the significant loss of biodiversity despite the initial belief that the increase of resources can halt the adverse consequences of the decreased quality of ecosystems (Rodriguez-Labajos & Martinez-Alier, 2013). The need for increased investment into essential ecosystem services such as pollination, soil reclamation, irrigation, and many others limits the economic capabilities of the countries covered by the Amazon rainforest. The value of global biodiversity has been estimated in the trillions of dollars, and the increased loss of diversity in the region also costs countries trillions.
For businesses and consumers, the expense for addressing the challenges of poor ecosystems. According to the findings of the report funded by The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) (2018) initiative, corporations spend money on addressing biodiversity loss, with the costs of covering the damages from the inability of insects to pollinate the land estimated at $189 billion a year. Deforestation costs are estimated at $2-5 trillion per year. As the majority of illegal deforestation (between 50% and 90%) occurs in the Amazon Basin, the costs of addressing the challenge in the region are, therefore, astronomical (Amadeo, 2019). Another important issue to consider in terms of the economic impact of biodiversity loss is concerned with the ignorance of the third-party effects of private exchanges, which lead to severe economic costs.
Studies that explored the plants, ants, birds, bees, and beetles that inhabit the Brazilian Amazon have found clear evidence pointing at the loss of diversity being caused by deforestation. The remaining areas of the Amazon rainforest now represent the last refuge for many species that have been unable to withstand the adverse effect of human activity. According to the report presented by Lancaster University (2015), the forests of the region have been cleared by cattle ranching and agriculture, with animal life being impoverished and species declining in their variety. One of the most critical problems caused by biodiversity loss is, therefore concerned with the well-being of animals – their decreased general health and well-being. Since many tourists visit the region to see animals up close, the disturbance of wildlife is one of the key contributors to biodiversity loss.
In addition to the ‘meddling’ of people into the ecosystems that preserve the livelihood of animals in the Amazon, changes in climate, associated with biodiversity challenges, make the lives of animals easier. As mentioned in The New York Times report by Hillary Rosner (2006), the increased volume of rains in the Amazon harms the species living in the area. Wildlife ecologists that visited the area found dead monkeys, with many more living creatures in agony without food and shelter. Many more animals, including sloths, deer, and toucans, were also in poor condition due to their inability to find food and shelter because of excessive rainfalls. Continuous changes in climate make it harder for unprotected animals to navigate their lives in harsh conditions, especially when there is a lack of food. Weather conditions are especially important because they affect the availability of fruit, grass, and other small animals for which others prey. If it is continuously raining, as it was in 2006, the likelihood of animals starving and dying is high because they are unable to forage for food while also being subjected to the outbreaks of diseases.
Food security challenges represent the third significant complication associated with biodiversity loss. This issue is important to discuss because converting the natural resources of the rainforest of the Amazon is not a comfortable livelihood. The fact that the territory falls victim to unsustainable land management practices threatens not only the forest itself but also its ability to provide resources to sustain the livelihood of future generations. The increased deforestation and climate change affect the food supply in the region while the reduction of precipitation in the recent decade potentially lead to shortages in the supply of water and thus the potential of forest fires (Watts, 2019). Food security is important to consider in the context of the Amazon rainforest because South American countries lack financial resources to deal with the problem. While such countries as the United States could find ways to feed the population in the scenario of decreased biodiversity, more impoverished regions may not be as capable of dealing with the challenge. To add to the problem, global food production is expected to decrease as a result of drought and other climate-associated consequences.
Addressing the Problems
As one of the first steps to solving the problems of diversity loss in the Amazon, it is advised to put an economic value on biodiversity. Using the findings of the TEEB, which is funded by the United Nations and various governments can be beneficial for estimating the benefits of reduced climate change. Understanding the amount of financial resources governments and corporations have to spend on preserving the biologic diversity of the Amazon rainforest is expected to decrease the number of harmful practices leading to deforestation and harm caused to animals (Ortiz, Nowak, & Parker, 2013) The investment into protecting the areas that are endangered is the most significant return on investment for the future. Monitoring the resources that are becoming scarcer is a critical aspect of ensuring the financial security of preserving the biodiversity of the Amazon. By identifying the areas that require the most attention, governments, and global organizations that work on environmental preservation will be able to address the challenges that should be resolved urgently.
Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru share the territory of the Amazon basin and are therefore affected by poor food security. It is imperative to review the effect of land utilization and climate change on ecosystem services as well as study the connections between the latter and threats to food security. Thus, connecting knowledge on the natural resources’ use, the change of land utilization, as well as the maintenance of human health is expected to help address the issue of food security. For example, Roche, Creed-Kanashiro, Tuesta, and Kuhnlein (2011) promoted the popularization of Peru’s traditional foods to strengthen food security in the region.
Strengthening food security can also be achieved with the help of ecological intensification for the purpose of conciliating forest preservation and food supply in the Amazon (Cialdella et al., 2015). When enough territories are available, and when policies are targeted at promoting the sustainable use of already-cleared areas, the expected outcomes include a decline in deforestation and increased agricultural production in non-endangered areas, thus leading to increased food security. Policy development is also needed to enable food sustainability, such as the halt of beef and soybean production in the region because of the adverse effects on cattle and its grazing. Besides, all policies for sustainable development of food security in the Amazon should also benefit its native inhabitants in such a way that will increase their overall average income. This means that companies and governments have to think about the involvement of indigenous populations into the production of food and encourage investment into the improved well-being of people.
Preserving the well-being and ecological integrity of animals is a prerogative in terms of addressing the adverse outcomes of biodiversity loss. Community action and policy change are both necessary to ensure that endangered animals of the Amazon possess enough resources for a prosperous life. This action can range from charity work to involving local authorities and companies to invest in efforts to preserve the wildlife of the region. In addition, it is also important to consider the issue of consumerism and food choices that the population makes. The clearing of the trees for cattle ranching and producing such crops as soy is harmful to wild animals because they are at a higher risk of suffering from fires during dry seasons. Consumer consciousness is the key to helping animals maintain their natural ecosystems in the Amazon.
Conclusion
In summary, it should be mentioned that the Amazon region represents a significant challenge for the global ecosystem. The consequences of human devastation, coupled with climate change, are rapidly making the area uninhabitable for wildlife, which ruins their unique diversity and interactions. Firm actions on the part of both South American and global community are needed to address the problem and include policy changes associated with land use, conscious consumption, as well as financial support for improving the living conditions in the area. Time is of the essence in this case, which is why any delays can lead to catastrophic consequences not only for the Amazon but for the global ecosystem as a whole.
Cialdella, N., de Carvalho, S., Vaz, V., Barbosa, T., Thales, M., Mourão, M., … Tourrand, J. (2015). Do political changes aimed at reducing Amazonian deforestation contribute to ecological intensification? Cahiers Agricultures, 24(4), 246-254.
Ortiz, R., Nowak, A., & Parker, L. (2013). Food security in Amazonia. A report for the Amazonia Security Agenda Project. Web.
Roche, M., Creed-Kanashiro, H., Tuesta, I., & Kuhnlein, H. (2011) Infant and young child feeding in the Peruvian Amazon: The need to promote exclusive breastfeeding and nutrient-dense traditional complementary foods. Maternal and Child Nutrition, 7, 284-294.
Rodriguez-Labajos, B., & Martinez-Alier, J. (2013). The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity: Recent Instances for Debate. Conservation & Society, 11(4), 326-342.
An ecosystem refers to different sets of interrelationships among living organisms, human beings and to the way they interact with their environment. The paper will focus on complex interrelationships of a desert ecosystem. Deserts are located near two tropics: the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn; these two latitudes describe the zones where the sun is about ninety percent at noon.
Deserts are divided into categories some of which include hot and cold deserts but they tend to have similar characteristics. An example of a cold desert is the Antarctica desert that is among the world’s largest deserts (Tewari, 1994).
A desert’s is divided into abiotic and biotic components by structure; this in lay terms refers to non-living and living components of the ecosystem. Some of the abiotic components include soil. The main type of soil found in the desert is sandy soil characterized by alkaline PH, such soils have fewer organic matter and low water holding capacity hence referred to as poor soils. Water is another abiotic component whereby deserts are characterized by little or no water.
Temperature as an abiotic component tends to be high during the day and relatively low at night. Wind and climate are also abiotic components. Biotic components of a desert ecosystem consist of plants and animals, whereby these organisms have the ability to sustain extreme temperatures. They also tend to have low production levels and lack diversity because of nutrient inadequacy in this ecosystem.
Desert functionality calls for different cycles, for example, the carbon cycle takes a continuous form. The cycle capitalizes on activities of biotic components, as plants take carbon dioxide, water and light in the process of trying to make food and compounds full of carbon. When these plants wither or die, they rot hence giving back carbon elements that had been taken from the soil earlier. Later on young sprouting plants take in these elements.
Animals play a vital role in ensuring the success of the carbon cycle, during respiration they do breathe in oxygen and give out carbon dioxide. When these animals die, they decompose giving back nutrients to the soil, and this ensures continuity of the cycle. Another cycle in the desert ecosystem is the nitrogen cycle; it refers to how nitrogen is consumed and replaced back to the ecosystem.
In a desert ecosystem, the cycle begins with desert plants taking up nitrogen, animals then consume these plants rich in nitrogen as food, the animals are consumed by other animals (carnivores).When this happens nitrogen that was taken from the plants is transferred to the carnivores. In case of death or excretion their remains decompose giving back nitrogen to the soil, soil organisms then assimilate it making it available for the use by plants.
Functionality of the desert ecosystem is normally disturbed by certain causes some of which include natural causes. Such natural occurrences as earthquakes, earth tremors and landslides may lead to alteration of the normal functionality of the ecosystem. This may lead to the destruction of the soil structure and general structure of the desert.
It may also interfere with the land and the normal systems like gaseous exchange and production levels in the desert. Anthropogenic disturbances may also interfere with the desert ecosystem; some of these include mining activities, infrastructure development activities, air pollution, overgrazing and military training activities. High occurrence of these anthropogenic activities leads to the destruction of vegetation in the desert, unstable soils in terms of structure and increased soil erosion.
Ecosystems recover from initial disturbances through resilience and the theory of secondary succession. Resilience refers to the ability of an environment to maintain its original state, activities and functions despite stress. It is a combination of methods helping to increase the system’s productivity by providing the resources for higher production.
Maintenance of local characteristics of the ecosystem helps it to recover; these characteristics will help decrease soil erosion, maintain soil structure and increase diversity. Secondary succession theory can also facilitate this recovery strategy using the above quoted methods.
Reference
Tewari, D. N. (1994). Desert ecosystem. Dehradun, India: International Book Distributors.
