Category: Ecosystem

Introduction

There are a lot of myths and stereotypes about the minor role of bats on our planet. It is commonly argued by many people that bats are pests, the existence of which does not make any sense. However, such kind of assumptions are inherently wrong and downplay the importance of bats in the ecosystem. In fact, bats are not pests but pest controllers eating many night insects (Mittelstadt, 2011). Many scholars argue about the possibility that bats can become extinct in the future because of human impact and new deadly diseases. The main thesis is that bats play an overwhelmingly important role on the planet, so some action should be taken to prevent bats extinction because their extinction will cause a severe ecological crisis for the continent.

Major Facts About Bats

Although bats have a distinctive appearance, the variety of different species is huge. For example, the largest bat species, called the giant golden-crowned fly fox, weighs almost 3.5 pounds and has a wingspan of nearly 67 inches, while the smallest one, Kittis hog-nosed bat, weighs 0.06-0.09 ounces (Bat Fact Sheet, 2021). Another feature of bats is that they live everywhere, except for a few oceanic islands, the Arctic and Antarctica. What is more, bats can be found in a variety of habitats, including deserts, tropics, caves, forests, wetlands, and even cities (Bat Fact Sheet, 2021). Also, one of the least known facts about bats is that they can live 18-32 years with a longevity record of 41 years (White et al., 2019). The scientific community is concentrated on the fact that there are a lof species that can become extinct: according to IUCN, 16,2% of 1314 bat species will be endangered or vulnerable in 2020. Moreover, it is evident that the population of bats in North America has declined (VPM, 2019). This fact poses the world communitys responsibility to make an effort to save endangered species.

Role of Bats in the Ecosystem

It is impossible to imagine a modern North American ecosystem without the influence of bats on it. Firstly, bats are the main predators of night insects (Mittelstadt, 2011). For the majority of their life, they spend the night when distinctive species of insect appear, some of which pose some danger to people. Secondly, there are almost 100 species of plants that cannot survive without bats (Mittelstadt, 2011). The reason is that bats contribute to the spread of seeds and pollination of plants, such as bananas, cashew, mangos, and so forth.

Researchers of bats need to be informed about the interconnections that are naturally constructed in the ecosystem. Firstly, bats, by spreading seeds, provoke some positive by-products of their activity. The spread of new seeds increases soil fertility produced by the plants that grow from above mentioned distributed seeds (Enríquez-Acevedo, 2020). As a result, such seed dispersion positively contributes to human activity, especially to farmers, who get more fertile territories. Secondly, there are some functions of bats that are not extensively discussed by scholars. Two of these insufficiently researched functions are nutrient cycling and arthropod suppression (Castillo-Figueroa, 2020). Nutrient cycling means the transportation of important ecosystem nutrients to the places where these nutrients positively impact the environment. Castillo-Figueroa (2020) indicates that bats can fertilize trees that are used as roosting sites, increasing nitrogen content in the tree soil and their seeds (p. 86). As for arthropod suppression, it means that bats help plants to survive arthropods. Bats make it by gleaning insects from plants and water in cluttered forests and hunting in open spaces. Thus, bats are the key player in the modern ecosystem worldwide, including in Northern America.

Possible Extinction of Bats

White Nose Syndrome

The reason to write the paper on such a topic is that there is a concern in the US that bats will become extinct because of a new disease called white-nose syndrome. The white-nose syndrome affects bats hibernation through the growth of cold-loving fungus, which makes bats awake earlier and causes them to die from starvation (Mittlestadt, 2011). Merlin D. Tuttle, founder and president of Emeritus Bat Conservation International indicates that [it] does far has been the most devastating infections to hit American wildlife (Mcgowan, 2013). Indeed, the syndrome appeared in America in 2008 in the northeast and has already killed over 5.5 million bats (US Fish & Wildlife Service, 2015). The most dangerous aspect of the disease is the high mortality rate, which is estimated to be over 95% (Mittlestadt, 2011). Such an extremely dangerous disease was the reason to investigate the importance of bats to the North American ecosystem. The main thesis is that bats play an overwhelmingly important role on the planet, so some action should be taken to prevent bats extinction because their extinction will cause a severe ecological crisis for the continent.

Damage Made to Bats by Humans

After a close analysis of bats role in the ecosystem, it is hard to imagine the world without them. If bats die out, there will be a huge breakdown for the whole environment. It will lead to a highly increased number of insects, damaging plants and bringing many difficulties to peoples lives (Mittelstadt, 2011). Besides, there are a lot of plants that cannot live without pollination and seed dispersal by bats. There will be a great shortage of bananas and mangos which will start the dreadful link of species extinction dependent on these plants. Therefore, it is humankinds obligation to protect the population of bats on Earth.

However, it is argued that the impact made by humans on bats leads to a decrease in bats population. The integral way how humans affect bats habitat is the uncontrolled human access to caves where bats sleep (VMP, 2019). The entrance of humans into wild caves results in a change of habitat, so even a small change in the ecosystem of a cave can cause the death of the whole population living there. Organizations for bat conservation advocate for the limitation of peoples access to caves. It is usually made by installing so-called bat gates that allow bats to enter but restrict uncontrolled human access (VMP, 2019). Another way how people can help bats is through the installation of special bat boxes that can serve as a suitable place for living in areas where bats are actually living (VPM, 2019). It can help some populations survive if they do not find any natural place to live and sleep.

Conclusion

Bats play an integral role in the functioning of the North American ecosystem. The scientific knowledge shows that bats are involved in seed dispersal, pollination, nutrient cycling, and arthropod suppression. However, there is the danger that some species of bats can become extinct because of white-nose syndrome, which caused the death of 5 million bats in the US and Canada and the harmful impact of human activity. To prevent this, people can contribute to the preservation of the bats population by participating in bats preservation centers, advocating for state measures to protect bats, and involving in voluntary assistance to bats through the construction of special places for their residence and non-violent treatment of these animals.

References

Bat Fact Sheet. (2021). PBS. Web.

Castillo-Figueroa, D. (2020). Why bats matters: a critical assessment of bat-mediated ecological processes in the Neotropics. European Journal of Ecology, 6(1), 77-101.

Enríquez-Acevedo, T., Pérez-Torres, J., Ruiz-Agudelo, C., & Suarez, A. (2020). Seed dispersal by fruit bats in Colombia generates ecosystem services. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 40(6), 1-15.

Mcgowan, D. (2013). Battle for bats: Surviving white nose syndrome [Short Documentary]. Ravenswood Media.

Mittelstadt, J. (2011). White nose syndrome: Devastating fungus threatens North American bats [Short Documentary].

U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. (2015). White-nose syndrome: the devastating disease of hibernating bats in North America. Web.

VPM. (2019). Bats have an important role in our ecosystem, such as increasing biodiversity in our environment [Video]. YouTube. Web.

White, J. P., Nordquist, G. E., & Kaarakka, H. M. (2019). Longevity records of five male little brown bats (Myotis lucifugus) in Northwest Wisconsin. Northeastern Naturalist, 26(4).

Introduction

The worlds ecosystem refers to the entire body of the living and the non-living things on the surface of the earth. It refers to all the organisms either living or non-living, and the interactions that they normally exemplify. For the survival of all the living organisms, they have to depend on one another. They are able to acquire food materials and other necessities for life through interaction with others in the society (Cunningham and Cunningham, 2007). The pricing of the goods and services provided by the ecosystem exemplifies a range of reactions from the positive to the negative perspectives.

Human beings are part of the living organisms in the ecosystem. Within the ecosystem, there is what we call interaction of the various organisms. For many years, man has been depending on the environment for daily survival. This is a clear indication that without the environment, the survival of most of the organisms in the ecosystem would be next to impossibility. Critically, the living organisms are the ones that depend on one another. It is normally common for the non-living to depend on the living, but the living depends on the non-living in one way or the other.

As far as man and other living organisms in the ecosystem will depend on the environment for survival, there is need for conservation to be considered. Everything in the atmosphere is subject to depletion. This is therefore the main reason why man and all the other living organisms in the environment have to conserve what the environment offers. It has therefore got to the desire and need for man to implement laws and regulations that will oversee the nature and rate of use of the resources from the environment. This therefore reiterates the contention of the topic under research. A price should be put on the goods and services provided by the world ecosystem. This contention has a diversity of reasons for and against as the research is to handle.

Literature review

It is upon the entire human nature to conserve the environment. The ecosystem is a good source of various goods and services. According to the Public Affairs Group Inc., 1992, the ecosystem to be protected for its continued productivity. As long as it produces to the entire animal and plant kingdoms, it is subject to depletion. (Easton, 2008) says that the ecosystem is natural but this does not mean that it will naturally produce to the organisms of the ecosystem. World famous writers have gone to vast heights in their intention to enlighten the entire human nature on the need to have the environment conserved in order to restore its natural way of continued and quality production to the environment.

Many institutions have been involved in the strategies to formulate rules and regulations that will foresee the way man and other living organisms in the ecosystem will use it. (Cunningham and Cunningham, 2007) says that unless there are rules and regulations, the nature of the environment will continue to degrade. This is one of the contentions that have raised a lot of concerns all over the world. Moreover, worlds leaders have taken several steps in ensuring that the environment is protected and conserved to the betterment of human and animal use. Moreover, it has been the concern of many governments to see and assure the people of reduced pollution in order to have the environment save for healthy use.

Research methods

In order to arrive at the results that the research paper demanded, a number of research methods were involved. These are the strategies that gave out the results of the research that was done. The following research methods were therefore involved: a survey was done in one of the ecosystems that have been linked with degradation. The surveys were specifically used to denote the nature of pricing that the goods and services provided by the ecosystem have undergone. Moreover, the survey was done in order to relay the main aspects that have contributed to the depletion of some of the resources in the environment. There was moreover, an issue of questionnaires. The questionnaire was to be used in several ways. They were to explore into the needs that have driven man to price some of the goods from the ecosystem. Besides this, it was to bring out the resultant effects of carrying out pricing of the goods and services provided by the ecosystem. In many circumstances, laws have been formulated but they are rarely adhered to. The questionnaires were to give results as concerns to that. Moreover, the questionnaires were used to describe the nature of the prices that have been used in the human kingdom mainly to act in the ways of protecting the ecosystem.

Discussion of findings

One of the ways of reducing dependence on the ecosystem is through formulation of the rules and regulations. These laws are to act as codes that will oversee the way man and other living organisms obtain and use resources from the ecosystem. Apart from the formulation of these laws, there has to be a force to make sure that the formulated laws have been adhered to. The main reason why the ecosystem has to be protected is because of the fact that everything on the surface of the earth is subject to completion. It is therefore upon man to protect the environment so that it will continue to produce the necessary facilities for human use (Finsterbusch and McKenna, 1982).

There are various merits that will be accomplished by the pricing of the services that are provided by the worlds ecosystem. First and foremost, most of the things that are done in the world of today are business oriented. There has come the need to have a clear and comprehensive way of handling ideas and aspects in life. Use of money is one of the challenging activities that are always put under strict consideration. Money is one of the quantities that have to be well taken care of. It is therefore an advice to have a pricing of most of the resources that are produced in the environment. Pricing is a way of putting ideas in a way that will be easy to comprehend and deal with. When the products produced in the environment are priced, it will be easy to put the final record under records that will be easy to store and remember. Simplifications can therefore be done to make sure that the records have kept accurate results. Moreover, the aspects of data manipulation and analysis will be easy to carry out. However, the monetary estimates are usually well known in hiding for estimates of production or calculation. These estimates could be in the form of assumptions that are made. Moreover, when the facilities that are produced in the environment are priced, it will be very hard to make approximations and simplifications of the same. Approximations and simplifications are usually useful in the determination of the future production of the ecosystem.

When the products produced by the ecosystem are priced, it will be very simple and clear to have the misleading precisions eschewed. A model of assumptions can therefore be easily transformed into statements that can later be summarized. This is like carrying out a plan in business where an individual is involved in ways that involve planning. After planning, it is normally good to have the plans put under a test in order to attest the surety and accuracy of the plan. Later, you will be able to make assumptions in the form of sentences that have senses. In this case, the main undoing is when the monetary values are not realistic and thus not doing well.

Pricing of the goods given by the world ecosystem is of advantage when dealing with aspects of universal summation. This is where different products are put together and their sum taken to obtain the totals. They are summed on a particular avenue then compared with those of other avenues hence able to give a suggestive way to undertake. This involves the spirit of good management and decision making processes that are crucial to the survival of the organism. The demerit to this undertaking is that sometimes, it is not easy to compare the costs and benefits and translate them into single values. At the process of transition from one state to another, there is a lot that is lost and cannot be compensated for (Public Affairs Group, Inc, 1992).

When the products are priced, there is the benefit of planning. There are normally tools that are used in planning as is done in the business world. For one to benefit in any business plan, he has to be involve in the use of particular methods and strategies. A nuanced assessment will consequently facilitate an individual to use some of the commanding tools of monetary planning in an appropriate way. In cases where this kind of planning is inappropriate, there is the use of indicators, models and other equipment that are of this kind in the business world. In this case, there is the challenge of comprehending the true value of the resources or even the environment itself.

There is the case of estimating the worth of every good provided by the ecosystem. There are various goods and services provided by the environment. It is always important to have the value of any item in business so that one can be able to stroke a balance to determine a clear pathway to follow. When you price all the services of the ecosystem, you are actually ranking the current and the future benefits of the products and their values across a common scale of action. However, carrying out summaries by values that are not monetary gives a perspective that is hard in comparing the costs and the benefits of the products in the ecosystem (Easton, 2008).

Finally, there is a case of being accountable to the environment. Here, as is done in any business, it is always one of the business strategies to have all the activities of the company be accountable to the outcomes of the products obtained or the profit or loss that is sustained. In this case, there is the advantage of coming up with an ecosystem with natural values that are easy to manage. There is thus a precise dimension of the stockpiles and streams of natural wealth in nature. This is one of the things which are rarely done in the world of today yet they are of varying significance. The main undoing here is the fact that it is always hard to bring theory and practice into a natural world. It wont be able to work well with most of the establishments of human beings in the ecosystem (Finsterbusch and McKenna, 1982).

Conclusion

In conclusion, there are several implications which result from the valuation or rather pricing of the products produced by the ecosystem. The pricing of the goods and services provided by the ecosystem exemplifies a range of reactions from the positive to the negative perspectives. They are actually valid and to the need of every financial transaction. As depicted in the research carried out, it is a common thing to have the ecosystem subjected to manipulations that will transform its productivity and longevity. Moreover, many human practices are detrimental to the working of the natural environment. It is therefore important to have these pricing be based on the natural rules that govern the productivity and the ownership of the ecosystem (Public Affairs Group, Inc, 1992).

References

Cunningham, P. W. & Cunningham, M. A. (2007). Principles of environmental science: inquiry & applications, New York: McGraw-Hillpublishers.

Easton, T. (2008). Taking sides: Clashing views on environmental issues. Michigan: McGraw-Hill publishers.

Finsterbusch, K. and McKenna, G. (1982). Taking sidesclashing views on controversial social issues. New York: Dushkin Pub. Group.

Public Affairs Group, Inc. (1992). Environmental executive directory. Chicago: Carroll Pub. Co.

Introduction

Planet Earth is home to millions of diverse creatures, living both everywhere and in strictly isolated environments. While there are few threats to existence for species common to all continents, endemic organisms, because of their uniqueness and low prevalence, are in danger of disappearing. The most critical situation is when an invasive species is introduced into a harmoniously developing ecosystem, bringing its corrections into trophic chains and natural selection. This essay aims to conclude the discussion of Tasmanias ecosystem with unique biodiversity and the influence of wild cats that have historically been delivered to the island.

Tasmanian devil

Its geographical distance from land mostly determines the uniqueness of Tasmanias ecosystem. Evolutionary driving forces lead to species that are individual to the area and have the property of reproductive isolation concerning even related species. For Tasmania, whose biome is represented by subtropical eucalyptus forests, the keystone species is the Tasmanian devil, Sarcophilus harrisii (Grueber et al., 2019). It is a small marsupial mammal with black color, strong limbs, and ears. The devils jaw is durable and robust so that with one bite, it can hurt the victims skull. However, under changed climatic conditions or in the absence of animal food, the mammal quickly switches to plant tubers and roots, making the Tasmanian devil omnivorous. If one imagines the islands bionts as branches of a tree, the node of contact of all the branches converges at a keystone point. It is the devil who, by virtue of its omnivores and widespread distribution, has a decisive influence on other inhabitants of the ecosystem (Agnos, 2018). In other words, the devils disappearance is likely to destroy Tasmanias ecosystem if it cannot adapt.

Invasive Cat

At the same time, the island is not abandoned, as in the 17th century, the first Europeans arrived in Tasmania. Along with the colonists, domestic cats arrived on the island, which became invasive to the unique flora and fauna. Despite the harmony of natural processes, the presence of a new element in the ecosystem was detrimental as cats began to drive devils and other predators from their ecological niche. The result was a changed ecosystem structure, following the death of endemic species (Lyall, 2018). Methods for controlling invasion can include both natural measures and human actions. From a natural control perspective, cats may likely be displaced by the emergence of stronger predators feeding on smaller zoophagous as well as cats themselves. At the same time, the Tasmanian Administration enacted legislation in 2009, regulating the humane destruction of wild cats if they are found on agricultural land (Cat Management in Tasmania, n.d.). The island authorities continue to develop strategies to combat and contain the spread of wild cats, as wild cats remain an obstacle to the harmonious development of endemics. Ironically, modern man fights animals whose ancestors were brought to the island by travelers.

Endangered Species

An impressive example of Tasmanias only endangered species is the Eastern Quoll. It is a small marsupial mammal, the closest relative to the Tasmanian devil, and like the devil in danger of extinction. There are several reasons for this, but the most obvious ones include the spread of invasive species, anthropogenic impact on forests, equivalent to the loss of habitat, and poaching. However, quoll is considered an essential endemic species listed in the Red List, and researchers estimate that the number of mature species does not exceed 12,000 (Burbidge & Woinarski, 2016). This reason dictates the need for quality change: Tasmania has established nature reserves that guarantee the right living conditions for quolls (Fancourt, 2016). Furthermore, the authorities are planning to actively introduce quotas for the original habitat, Australia, as soon as natural numbers rise to acceptable levels.

References

Agnos, C. (2018). How devils heal forests. Sustainable Human. Web.

Burbidge, A.A. & Woinarski, J. (2016). Dasyurus viverrinus.

Cat Management in Tasmania. (n.d.). Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment. Web.

Fancourt, B. (2016). Eastern quolls edge closer to extinction  but its not too late to save them. The Conversation. 

Grueber, C. E., Peel, E., Wright, B., Hogg, C. J., & Belov, K. (2019). A Tasmanian devil breeding program to support wild recovery. Reproduction, Fertility and Development, 31(7), 1296-1304. Web.

Lyall, J. M. (2018). Native and invasive mammalian carnivores in a forestry and agricultural landscape in northwest Tasmania [PDF document]. 

Every year humanity creates innovative technologies, some of which have the potential to change the order of life fundamentally. Although the first plastic was invented by Alexander Parkes in 1855, it only became prevalent a few decades ago. For modern humans, plastic bags, cups, cocktail tubes, and glasses are not surprising. The vast majority of humanity, however, has little regard for the fact that plastic poses a serious environmental hazard. This essay will elaborate on why plastics should be suspended in favor of marine ecosystem safety.

Among the fighters for the safety of nature, there is a deeply held belief that if a person does not dispose of the plastic bag properly, but throws it away, the container will return as contaminated food. However, this did not stop the producers and consumers of plastic bags. With advantages, such as durability and cheapness compared to other materials, the production of plastic products increases every year (Garello et al., 2019). Nevertheless, recently humanity has begun to think about the harm plastic does to nature and human life.

The increase in plastic production had a significant impact on World Ocean water. Thus, according to Cressey (2016), the volume of plastic produced annually by the world community is over 300 million tons. Studies show that more than 10% of the plastic used enters the worlds oceans, equivalent to tens of millions of tons of plastics of various sizes (Garello et al., 2019). According to the findings of Garello et al. (2019), unless humanity takes action to reduce plastics production, there will be more plastics in the worlds oceans than fish.

A significant threat is not so much the plastic itself, but what it can become. In 1988, based on an analysis of several ocean currents and an assessment of the plastic drifting with them, the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration published a report that predicted the existence of a place to which all ocean garbage aspires (Williams, 2017). It was later confirmed that the spot existed: when put together, large pieces of plastic, including bags, form large areas (Critchell et al., 2019). Plastic islands have a negative impact on aquatic ecosystems. Such areas occupy entire ecological niches, displacing ocean inhabitants and blocking access to light for phytoplankton. As a result, plastic islands can not only cause the extinction of specific species but can also significantly affect the oxygen concentration in the atmosphere.

In addition to large pieces of plastic bags, the smallest ones are also a big problem. Polyethylene in ocean water decays into millions of tiny particles when exposed to the sun and constant collision with each other (Avio et al., 2017). The deterioration results in the formation of microscopic elements that remain floating in all layers of water. Plastics in the oceans typically decompose within a year, but not wholly, and in the process, toxic chemicals such as bisphenol A and polystyrene can enter the water (Lin et al., 2017). Complementing this problem is another unique feature of microplastics, namely the ability to absorb various liquids (Wang et al., 2018). Particles that have absorbed medicines, cosmetics, oil, or toxic substances release these compounds into seawater, creating potentially dangerous areas for inhabitants.

In addition to large pieces of plastic bags, the smallest ones are also a big problem. Polyethylene in ocean water decays into millions of tiny particles when exposed to the sun and constant collision with each other (Avio et al., 2017). The deterioration results in the formation of microscopic elements that remain floating in all layers of water. Plastics in the oceans typically decompose within a year, but not wholly, and in the process, toxic chemicals such as bisphenol A and polystyrene can enter the water (Lin et al., 2017). Complementing this problem is another unique feature of microplastics, namely the ability to absorb various liquids (Wang et al., 2018). Particles that have absorbed medicines, cosmetics, oil, or toxic substances release these compounds into seawater, creating potentially dangerous areas for inhabitants. In this way, plastic is included in the food chain and reaches the person who eats fish and other seafood.

In addition to the negative effect on sea creatures, plastic is also harmful to humans. The global water cycle in nature brings plastic waste back to humans for food. By consuming seafood, birds, and other animals, people eat microscopic plastic particles. Once in the body through water runoff, the particles can poison the gastrointestinal tract with bisphenol and other toxic substances released by plastic (Lin et al., 2017). As they accumulate, this leads to cancer, reduced immunity, allergies, and lower fertility (Verma et al., 2016). Conscientious citizens should, therefore, be interested in limiting the amount of plastic produced and consumed.

The arguments described above lead to the conclusion that it is reasonable to prohibit the use of plastic bags at the federal levels. Similar measures have already been taken in India, France, and Africa (Where are Plastic Bags Banned, n.d.). There are, however, still views that the problem of plastic bags is greatly exaggerated. Typically, those opposed to banning operate at the possible economic cost to producers due to the ban (Henry & Catarino, 2018). Cancellation of production will have an impact on wage cuts and cause social and economic collapse in many countries. It is difficult to disagree with this, but the financial losses can hardly be called worthy of arguments against the preservation of the planets security. If plastic producers do not think about the damage to the goods they create today, the protection of financial resources may be meaningless in an environment where future life is impossible. Ultimately, a compromise must be found to allow factories to continue working, not on production, but recycling or disposal, and on environmental safety.

In conclusion, the problem of contamination with polyethylene bags, despite various prejudices, does indeed matter. For the majority of people this problem is not visible, as the main action scene is underwater, but through food chains plastic will get to people. Even today, marine animals and plants are already exposed to micro plastics, so present generations should take care of this problem for the next generations.

References

Avio, C. G., Gorbi, S., & Regoli, F. (2017). Plastics and microplastics in the oceans: From emerging pollutants to emerged threat. Marine Environmental Research, 128(1), 2-11. Web.

Critchell, K., Hamann, M., Wildermann, N., & Grech, A. (2019). Predicting the exposure of coastal species to plastic pollution in a complex island archipelago. Environmental Pollution, 252(B), 982-991. Web.

Cressey, D. (2016). The plastic ocean. Nature, 536(7616), 263-265. Web.

Garello, R., Plag, H. P., Shapiro, A., Martinez, S., Pearlman, J., & Pendleton, L. (Eds.). (2019). Proceedings of the Ocean 2019 conference. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.

Henry, T., & Catarino, A. (2018). Plastics in oceans are mounting, but evidence on harm is surprisingly weak. Independent. Web.

Lin, Z., Wang, L., Jia, Y., Zhang, Y., Dong, Q., & Huang, C. (2017). A study on environmental bisphenol a pollution in plastics industry areas. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 228(3), 98-106. Web.

Verma, R., Vinoda, K. S., Papireddy, M., & Gowda, A. N. S. (2016). Toxic pollutants from plastic waste-a review. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 35(1), 701-708. Web.

Wang, F., Wang, F., & Zeng, E. Y. (2018). Sorption of toxic chemicals on microplastics. In E. Y. Zeng (Eds.), Microplastic contamination in aquatic environments (pp. 225-247). Elsevier.

Where are Plastic Bags Banned Around the World? (n.d.). ReuseThisBag. Web.

Williams, S. T. (2017). Plastics: the trophic transfer of microplastics in the marine food web. Web.

Wójcik-Fudalewska, D., Normant-Saremba, M., & Anastácio, P. (2016). Occurrence of plastic debris in the stomach of the invasive crab Eriocheir sinensis. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 113(1-2), 306-311. Web.

Biomes exhibit large areas with a specific climate, vegetation, and wildlife. The aquatic biome falls into the two categories of freshwater and marine biomes. Marine habitats cover almost three-quarters of the Earths surface and include oceans, estuaries, and coral reefs. The coral reefs biodiversity presents a specific interest as one of the most stressed worlds ecosystems with an intricate relationship between the keystone, invasive and endangered species.

Marine ecosystems as a community of living and nonliving organisms have distinct characteristics because of the unique combination of physical factors like salinity and light availability, and the organism distribution. The creatures inhabiting the area must adapt to these conditions and become very diverse. A coral reef is an ecosystem predominating in shallow warm water found along continents or fringing islands (Glasl et al., 2019). It is considered one of the most socioeconomically valuable and biologically diverse ecosystems and the most stressed at the same time. It is a complex of host-associated and free-living microbial communities (Ellis et al., 2019). The reefs fauna is rich with several species of invertebrates, microorganisms, fish, sea stars, and octopuses. However, today coral reefs are increasingly declining with an estimated 30% severely damaged, and 60% predicted to be lost by 2030, mainly because of overfishing and pollution (Ellis et al., 2019). The impact of global climate change also affects the coral reef and the dominance of particular species.

The dominant keystone organisms in coral reefs may be considered corals consisting of algae and polyp that are essential organisms for the reefs existence. Corals acquire nutrients through algae by photosynthesis and extending tentacles to obtain plankton from waters because of the nutritionally deficient reef waters (Glasl et al., 2019). However, sharks can also be considered a keystone species in coral reefs as dominant predators in the ecosystem. Their removal decreases the overall diversity and allows for the prey population to grow exponentially. Thus, sharks are the keystone species that control top-down regulation decreasing the fish they eat and increasing algae.

An invasive species is an alien species to the ecosystem that harms it environmentally, economically, or socially. They invade and dominate the ecosystem due to the lack of competition or predators. Lionfish is commonly considered the invasive species of the coral reefs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, and the Atlantic Ocean because of its great appetite and lack of predators in the area (Risch & Parks, 2017). They have the potential to destroy the ecosystem because they feed on native herbivores. The grazers are essential for the coral reef ecosystem since it becomes vulnerable to overwhelming algal blooms without them (Ellis et al., 2019). Uncontrollable algae distress the coral reef by preventing the nutrients and sunlight from getting to the coral, and the symbiotic relationships from getting destroyed (Risch & Parks, 2017). The lionfish management measures are often considered futile, but several population control efforts are suggested. The possible options are maintaining a more considerable amount of predators that feed on the lionfish, limiting its trade, or encouraging fishing.

The coral reef also houses endangered species that are important to be protected. The four different turtles species at the Great Barrier Reef are classified as endangered, and two are close to it. They are nearing extinction mainly because of plastic emissions and hunting. Turtles mistake plastic bags for jellyfish, eat them, and die painfully (Ellis et al., 2019). The value of turtles shells, meat, and eggs also remain high, so they are often hunted for it. The other species that are going extinct because of hunting at the reefs are whales and saltwater crocodiles. The fishing and hunting regulations are imposed to prevent it.

Coral reefs present a unique ecosystem in the marine biome that is, unfortunately, rapidly degrading due to climate change and human activity. The biodiversity is threatened to be destroyed, requiring active management action for reef restoration. The relationship between the keystone, invasive, and endangered species needs to be carefully weighted to counteract reef destruction. Effective management measures are essential for saving the presence of endangered issues and preserving the ecosystem.

References

Ellis, J. I., Jamil, T., Anlauf, H., Coker, D. J., Curdia, J., Hewitt, J., Jones, B.H., Krokos ,G., Kürten, B., Hariprasad, D., Carvalho, S., Hoteit, I., & Roth, F. (2019). Multiple stressor effects on coral reef ecosystems. Global Change Biology, 25(12), 4131-4146.

Glasl, B., Bourne, D. G., Frade, P. R., Thomas, T., Schaffelke, B., & Webster, N. S. (2019). Microbial indicators of environmental perturbations in coral reef ecosystems. Microbiome, 7(1), 1-13.

Risch, D., & Parks, S. E. (2017). Ecoacoustics: The ecological role of sounds. Wiley.

Introduction

Ecosystems are active interactions that occur among the fauna and flora together with the environment as they function as a unit. Ecosystems have no limit in their sizes for they can be as big and as small as possible as long as the stakeholders in it continue to work as a unit and the balance between them is not disrupted. An ecosystem may be differentiated from a biome based on the size whereby a biome is composed of various ecosystems taken together (Swift, et al 1).

Ecosystems are differentiated from other systems because of their integrated functioning and their ability to maintain their functioning through the union of varied organisms that are within the environment. Indeed, it is a complicated form of relationship which is found among the interacting members of the environment (Swift, et al 1).

There is a cycle of interdependence in an ecosystem in which a balance must exist for the survival of the ecosystem. In an ecosystem, there is a continuous flow of energy from the producers to the consumers (De Lacerda 125). This paper will discuss the ecosystem about the mangrove.

The mangrove ecosystem

Mangroves are highly adaptive plants that are found growing in areas that are often drenched with water and the soils are saline. They are a collection of distinct plants which include ferns, shrubs, trees, vines and palms. These trees and shrubs are mostly found in the tropical climates as thick forests. Mangroves in the ecosystem act as the primary producers and this makes them the core members of this ecosystem; they hold the soil together preventing erosion by the tides thereby creating a means of existence for a variety of other organisms (Hogarth 1).

The waterlogged areas that the mangroves survive in can be taken to mean either a shoreline or a riverbank where there are changes in the water levels and significant changes to the levels of salinity especially when the areas experience high rates of evaporation. This may at times make these areas more saline than the main water bodies (The Mangrove Ecosystem 1).

The adaptations of the mangroves require them to be able to survive long periods of high tropical temperatures, exposure to the forces of the tides which include being submerged in the water or exposed as the waters recede, changes in the salt levels in the swamps and the changes in the amount of oxygen in these habitats (Hogarth 2). Mangroves can either be exclusive or true, meaning that they are only found in the mangrove ecologies and cannot survive in other types of ecologies or they can be non-exclusive meaning that their survival capabilities are not limited only to the mangal environments but can exist in drier conditions. These kinds of mangroves are also referred to as the mangrove associates (Hogarth 2; The Mangrove Ecosystem 1)

There is an assortment of plants that grow on the mangrove because they cannot survive in the salty environment. Mangroves kind of relationship did not develop from a common ancestor but came to be as a result of union of independent families. Moreover, the mangrove ecosystem is also known as the mangal community (Hogarth 2).

The physical environment in a mangrove ecosystem

Mangroves have been known to occupy areas that have warm temperatures because; despite their adaptive capabilities they cannot survive in the cold frosted areas. They have a large affinity for the low-lying areas with waves with high amplitude to be able to slow down the waves and allow for sedimentation. Waves that are too strong tend to carry sediments back as they ebb away, erode the soils and also pose a physical threat to the mangrove ecosystem, hence the mangal ecology does best in the sheltered areas. Indeed, the shelters act to protect the mangals from both the wind and tidal waves (Kathiresan 101).

The physical environment of a mangrove also includes the water. This is a main essential in a mangrove for it is through water that these habitats are flooded. Moreover, mangroves grow in the areas where there is continued flow of water since stagnant water leads to poor growth of the mangroves.

Soils are also part of the physical environment of a mangal. This is where the plants attach themselves especially on the coastlines or the river banks. Alluvial soils act as good substrates for the mangroves especially when these soils are muddy or silt. Soils with a high composition of humus and/or sulfides are also good for the mangroves. However, a poorly drained soil leads to stagnation of the water hence is not good for the growth of the mangroves (Kathiresan 102).

Mangroves can also be found in other forms of substrates which may include peat, a collection of the dead and decayed vegetation. This usually occurs in the coastal reefs and also the oceanic islands. Physical environment also includes the organic materials found within the ecosystem. These are the parts of the once alive constituent of the ecosystem which may include the dead organisms, flora and fauna wastes and plant parts.

The producers

Producers or autotrophs can be said to be the source of food to the other organisms in an ecosystem but those which can be said not to eat from other producers. In an ecosystem, the green plants are the producers mainly because they make their food but act as a source of food to the other organisms in the ecosystem through the use of inorganic compounds (Robertson and Alongi 295)

Even though the mangrove populations are limited by the harsh living conditions associated with the mangal ecosystem, mangroves are classified among the accomplished large-scale producers that have a high diversity. The main producers in a mangrove ecosystem are the plants. Through the use of the leaves, the plants capture light which later turns to food through the processes of photosynthesis.

These plants act as the source of food for the herbivores within the ecosystem. Here, they act as the primary producers and this is also seen when the plant leaves after falling are consumed by the living organisms in the waters which include the fish and/or other bigger organisms found in the water.

However, due to the small variety of the direct primary consumers in the mangals, there have been increased organisms that feed on the decomposed foodstuffs which originate from the plants (Robertson and Alongi 295). During the process of decay, the plants nutrients that dilute in water leach out to the ground to be consumed by bacteria and the remaining decomposed materials act as a source of food to the small organisms. The grapsid crab mainly eats the mangrove propagules hence it can be termed as a primary consumer (Worrall 3). These foodstuffs from the plants may include the leaves, branches, barks, stems, roots, and fruits. When these fall off the trees, they are subjected to the process of decomposition to form detritus which is consumed by these organisms

The consumers

These are also known as the heterotrophs and are components of an ecosystem that cannot produce their foods hence have to look for the ready-made foodstuff for consumption from the environment in which they live. Heterotrophs get their food from other plants and /or animals which provide the essential nutrients needed for their survival. They include the herbivores which feed exclusively on plants; a crab called grapsid crab that feeds on the propagules is an example (Worrall 3).

Others are the carnivores (predators or scavengers) which eat the meat of the prey they killed themselves or of the leftovers from prey killed by others. These may include the hawks, eagles, crocodiles, or fish. Omnivores are both carnivorous and herbivores in that they eat both the meat and plant products. These include men who may get fish and edible plants from a mangal; some monkeys are also omnivores (Dusheck Para 11). Consumers also include the saprobes which include the bacteria and fungi and they feed on the remains of the plants or animals by digesting their remains.

Community interactions

The mangrove ecosystem and the surrounding communities affect each other in many different ways which could be positive or negative. The mangal has many benefits to the surrounding communities and the world at large, the main benefit being the provision of food to people. The mangroves are the breeding areas for the fish for they exist in the sheltered warm areas. The water movement around the mangal is slowed down hence there is a safe place for breeding (The Mangrove Ecosystem 14).

The sediments deposited in the mangroves act as a source of food for the aquatic life. The mangrove ecosystem also offers a good supply of the foodstuff through detritus and the living organisms, thus increasing the fish supply to the neighboring communities (Kathiresan 2003).

The mangroves act to protect the coastline from the sea. It acts as a barrier between the two by slowing the water action and also catching the sediments as the waves ebb away. These barriers can reduce the effects of the storms as they approach the land for they reduce their power. They, therefore, act as the guardian of the people from natural catastrophes (The Mangrove Ecosystem 14; Worrall 2).

The mangals have a wide range of animals and plants life, more than any other place because of their distinctness or the variation of the species. These flora and fauna have adapted themselves to conditions that would otherwise be impossible to survive in, hence the mangals are a very rich educational resource.

The mangroves are used by man for their unique and wide variety of trees as a source of timber and medicine. Local inhabitants of the northern territory in Australia are aborigines who harvest and use the mangroves for their timber and medicinal value. They also treat it as a source of food where they get the marine species they regard as food although other plants are growing within the mangroves that are edible (Spaninks, et al 14).

They also act as a source of enjoyment to the local communities together with the foreign tourists who visit there to view the unique resources. These include the bird watchers, recreational fishers and hunters. Mangroves, where they are found, are associated with the communities ways of life in that the people link them with their cultures. This is because of the different roles they play to direct human actions (The Mangrove Ecosystem 12).

Mangroves tend to purify the air as they break down carbon dioxide from the atmosphere for their survival. Man on the other hand has affected the balance of this ecosystem through the processes of looking for food, entertainment, pollution of the environment, deforestation of the mangrove forests and even large-scale fishing (Spaninks, et al 14).

Conclusion

Ecosystem is the relationship between a unit of organisms that live together through mutual understanding and sharing of energy. This is the ecology of the system of relationships between different organisms showing the cycle they use for sourcing food and the chains they use from the producer down to the consumer. Moreover, ecosystems are differentiated from other systems because of the integrated way in which they operate. Generally, mangals are highly adaptive plants that are found living in areas that are often waterlogged and the soils are saline. Since the mangals are mainly found in the tropics, there are increased rates of evaporations and these may lead to increased saline levels. Moreover, the adaptive capabilities of the mangals have led to the creation of a distinct ecosystem especially when the plants found in the system are exclusive. This means that an ecology composing of rare species is formed.

Since the ecosystem of the mangrove exists in the general environment, it has effects on some aspects of the environment that result from the way they are exploited, thus affecting the environment either positively or negatively.

Works Cited

De Lacerda, Luiz Drude, Mangrove ecosystems: function and management Environmental science Special research project on environmental science Environmental Science and Engineering. Brazil: Springer. 2002. Web.

Dusheck, Jennie. Ecosystem. Biology Reference. 2010. Web.

Hogarth, Peter J. The biology of mangroves and sea grasses Biology of habitats UK: Oxford University Press. 1997. Web.

Kathiresan, K. Ecology and Environment of Mangrove Ecosystems, Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology Annamalai University. N.d. Web.

Kathiresan K. How do mangrove forests induce sedimentation? International Journal of Tropical Biology and Conservation. 2003. Web.

Robertson, Alistar I. and Alongi, Daniel M. Tropical mangrove ecosystems Volume 41 of Coastal and estuarine studies. New York: American Geophysical Union. 1992. Web.

Spaninks, Frank et al. Economic valuation of mangrove ecosystems: potential and limitations Issue 14 of CREED working paper series. IIED. 1997. Web.

Swift, Michael John et al, Decomposition in terrestrial ecosystems, Volume 1979, Part 2Volume 5 of Studies in ecology Volume 5 of Oakland Project Series UK: University of California Press. 1979. Web.

The Mangrove Ecosystem. Mangrove Management in the Northern Territory: N.d. 2010. Web.

Worrall, Sarah. The effects of grapsid crabs on mangrove forest restoration, Minnesota: university of Minnesota, St Paul. N.d. 2010. Web.

Abstract

Environmental challenges have been complicating the normal functioning of the marine ecosystem and its diversity, specifically kelp, for many years, and the effect of Marine Protected Areas on them remains unknown. The prevalent explanation for this trend is that the sea urchin overgrazing leads to kelp extinction. Fluctuations in sea urchins growth disrupt the balance of marine ecosystems, and the reduction of kelp forests leads to the loss of biodiversity. Therefore, the specific long-term conservation areas of the ocean, Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), exist to sustain the marine ecosystem. The database used for the research is Squidle+, which provides a digital collection of images made by the Automated Underwater Vehicle designed by Dr. Ariell Friedman. This tool is used for comparing the presence of kelp in different areas and identifying its percentage, latitude, longitude, and depth. The current research is expected to address the problem of overfishing and prove that MPAs help to sustain biodiversity.

Introduction

Half a century ago, the seaweed forests of Southern California, were home to a remarkable number of large fish and invertebrates and were considered the richest ecosystems in the world. Areas with a high density of kelp, covering vast Australian coastlines, were considered the most productive Earth ecosystem (Carnell & Keough, 2019). They sustain the marine environment by providing distinctive habitats for aquatic species. Kelps can influence coastal oceanographic structures and provide many natural system services. What is more, kelp serves as a source of food and as a buffer against stormy waves. Being a natural resource capable of maintaining the marine system, kelp forests need to be thoroughly protected.

Although algae forests are vital for the environment, wherever they grow, they are more energetic than the other structures mentioned above. In other words, they may disappear and return depending on the oceans conditions and the population size of their main herbivores. A hotter than typical summer and regular changes inflows that bring fewer additives to kelp forests combine to weaken the kelp and weaken its survival for several long years (Provost et al., 2016). Substantial human actions can wipe out vast areas of kelp by ripping kelp plants from the seafloor.

Massive gatherings of ocean urchins (the most critical herbivore in algal forests) can anticipate the development of algae plants from expansive development sufficient to create woodlands (Provost et al., 2016). The cycle between these so-called urchin barrens and well-developed algae forests can be a well-studied miracle in places that are favorable for forests (Caselle et al., 2015). Each of these general changes in the thickness of the kelp forest or total with the region affects the community of spineless creatures and several fish species.

Nonetheless, disturbing fishing practices, coastal litter, and other damages caused by humans, and nature significantly impact the population of kelps. Oceans face multiple menaces caused by overfishing, pollution, and other threats from the outside (Bruno et al., 2018). Not a single waterbody was preserved untouched by a human being. These human-induced actions lead to significant changes to the ocean and its inhabitants productivity in producing food, maintaining water quality, and others.

Areas known as the Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) exist to protect kelp forests and sustain biodiversity. According to Caselle et al. (2015), marine protected areas (MPAs) are a commonly implemented approach for conserving biodiversity and managing marine resources (p. 2). They provide protection and shelter to the ecosystem they hold to prevent it from disasters and sustain proper habitat (Ban et al., 2017). Moreover, they are buffers that serve as protection against hurricanes and other natural phenomena. Many researchers find that MPAs are efficient for increasing the size, number, and density of underwater species within the areas borders (Ban et al., 2017; Davidson & Dulvy, 2017). As a result, they can boost kelp forests recovery to sustain biodiversity.

One of such areas named Batemans Marine Park is located on the NWS south coast and extends to Lake Wallaga. A prominent feature of the Park is the vast expanses of rocky reefs that sustain multiple fish, invertebrates, and kelp forests. In 2019 the authorities increased the number of fishing areas in sanctuary zones of this park. However, allowing fishing in the protected areas is an enormous threat to the unique marine species. The MPAs aim to increase the population size of fish and seaweed while overfishing does not let this happen. Therefore, Batemans Marine Park should protect the rest of its sanctuary zones to avoid marine life extinction.

Thus, given the abovementioned facts concerning kelp forests extinction, the paper aims to investigate how MPAs affect their recovery. It is vital to understand if protected areas sustain forests grow throughout the ages and if there is a necessity of increasing the protection level. This research intends to prove that marine habitats and ocean productivity will be restored with the help of MPAs. The study is innovative due to using new technological developments that allow studying the marine ecosystem more profoundly. Moreover, the research may serve as a solid ground for further investigations concerning kelp forests preservation.

Materials and Methods

The SQUIDLE+, a website that allows viewing and analyzing AUV images, was used to explore areas where kelp grows. One hundred photos taken for the past three years from three Sanctuary Zones (SZ) and three General Use Zones (GUZ) were inspected to determine the density and altitude to collect the data on kelp forests. The R studio was used to compile the ANOVA table. Each area had its percentage of kelp coverage, and the received results were described and compared using the boxplot method.

References

Ban, N., Davies, T., Aguilera, S., Brooks, C., Cox, M., Epstein, G., Evans, L., Maxwell, S., & Nenadovic, M. (2017). Social and ecological effectiveness of large marine protected areas. Global Environmental Change, 42, 8291. 

Bruno, J., Bates, A., Cacciapaglia, C., Pike, E., Amstrup, S., Hooidonk, R., Henson, S., & Aronson, R. (2018). Climate change threatens the worlds marine protected areas. Nature Climate Change, 8, 499503. 

Carnell, P., & Keough, M. (2019). Reconstructing historical marine populations reveals major decline of a kelp forest ecosystem in Australia. Estuaries and Coasts, 42, 765778. 

Caselle, J. E., Rassweiler, A., Hamilton, S. L., & Warner, R. R. (2015). Recovery trajectories of kelp forest animals are rapid yet spatially variable across a network of temperate marine protected areas. Scientific Reports, 5, 114. Web.

Davidson, L., & Dulvy, N. (2017). Global marine protected areas to prevent extinctions. Nature Ecology & Evolution, 1, 0040. Web.

Provost, E., Kelaher, B., Dworjanyn, S., Russell, B., Connell, S., Ghedini, G., Gillanders, B., Figueira, W., & Coleman, M. (2016). Climate-driven disparities among ecological interactions threaten kelp forest persistence. Global Change Biology, 23(1), 353361. Web.

The figure above shows an example of a food chain found in the desert ecosystem. The food chain is divided into nutritional levels whereby the lowest level is occupied by produces, the second level by primary consumers, the third level by secondary consumers, and the fourth level by tertiary consumers (Feller, 2012).

The desert ecosystem is often considered to be one of the harshest to living organisms. This paper seeks to describe the desert ecosystem regarding the major categories of organisms; their interactions and food chains; potential hazards due to human activity; and the abiotic factors present. The ecosystem is usually considered oppressive to organisms that thrive in it. Plants such as shrubs, cactus, wildflowers, and grasses are the primary producers in the desert ecosystem where they produce energy through photosynthesis (Rohli & Vega, 2008). Many plant organisms in the ecosystem have adapted mechanisms to minimize the effects of sunlight (Feller, 2012).

Annual plants shorten their life cycles by going dormant when conditions become harsh. Waking from dormancy by such plants is typically marked by a sudden carpet of wildflowers often from species such as the time travelers. In Colorado, the US, some perennial plants such as Joshua trees apply a different strategy whereby they flourish in moist periods and lay low during the dry season.

Many desert plants have sharp spines and chemical-filled leaves to avoid being eaten by animals. An animal that feeds on plants in the desert ecosystem is classified as the primary consumer. Primary consumers such as the kangaroo rat look for seeds that are safe to eat, usually rare to find. The energy manufactured by plants flows into primary consumers/herbivores such as Kangaroo rats and jackrabbits, which are preyed on by secondary consumers/carnivores like snakes and bobcats (Rohli & Vega, 2008).

Large trees such as the Joshua tree often play a critical role in the desert ecosystem. The trees provide homes for birds, lizards, and insects. Some birds feed on seeds or nectar, while others feed on insects that inhabit the trees. Fallen trees provide food for detritivores such as termites which are in turn eaten by lizards like the Yucca night lizard. The lizards are eaten by carnivores such as owls and snakes to continue the energy flow cycle (Feller, 2012). Decomposers in the desert ecosystem are mainly bacteria and fungi. The following food chains might also be found in the desert ecosystem:

Pants (forbs) ’ Mule Deer ’ Mountain lion

Plant (Shrub seeds) ’ Quail’ Coyote

Plant (Seeds) ’ Rats’ Snakes’ Hawk

Several ecosystems are threatened by different human activities including land clearance for infrastructure or industries, bush fires, and air pollution (Feller, 2012). Land clearance destroys plants which play an important role as primary producers and also provide habitats for a variety of birds and insects. The clearance might result into starvation and extinction of the various organisms that play a role in the desert ecosystem energy flow. Bush burning contributes to the emission greenhouse gases into the atmosphere and also destroys plants and animals either directly or indirectly.

Apart for the biotic factors, there are abiotic factors that also play a very important role in the maintenance of an ecosystem. The abiotic factors found in the desert ecosystem include air, sand, sunlight, temperature, and water (Feller, 2012).

References

Feller, W. (2012). Desert ecosystem. Web.

Rohli, R., & Vega, A. (2008). Climatology. New York: Bartlett Learning.

Principles and benefits of Ecotourism

Tourism is one of the largest industries in the world. Ecotourism is defined as the responsible traveling in natural areas that have conserved the environment and culture and benefits its local people. Ecotourism is different from natural tourism because it stresses education, conservation, community participation, and the responsibility of the travelers to ensure the environment is well maintained. The main objectives of ecotourism are to offer education on environment maintenance, a nature-based experience for the visitors and to maintain this in an affordable and sustainable manner (Lowman, 2009, par.3). The principles of ecotourism that should be followed by all those who participate and implement the activities of ecotourism are as follows. They should see to it that they provide financial benefits and empowerment to the local community, minimize negative environmental impact, provide direct financial gain for conservation, ensure both visitors and hosts obtain positive experience, create awareness and respect for the environment and culture and finally, sensitize the environmental, social and political climate of the host countries (The International Ecotourism Society, 1990, par.3). An environment that is well conserved has several benefits; acts as a source of natural attractions and as a result, it leads to growth in economical, environmental, and social aspects in third world countries. Secondly, it offers great opportunities for investment, employment and adds to the nation a chance in protecting its biological resources. Though the host countries may enjoy all the above benefits, policies need to be developed that will promote responsible tourism growth, sophisticated and dynamic participation from the local community, and protection of the biological legacy of the third world countries (Merg, 2007, par.3).

Environmental interpretation in relation to ecotourism

One thing that has made ecotourism to be successful is the tool of environmental interpretation. Simply, environmental interpretation means how easy people can interpret the environmental, cultural, and historical tradition of objects and places to a figure they can easily comprehend. People are most likely to associate themselves with things they can understand and relate to. Typically, environmental interpretation is the best tool that can unite with ecotourism in well-conserved areas but not environmental education as many people think. Challenges and threats continue to face the aspect conservation of cultural, biological, and environmental diversity as the growth rate of the human population increases. This high growth rate has led to the exploitation of natural resources through farming, mining, secondary services, and urbanization just to mention a few. (Stronza & Durham, 2008, p128). Some of these challenges that face projects set up for environmental conservation include; political interference, failure by the projects executers to study and apply scientific principles that are accurate and financial constraints ((Stronza & Durham, 2008, p129).

Knowledge and attitude of visitors on ecotourism

The tourism industry is a good income-generating source in a country. Knowledge on responsible tourism is of great importance to ensure the natural resources are conserved in order to continue attracting visitors to the host countries. This will bring great benefits to the local community/host country, travelers, and the tourist industries. Knowledge on environmental conservation is beneficial because it contributes to the development of ecotourism, in that it helps in coming up with useful tactics to show that ecotourism is an important section of maintained natural environments. This will provide the industry with a structure for making policies that will help in the linkage of ecotourism with land use and land use planning. Knowledge also assists the ecotourism implementers to take the industry as a tool that they can utilize to relate to economic growth, income generation, and improvements in the economy in the rural and urban areas (Karagiannis & Apostolou, 2004, par.3). To measure the attitude and behavior of the visitors on ecosystem self-administered questionnaires, interviews, and observations methods are used so that one can evaluate how visitors feel about the sites they have visited. The behavior of the visitors towards the environment is influenced by their attitudes, perceptions, and expectations of the areas they are visiting. (Sinha, p728)

Influence of environmental interpretation on environmental perception

The backbone of the growth of ecotourism is the conservation of the natural resources especially biological species and preservation of sustainable utilization of resources that can express ecological experiences to visitors, maintain the environment and benefit the host economically. A symbiotic relationship exists between sight viewing and environmental conservation and this can have a tremendous negative influence on the tourist if it is not well observed. To create a positive influence on the visitors, strict management of the environment has to be applied to ensure resources are used well and forever without their extinction (Wang & Tong, 2009, p 131). Environmental interpretation is a useful strategy that is responsive to manage the visitors by encouraging them to agree to more suitable characters in order to maintain the expansion of the tourism industry. Through a study carried out in Dartmoor National Park, results showed that environmental interpretation increased visitors’ information on the site. This addition of knowledge influenced the thoughts of the visitors on how they could change their attitude towards the environment and became more responsible and respectful of the natural resources (Kuo, 2003, par.1). Impacts on the natural environment either negative or positive on the visitors take place over several visits and not after a single visit to the place. The environmental interpretation effectiveness depends on understanding and evaluating the different types of behavior and attitudes towards the environment.

According to James (, p39), visitors enjoy and learn when they come across aquatic living things and this is a benefit to the marine wildlife. This is because the visitors tend to change their environmental attitude and behavior and desire /engage in the management of the marine animals. Visitors enjoyed benefits like mood benefits, relaxation, good feelings, and added quality education to their little information on aquatic species. Therefore, the marine wildlife industry, whose objective is to increase awareness on environmental conservation and make the visitors experience positive feelings is more likely to profit from well preserved aquatic species and natural environment (James, 2008, p40).

The environmental interpretation that does not favor or relate to the visitor’ expectations, personality, or experience will be of no benefit to him or her (Culvert, n.d, par.5) Therefore, the greatest aspect of interpretation of the environment is to influence or change the attitude of the visitors towards environmental conservation. This change of behavior can reduce the negative impact on the environment and contribute to environmental conservation thereby leading to successful visitor management techniques. However, there are consequences that are related to the misconception of environmental interpretation. Some of these bottlenecks are like damage to the environment due to undesirable behavior which may lead to the extinction of some species. To reform such damages a lot of costs have to be put into use. Therefore, to reduce these damages the right laws have to be enforced to prevent undesirable behavior and increase management which will deal with the losses obtained. (Calvert, n.d, par.7). On the other hand, degradation of the environment will lead to reduced enjoyment since most of the natural resources will have been misused and also due to lack of environmental integrity. This will lead to few visitors understanding and appreciating the environment, less experience, and enjoyment by the visitors, degradation of resources, and undesirable behavior from the visitors. All the above will force the eco-tourism industries to depend on hard management techniques leading to less enjoyment. Thereafter, environmental degradation that results in loss of enjoyment will contribute to decreased usage of the industry. Decreased usage will too lead to poor integrity on conservation of the environment since much of the heritage will have been damaged. This will sum up to decreased revenues to the host community and the industry itself (Calvert, n.d, par.12)

In summary, ecotourism can not grow unless proper conservation of the environment is well looked into. When the environment is well conserved it will recap to good environmental interpretation which will contribute to the learning and enjoyment of the ecological environment by the visitors. This will influence or change the behavior of the visitors who will desire to conserve the environment thereby becoming a benefit to the tourism industry. However, if there is environmental degradation that is there is poor management of the environment, it will lead to decreased enjoyment and utilization hence affecting the attitudes/ behavior of the visitors towards the environment. Secondly, environmental degradation will lead to the extinction of some important species be it animals or plants. Thirdly, there will be little interpretation of the environment and few visitors will learn little, and chances of conserving the environment to promote ecotourism will be reduced. This will eventually affect the economy of a country.

References

Amanda Stronza & William H. Durham, 2008. Ecotourism and Conservation in the Americas.

Hongshu Wang & Min Tong, 2009. Research on Community Participation in Environmental Management of Ecotourism. Web.

James E.S, 2008. Marine wildlife and tourism management: insights from the natural and social… Web.

Kuo, I-L, 2008. The effectiveness of environmental interpretation at resource-Sensitive tourism destinations. Web.

Margaret (Meg) Lowman, 2009. Ecotourism and Its Impact on Forest Conservation. Web.

Mike Merg, 1999. Benefits of Ecotourism. Web.

P.C Sinha,2005. Encyclopedia of Travel, Tourism and Ecotourism. Web.

Saren M. Calvert,n.d. Effects of the loss of interpretive programs in Bc Parks. Web.

Stefanos Karagiannia & Apostolos, 2004. Knowledge Management in Ecotourism. Web.

The International Ecotourism Society, 2009. What is Ecotourism? Web.

Introduction

Ecosystem comprises of biotic and biotic factors that are present in a given environment. The biotic factors are the living organism such as microbes, plants, and animals, while the abiotic factors are nonliving components like water, air, rocks, soil, sunlight, and topography. The interaction of biotic and abiotic factors in a certain environment occurs in a form of a system due to the flow of nutrient and energy.

In essence, ecosystem examines how biotic and abiotic factors interact as a self-sustaining system (Chapin, Matson, & Vitousek 2011). The nutrient and energy cycles depict how the biotic and abiotic factors interact in a sustainable manner over a long period leading to the development of communities in various environments. Ecology provides a view of understanding the processes that occur in ecosystems.

Chapin, Matson, and Vitousek (2011) assert that the flow of energy and chemicals through the physical and biological pathways depicts the relationships between biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem. In this view, the flow of energy and chemicals is central in the study of ecosystem. Therefore, this report examines ecosystem of the botanic garden of Geelong, which is in Vitoria, Australia.

Method

In examining the ecosystem of Geelong botanic garden, the study used observation as a method of collecting vital information necessary for the understanding of the ecosystem. Observation is a scientific method that utilizes the five senses, namely, sight, smell, sound, touch, smell, and taste, in collecting different forms of data from an ecological area of study (Chapin, Matson, & Vitousek 2011).

The observation method is important in ecological studies because it deals with physical and biological aspects of the environment, which require the use of the five common senses in collection of information. By using the observation method, the study identified biotic and abiotic components with a view of elucidating their interaction mechanism at the Geelong botanic garden.

In examining biotic components, the ecological study utilized a quadrat when determining the diversity of plants. A quadrat enables researchers to select an area for study, and thus enhances accuracy of data collected. The study used quadrats that measure 1×1, 2×1, 2×2, 2×4, 4×4, and 4×8 meters square.

The use of many quadrats enhances accuracy of data, and thus offers a comprehensive study of the ecosystem of the Geelong botanic garden. The increasing sizes of quadrats are essential in determining species richness and diversity in the Geelong botanic garden.

The study categorized plants as trees, shrubs, herbs, and grasses. In the study, the researchers identified plants, categorized them, and provided their numbers in different quadrats. The study then tabulated the findings obtained from different quadrats for further analysis.

Regarding animals, the observational study identified animals present at the Geelong botanic garden. The common animals present are birds, reptiles, and insects. Given that animals belong to the advanced trophic levels of primary, secondary, and tertiary consumers, they are significant in the study because they depict how energy and chemicals flow in the ecosystem.

According to Chapin, Matson, and Vitousek (2011), the first trophic level determines the amount of energy in an ecosystem because organisms that are present in this energy level are producers. Hence, the existence of animals in the Geelong botanical garden is dependent on the existence of producers, which are the primary source of energy, and other animals in different trophic levels.

Moreover, the study elucidates how biotic and abiotic animals interact and provides the mechanism of interaction. The study used food chain in illustrating how different organisms interact and transfer energy from one trophic level to another.

Examination of the food chain in the Geelong botanic garden illustrates the flow of energy through various forms of organisms. Hence, the observational study is keen on establishing the interaction of organisms and the flow of energy from the lowest trophic level to the highest trophic level, which exist in the Geelong botanic garden.

Results and Discussion

Distributions of Plants

Table 1

The above table shows the distribution of species across all quadrats ranging from the smallest to the biggest. The study selected two areas of study, area 1 and area 2, and assesses the species richness and diversity. From the table, it is evident that the cumulative number of species increases as the area of the quadrat increases.

The important information that one can derive from the table is the species richness and diversity of Geelong botanic gardens.

Scheiner, Cox, Willig, Mittelbach, Osenberg, and Kaspari (2000) argue that species richness is an important ecological variable that provides a view of an ecosystem in terms of diversity of organisms in a given area. Thus, the table provides a face value of the species richness and diversity of plants present in the Geelong botanic garden.

Chart 1: Species-Area Curve

The above chart shows the species-area curve of two areas of study, area 1 and area 2. Evidently, the species curve shows that the species of plants in the Geelong botanic garden increases with the increase in the area of the quadrat. The relationship between species and area has significant importance in ecology because it provides a view that enables ecologists to predict the diversity of species in various ecosystems or habitats.

Communities that have dense populations tend to be more diverse than communities that have scattered populations. Hence, the species-area curve of the Geelong botanic gardens shows that it has a dense population of plants, which is very diverse.

Given that is impossible to estimate the diversity of organisms in a given area with reasonable accuracy, the species-area curve enables accurate estimation of species using quadrats.

According to Scheiner, Cox, Willig, Mittelbach, Osenberg, and Kaspari (2000), the species-area curve is an ecological tool that enables ecologists to standardize ways of estimating species richness in various ecosystems. From the above chart, species richness increases from about 50 species per one meter square to approximately 300 species per 32 meters square.

The species-area curve also provides a mathematical way of understanding diversity and species richness. The equation for the species-area curve is S = cA^z. Where S is the number species, c and z are constant, while A is the area of the habitat. This equation shows that the species richness has a nonlinear relationship that is dependent on two constants, c and z.

The chart shows that the species richness of plants in the Geelong botanic garden has a non-linear relationship within the area under which they grow. To enhance clarity of the equation, its conversion into a linear equation is imperative. Therefore, the linear equation of the specie-area curve is logS = zlogA + logc. This is a linear equation, which shows z as the slope of the equation and logc as the y-intercept.

Chart 2: Log-log scale

The log-log scale indicates that the species number and the area of the habitat have linear relationships in the Geelong botanic garden. In the area 1 of the habitat, c (y-intercept) is 1.6 and z (slope) is 0.497, while in the area 2, c (y-intercept) is 1.9 and z (slope) is 0.418. Hence, ecologists can utilize these constants when interpreting the species richness and diversity of the Geelong botanic garden.

The log-log scale expounds the species-area curve because it provides constants that mediate the relationship between species number and the area of habitat (Scheiner, Cox, Willig, Mittelbach, Osenberg, & Kaspari 2000).

The application of the mathematical equation in the analysis of species diversity and richness is critical because it provides a scientific way of analyzing and predicting process that occurs in the ecosystem. In this case, the ecosystem of the Geelong botanic garden shows that its species richness and diversity increase as the area of habitat increases.

From the species-area curve, the trends of the curve give important information about the area that gives the maximum number of species. Apparently, the species richness of area 1 increases from about 40 species per meter square to approximately 220 species per 28 meters square at the plateau point.

Moreover, the species richness of area 2 increase from about 50 species per meter to approximately 300 species per 30 meters square at the plateau point. This means that in the average area of 25 to 30 meters square, Geelong botanic garden gives maximum species richness.

Plateau point is an important point in study because it shows the maximum number of species and minimum area necessary to attain. Thus, the plateau point indicates that the area of the habitat sampled by the quadrat is enough to represent all species in the habitat (Scheiner, Cox, Willig, Mittelbach, Osenberg, & Kaspari 2000). Therefore, species curve is important in determining sample size.

The number of species and environmental heterogeneity are two factors that determine the relationship between area and species. In a homogeneous environment, the number of species increases with increase in the area of habitat.

However, the number of species in a given ecosystem does not increase indefinitely due to the existence of diversity among the population of plants (Scheiner, Cox, Willig, Mittelbach, Osenberg, & Kaspari 2000). This explains why the species number reaches a plateau point as habitat size increases. Additionally, heterogeneity of the environment is a factor that determines the shape of the species-area curve.

The homogenous environment allows plants to grow uniformly over a wide area due to the evenness of the factors that support their growth. In contrast, the heterogeneous environment allows staggered growth of plants, which violates the normal relationship species richness and the size of habitat.

In this view, the Geelong botanic garden has a homogenous environment because the species-area curve of area 1 and area 2 do not have significant differences in species richness and diversity.

Distribution of Animals

The distribution of animals at the Geelong botanic garden is not evident because few animals are visible within the vicinity of the study. The huge animals present in the Geelong botanic garden are birds and rodents.

The birds were flying in the air while others were singing in different trees that were within the vicinity of the study site. Occasionally, different forms of rodents ran from one bush to another as they mate and search for food in small bushes in the Geelong botanic garden. Other animals present in the Geelong botanic garden are insects.

The insects are the dominant population of animals because they occupy small spaces in the garden and feed on numerous foodstuffs. In essence, the resources the insects require to survive are unlimited, unlike huge animals in which the availability of food determines their growth and reproduction in a given ecosystem.

Interaction of Biotic and Abiotic Factors

In the ecosystem, plants, animals, and abiotic factors interact physically and chemically. The physical interaction between animals and plant is apparent because birds live on trees, perch on trees, and obtain protection. Moreover, rodents hide in the bushes and rocks that are in the garden. Plants also anchor on rocks and soil while they are growing.

Regarding chemical interaction, animals, plants, and abiotic factors interact due to the flow of chemicals and energy from one trophic level to another.

Chapin, Matson, and Vitousek (2011) argue that trophic interactions are an important form of interaction in the ecosystem because it determines energy flow and consequently the population of organisms in a given ecosystem. The Geelong botanic garden is a very robust ecosystem because it sustains a great number of organisms as reflected by the diversity and species richness.

Energy Flow and Chemical Cycling

The flow of energy and chemicals in an ecosystem is dependent on the trophic levels of organisms. Miller and Spoolman (2010) argue that food chains and food webs in ecosystems are pathways through which energy flow from one trophic level to another.

In the Geelong botanic garden, green plants are the primary producers. Plants are the primary producers in the ecosystem because they generate energy from the process of photosynthesis. Plants take in nutrients from the environment and metabolize them into complex molecules, which provide energy to the ecosystem.

Essentially, the process of photosynthesis allows plants to combine carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen with the help of sunlight and chloroplasts to form carbohydrates and other complex molecules (Miller & Spoolman 2010). In this view, plants are the primary source of energy in the Geelong botanic garden.

Animals that feed on primary producers are primary consumers. The primary consumers present in the Geelong botanic garden are grasshoppers, butterflies, caterpillars, and rodents. Grasshoppers and caterpillars feed on grasses and leaves of plants.

While butterflies feed on nectar in flowers, rodents consume seeds of the plants. Miller and Spoolman (2010) describe primary consumers as herbivores that transition the flow of energy from plants to animals. As the energy flow from one trophic level to another, it decreases due loss of energy in the process of cell respiration, waste material, and heat.

Secondary consumers such as birds are also present in the Geelong botanic gardens. Birds feed on insects such as ants, grasshoppers, caterpillars, and butterflies. Given that they are the third trophic level, the level of energy in this trophic level is significantly lower than the energy in the first trophic level. Additionally, tertiary consumers present in the garden are birds of prey such as hawks.

The hawks feed on rodents and birds, which are secondary consumers. In this view, hawks feed on the trophic level that has the least amount of energy in the ecosystem of the Geelong botanic garden. This means that hawks fall in the highest trophic level in the Geelong botanic garden.

Since hawks fall in the highest trophic level, they only release their energy into the environment when they die. Detrivores and decomposes act on dead organic material and release nutrients into the ecosystem. Thus, the food chain and chemical cycling can effectively demonstrate the flow of energy in an ecosystem.

Food Chain

The following food chain illustrates the flow of energy in the Geelong botanic garden.

Chemical Cycling

The following is a chemical cycling that best describe the flow of chemicals in the Geelong botanic garden.

Conclusion

The ecosystem is an ecological system that sustains itself. It comprises of biotic and abiotic factors that interact effectively to support the existence of living organisms. Examination of Geelong botanic garden illustrates that it comprises of plants and animals that interact effectively with their physical environment.

Species area-curve of plants indicates that species richness and diversity increases with an increase in the area of habitat. This implies that the Geelong botanic garden has a homogenous environment that has even distribution of nutrients.

Diverse plants are the primary producers because they provide energy and chemicals to the ecosystem. The animals belong to the trophic levels of primary, secondary and tertiary consumers. The food chain shows that hawks belong to the highest trophic level. Comparatively, chemical cycling indicates that detrivores and decomposers play a central role in recycling of nutrients trapped in plants and animals.

References

Chapin, S, Matson, P, & Vitousek, P 2011, Principles of terrestrial ecology, Springer, New York.

Miller, G, & Spoolman, S 2010, Environmental Science, Cengage Learning, New York.

Scheiner, S, Cox, S, Willig, M, Mittelbach, G, Osenberg, C, & Kaspari, M 2000, ‘Species richness, species-area curves and Simpson’s paradox’, Evolutionary Ecology Research, vol. 2 no. 1, pp. 791-802.