Mans activities on earth have seen destruction of environment in several ways. For example, the approval for construction of a golf course in Bahamas saw the destruction of aquatic environment to a large scale. This approval occurred without proper consultation on the dangers it will pose to the Maine ecosystem.
The government of Bahamas mandated Discover Land Company from California to erect a 400-homesite and 75-villa style rental rooms for tourism resort purposes. Additionally, the company was to develop a 180-slip yachting marina, and an 18-hole championship golf course leading to total destruction of aquatic environment. (Klein, 1999, p. 1, 7).
Among the negative effects from this developments, would be thrice increase in population along the already congested six-mile island. On the other hand, the new yachting marina will consume a lot of space to become the biggest in Bahamas.
In a more terrifying note, and perhaps a threat to Maine ecosystem, the government of Bahamas approved this development to be located close to the shoreline, which consisted of a mangrove system and healthy coral reefs.
Although the Discover Land Company had to use modern infrastructure equipments to cater for this frail ecological system, the destruction outweighed the ecological importance of the ecosystem. (Save Guana Cay Reef, 2009, Para. 1).
Vision of Bakers Bay Club Development
However, as an act of defense, the Discover Land Company, the developer, outlined various conservation measures aimed at protecting the fragile ecosystem. For example, these developers allocated a piece of land for conserving natural habitats. Additionally, they provided a detailed plan for solid waste processing within the ecosystem.
They also outlined a convincing plan about communal access areas including public beaches and meeting places. Furthermore, the Company entailed a plan to preserve 92 acres of land, which will encompass mangrove ecosystem and another 60-acre land to act as a coastal buffer zone.
In order to avoid pollution into water-catchment areas, the golf course will have wastewater gardens and sewage treatment facilities. Imaginatively, the classy housing plan gave beautiful scenery on how houses will form a beautiful landscape within a lawn, which convinced the government of Bahamas. (Sullivan-Sealey, Cushion, Semon, & Constantine, 2005, pp. 1-2).
On the other hand, the government aimed creating plant diversity zone and attracts wildlife for tourism purposes. Critically, the developers plans composed both long-term and short-term environmental collisions considering the fact that, the development was bound to take place on a huge land scale conversion. The truth of the matter is that, this was a British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) project and not a government initiated development.
Therefore, Bahamas citizens were bound to suffer most as developers had business mind, which has nothing to do with environmental protection. In particular, there were four areas of concern. Firstly, there was a high probability that, this project will cause chronic eutrophication to communities living near the marine shore. Secondly, there was substantive evidence that, the wetlands will cease to exist in entirety.
Thirdly, contrary to the existing natural biological diversity that acted as home to wildlife, the development was to discourage wildlife and lead to ecological imbalance. Lastly, the development will see further discouragement of marine species cohabiting within the ecosystem. (Sullivan-Sealey, Cushion, Semon, & Constantine, 2005, p.3).
Environmental Status of Guana Cay Reef
Previous developments at the Guana Cay Reef had already caused some serious environmental impacts through the construction of cruise ship resort. This led to destruction of the marine ecosystem of the coral reef even without realization. For example, any further development will increase dumping; alien plants take place of native vegetation, and finally, erosion take place.
Clearly, there has been no proper stewardship of the site so important to the surrounding species and at the same time, acting as home to other species. Due to warring court cases, the BBC abandoned Bakers Bay Club development comprising of hazardous materials and dangerous infrastructure, which require urgent attention and mitigation.
As a matter of urgency, the newly introduced alien plants in the coral reef and new insects that continue to destroy natural fauna and flora of the marine ecosystem. This is the main reason why, the government of Bahamas need to move in swiftly and reclaim the place. (Dubinsky & Stambler, 1996, pp. 511-526).
Save Guana Cay Reef Association (SGCR)
For along period now, the island has lacked stewardship after the BBC abandoned further development courtesy of a series of court cases, both in Bahamas and Britain. To induce some leadership into the facility, a faction of Guan Cay residents decided to join hands and address this environmental situation.
The group, Save Guan Cay Reef Association (SGCR), sought to handle economic, social and environmental issues that engulfed the whole process of Bakers Bay club development. The development had led to serious destruction of this marine ecosystem leaving many to ask questions without answers. Nobody seems to understand the intention of both the developer and the Bahamas government. The problem has escalated into a fight between SGCR and the Bahamas government, which mandated the development of the marine ecosystem to BBC.
For six years now, the issue has overridden Bahamas and British courts, while the media continue to air its latest development. At one point, the SGCR has tried to convince courts that, the government did not consult properly and that, the developer might have lied in order to get the contract. Nevertheless, the case ended in November 2009 when the chosen hearing authority-Privy Council, decided to rule contrary to SGCR demands. (Save Guana Cay Reef, 2009, Para. 2-4).
Coincidentally, the partnership between the University of Miami and Bakers Bay Club on environmental conservation of the Marine ecosystem came to a standstill in 2009. Nevertheless, marine biologists from the University of Miami headed by Dr. Kathleen Sullian-Sealey provided a case study on the impacts of such developments to Maine ecosystem.
Impact of Bakers Bay Club Development on the Ecosystem
The government of Bahamas gave the mandate to develop Maine ecosystem on grounds of tourism. However, as it came out, the Bahamas government failed to consider serious impacts of such development to the ecosystem.
According to scientists attending Abaco Science Alliance conference, the Bahamas government erred in mandating the development of Bakers Bay club with no proper sustainable tourism measures. Launched in 2004, the Bahamas government mandated a developer to construct this project on private land near Guana Cay in the north of Bahamas.
However, the project is yet to reach completion due to the recent global economic meltdown. Even so, some business opportunities opened last year (slip marina and adjacent village). The golf course is halfway complete with sewer and waste treatment facilities installed. (Larry, 2010, Para. 1-5).
Environmental conservation was the primary concern of the residents living nearby. Therefore, the developer chose University of Miami to spearhead environmental conservation programs in order to help in mitigating already destroyed places, develop modalities of protecting the ecosystem and oversee the whole development process.
The destruction of this ecosystem began in 2004 when the developer detached invasive species, put up infrastructure projects, brought native vegetation and coastal dunes that totaled to one million dollars and further ten million dollars for infrastructure and mitigation. The project entailed full professionals to manage the ecosystem professionally.
This is why, the University of Miami landed the project aimed at drawing marine scientists into the site. In 2004, Dr. Kathleen became the principal environmental overseer at Bakers Bay Club in Bahamas. Her main role was to oversee a balanced ecological ecosystem, which gave a glimpse of sustainable development. Previously, she had noted how developers destroy an ecosystem knowingly or unknowingly. (Larry, 2010, Para. 6-13).
However, for Bakers Bay Club, there was initial ecological assessment before the real development took place. A team of scientist from Florida did inventory experiments, brought in native plants for landscaping, and took the natural plants to the island. Before and after the construction of marina, scientist took water samples to test whether it met Blue Flag Environmental standards (a body that is responsible for safety measures related to water and environment).
To dismay, the developers had removed large amounts of debris and garbage from water to foster ship transport. Additionally, the developers destroyed casuarina tree species and killed wild cats cohabiting at the shoreline. The developers had caused more harm than good because of ignorance. (Larry, 2010, Para. 15-20).
Conclusion
Lack of environmental expertise in Bahamas saw the destruction of ecosystem in the name of constructing tourist resort Bakers Bay club, which was not friendly to the surrounding inhabitants. Nevertheless, the development of Bakers Bay club without proper environmental monitoring program saw large-scale destruction of Maine ecosystem. Bakers Bay club development disseminates the channels to follow before doing any development especially in aquatic areas.
We can create sustainable tourism through long-term planning, stabilization of shorelines, protecting biodiversity and producing clean energy in order to avoid pollution. These and many more procedural mechanisms act as long-term viabilities to anybody who wishes to carry our tourism projects. Moreover, mutual relationship with developers, environmentally minded policy makers and the general understanding of environment are fundamental to a sustainable environment.
Reference List
Dubinsky, Z. & Stambler, N. (1996). Marine pollution and coral reefs. Global Change Biology, 2(1), 511-526.
Klein, R. (1999). Protecting the Aquatic Environment from the Effects of Golf Courses. Web.
Larry, S. (2010). The First Case Study in Sustainable Tourism. Web.
Save Guana Cay Reef. (2009). Say NO to the Development on the North End of Guan Bay, Abaco, Bahamas! Web.
Sullivan-Sealey, K., Cushion, N., Semon, K. & Constantine, S. (2005). Environmental Management Program for Bakers Bay Club. Great Guana Cay, Abaco, Bahamas. University of Miami. Web.
As it is evident from their name, rainforests are located in regions with a high amount of annual rainfalls. In addition, such forests require high amounts of sunlight, which determines the location of these regions along the line of the equator in South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia. An example of a rainforest is an Amazonian rainforest located on the territory of Brazil.
Carbon Cycling
The carbon cycle in the rainforest can be characterized as fast-paced. The main actors of the process are the plants and wildlife abundant in the jungle. Mainly, the carbon circulates in this environment as a part of photosynthesis. Plants and other entities use photosynthesis (bacteria, fungi) to obtain microelements needed for survival and reproduction. They consume carbon dioxide and methane from the atmosphere and convert them into oxygen as a byproduct. At the end of their lifecycle, they produce methane and carbon dioxide through the decomposition of their foliage or other parts. As such, the rubber tree actively partakes in photosynthesis during the summer period. Its leaves fall in December until in February the blossoming period starts again.
Disturbance and Recovery
Possible disturbances in the ecosystem can be caused externally and internally. As for internal ones, a drought, for instance, could cause one or the other species to prevail in the food chain, increasing its population. An increased population would soon degrade to its normal size due to the lack of food, and the equilibrium will, therefore, be restored. The human-induced disturbance can be exemplified by deforestation. Exercised as a resource-gathering initiative, cutting down perspective species of trees such as rubber trees, humans violate the balance by diminishing or completely eliminating certain species. In addition, by exercising deforestation, people banish wildlife from their natural habitat, which pushes them to extinction, as they do not have time to adapt and evolve.
Rainforests are one of the greatest suppliers of a variety of materials. For instance, heavy industry utilizes tree oils, rubber, and timber produced from certain tree species. Particular plants such as Catharanthus roseus are utilized for producing medicine against leukemia (Aruna, Prabha, Priya, & Nadendla, 2015). Rainforests are also a source of fruits and other foods for both indigenous and urban people.
Assistance to the Ecosystem Recovery
One of the ways to sustain the flow of valuable resources while maintaining the equilibrium of rainforests is to give them time to heal and assist the process. Nowadays it is called sustainable logging. For instance, in the case of cutting down rubber trees, humans should plant new ones and control their population in order not to erase the species completely. However, this still does not address the problem of wildlife.
Humans can assist in rainforest recovery from past invasions by increasing the use of intensive agriculture, building productivity upon technology. This could help decrease the need for deforestation. By funding the projects to save and preserve rainforests, countries can contribute to a sustainable future. In addition, people could help protect the equilibrium of the ecosystem in rainforests by allocating more resources into control for and protection from unauthorized access to its resources. For instance, governments could sponsor and encourage local communities to exercise surveillance and reporting of poaching. Not only passive measures should be practiced. Active restoration is also in order. Planting and cultivating flora and breeding fauna can also become the milestones of a new strategy to save rainforests from danger, which human race has put them.
Reference
Aruna, M. S., Prabha, M. S., Priya, N. S., & Nadendla, R. (2015). Catharanthus Roseus: Ornamental plant is now medicinal boutique. Journal of Drug Delivery and Therapeutics, 5(3), 1-4.
The Costa Rican rain forest is located along the central American country near Costa Rica State and hence the name. The forest occupies approximately 180,000 hectares of land which is roughly 7.4%.
This kind of rain forest receives a minimum annual rainfall of between 1750-2000 mm. Such types of forest are home to approximately 75% of the indigenous earth species.
The forest is a home to approximately 3,000 living species which includes birds, reptiles, butterflies, amphibians and mammals.
Its conservation is therefore critical as it will greatly determine the presence and future survival of those living species. A single move towards deforestation will lead to loss of lives and habitat for the species. This is so considering that some species like amphibians dwells in a wet ecosystem. The continued rainy season contributes positively to the lives and well being of plant and animal species in the forest.
Abiotic components
Rainfall is evenly distributed across the region but dry periods continues to be experienced noticeably January through April (Bonell & Bruijnzeel, 2004).
The forest also has a great biological diversity considering that it has more than 1100 plant species in it. Since the vegetation not only act as food to the living species but also attract rainfall in the region, considerable measures have been reinstated by the government to protect the forest.
The on-going deforestation has caused an alarming effect considering the magnitude of climatic damages that will accompany the region as a result of it (Vajpeyi,2008).
Since Costa Rican forest was formed through volcanic archipelago, rich minerals are still contained in the soil formation.
Costa Rica rainforest has enough amount of water and sunlight which is provide a canopy over the many living creatures in it.
The government has taken an initiative which aims at restricting and punishing the people who damage forests in order to attain their personal goals such as wealth accumulation. According to Vajpeyi (2008) economic gain is one of the possible reasons why people exploit forest. The continued demand of furniture products together with other materials like books that requires tree harvesting in the state has threatened the forestry survival.
The nutritional soil that emanates from volcanic formulation of the forest enhances growth of trees in the forest which sometimes tends to be very tall. There is also enough rainfall in the region. The taller trees therefore provides nutrients to the vegetation beneath them.
Biotic components
Costa Rican forest has a variety of plants species ranging from sub-alpine vegetation, bamboo, vines and mangrove vegetation
The epiphytes plants are also available within the forest and they add up water gathering ability of trees. Among the notable epiphytes in Costa Rican forest are orchids.
There are also decomposers such as earthworms, fungi and bacteria which speed up the decomposition process in the forest.
The Santa Rosa national park has a different mix of flora which lit up the region during the rainy seasons. Trees such us poro and corteza flowers during the rainy seasons.
According to Erickson & Hance (2009), land crabs positively influence the growth and proliferation of the mangrove forest in this regions.
Considering the biotic factors such as the omnivorous, herbivorous, carnivorous and the decomposers, the Costa Rican rain forest can be categorized as one of the major dwelling zones in the world.
A long range of bird species such as resplendent quetzal, harpy eagle, parrots such as scarlet macaw are among the available species in the forest.
Among the biotic species of plant in Costa Rican forest include the Monteverde plants which absorbs moisture directly from the mist. The epiphytes and bromeliads joins the pacific swampland with different species of mangrove to form the flora and fauna.
Despite the fact that epiphytes live on trees in order to access sunlight they are not parasites since they feed on water, dust and nutrients which amass around their roots. Since the a biotic factors are the non-living factors which have a significant influence on the living organisms, the Costa Rican rain forest has a very conducive weather and ponds which inhabits varieties of organisms. The continued presence of rainfalls in the forest enhances food provisions for the species living within the forest region.
The Costa Rican rain forest has a biological diversity in plant and animal species. In addition the fungi and bacteria which assist in the decomposition process are equally available in the forest.
Since many of the land crab species are omnivorous, they have significant impacts on the terrestrial vegetation since they speed up the decomposition process and therefore benefit the soil (Erickson & Hance 2009).
The biotic factors also contribute to the increased tourism attraction in the area which benefits the government. Huge earnings are obtained by the government from both domestic and foreign tourists who occasionally visit the parks along side the Costa Rican forest in order to see the variety of wild species in the park.
The biotic factors also contribute to the increased tourism attraction in the area which benefits the government. Huge earnings are obtained by the government from both domestic and foreign tourists who occasionally visit the parks along side the Costa Rican forest in order to see the variety of wild species in the park.
Since the avbiotic factors are the non-living factors which have a significant influence on the living organisms, the Costa Rican rain forest has a very conducive weather and ponds which inhabits varieties of organisms. The continued presence of rainfalls in the forest enhances food provisions for the species living within the forest region.
The Costa Rican rain forest has a biological diversity in plant and animal species. In addition the fungi and bacteria which assist in the decomposition process are equally available in the forest.
Impacts of human activities on ecosystem
The forest is also a home to a notably four types of monkeys, the howler, spider, white-faced capuchin and the squirrel monkeys.
Tourists are liable to see armadillos, agoutis, coatis, raccoons and wild pigs whenever they visit Costa Rican rainforest.
Tourist destination centers like hotels and other recreational facilities have continuously threatened forest conservations. Regions around the Costa Rican rain forest have been characterized by increased hotels constructions.
The general increase in population has raised wood fuel consumption significantly.
The adoption and practices of modern sports which take place in forests has continued to threaten the wild species.
Human activities has also contributed to a complete extinctions of jaguars and tapirs which are among the endangered species in the rainforests.
The global warming effects have also emerged as one of the major threat to the current climatic changes in the world.
Some of the swampy areas which initially used to inhabit quit a number of species have off late dried up due to the continued global warming effect.
Mining activities have also threatened the security of Costa Rica rainforest as trees are cleared to facilitate transportation process.
Increased demand for furniture goods and medicines which are extracted from the forest has caused more harm to many rain forest Costa Rican being among them. Continued deforestation has been observed in the region as people seek place to construct their residential houses. As development extends in those areas urban centers have emerged therefore limiting further the forest space.
It is important to note that the continued industrialization process in the world has greatly hampered the climatic conditions in the world. As a result the frequent rainfalls which was experienced in the past are no more. Dry spells continue to be observed in most parts including rainforests.
Potential future threats
Severe damages will be felt both within the region and globally.
The future generations will be denied access of some species in the forest which faces the extinction threat.
The continued deforestation will significantly contribute to global warming if not checked.
Growth in industrialization process also continues to be a major threat of environment. In some places acid rains are experienced.
Conclusion
Forest conservation is critical since it determines the increased climatic changes in the world.
Costa Rican rain forest being one of such regions not only adds revenue to the government but it also betters the climatic conditions in the region.
The government should therefore employ more strict consequences to the forest exploiters.
Plans to relocate some of the hotels from the forest region should be underway to ensure forest conservations.
References
Bonell, M & Bruijnzeel, L. A. (2004). Forests, Water and People in the Humid Tropics: Past, Present and Future Hydrological Research for Integrated Land and Water Management. NY: Cambridge University Press. Web.
Erickson, M. D. & Hance, J. (2009). Protection of land crabs to the conservation of coastal tropical forest. MONGABAY. Web.
Vajpeyi, D. K. (2001). Deforestation, environment, and sustainable development: a comparative analysis. NY: Greenwood Publishing Group. Web.
The sum of all living organisms residing in an ecological environment forms a community. In the community, the living and non-living factors interact in a manner that ensures balance in the environment.
The aspect of the living organisms-both plants and animal, sharing an environment forms an ecosystem. An ecosystem is always in a dynamic state of evolution (Newman 2000).
The world consists of several ecosystems. These different ecosystems are defined according to their unique characteristics. Several factors are responsible for the different characteristics observed in the ecosystems. These factors are either weather and climate or the living organisms that occupy the specific environment.
An ecosystem should provide an environment that supports the complex relationships of all the life forms that reside within it (Newman 2000). This work seeks to exclusively describe the characteristics of the ecosystem of Melbourne area in Australia.
Methods
Melbourne occupies the South-Eastern part of Australia and borders the ocean. based on the Koppen climate classification model, the climate of the area is described as oceanic.
Topography
To the East, the area is situated in an intersection of magma and intermediate stones from the Precambrian period. It lies along Yarra River and boarders the Dandenong ranges to the East.
To the West, Melbourne borders Marybyrnong River that flows along the foothills of the Macedon ranges. These ranges have flat volcanic planes that proceed up to the beach front.
(Waterwatch Victoria 2012)
The map shows the topography of the area.
Vegetation types
The area has a diverse plant community courtesy of the favourable weather. The coast consists of scrub family, dominated by the coast banksias. In the inland foreshow regions, woodland dominates. On the contrary, plenty of manna gum dominates the eastern side. Finally, the grassy woodland dominates the basalt-North (Newman 2000).
Wetlands
One of the most outstanding ecosystems in the Melbourne area is the wetlands. The Ramsar convention on wetlands added Port Philip wetland and the Bellarine Peninsula to its list.
Port Philip wetland is very significant in terms of the biodiversity it supports along the coastal region. It supports an approximated 580 species of plants. At the same time, the animal species occupying the ecosystem is estimated to be over 300.
Data collection
Use of quadrats
In the ecological research of the ecosystems in the Melbourne area, several data collection methods were employed. These methods included the following:
Quadrat method
A quadrat, made up of a metal square, of different sizes was randomly thrown in an identified area. The plant species within the quadrat were counted and recorded as indicated in the table below. A second area was systematically identified and the quadrat method used again to collect data on the species within the quadrat.
Eventually, a tally of the various identified species was conducted. The quadrats varied in terms of size. The four square quadrats used all had an area of 1, 2, 4 and 8 M2 respectively.
Observations
The various plant and animal species residing within each quadrat were observed and recorded based on their morphological characteristics. These characteristics were then described for each plant or animal.
Results and Discussions
A quadrat method helps describe a representative sample of a given ecosystem.
The tables below depict the results of the plant species observed. Area 1
Area 1
Quadrant size (M)
Species
1*1
2*1
2*2
2*4
Coast banksias
2
3
4
5
Manna gum
0
1
0
2
scrub specie 1
2
0
3
5
Herb 1
1
1
1
1
Scrub specie 3
1
2
1
4
Grass specie 1
4
7
9
11
Grass specie 2
0
1
6
15
Herb 2
0
3
4
4
Scrub specie 2
1
1
1
2
Herb 2
0
0
1
1
Grass specie 4
4
8
14
15
Cumulative number of species
15
27
43
65
Area 2
Area 2
Quadrant size (M)
Species
1*1
1*2
1*3
1*4
Coast banksias
3
2
5
0
Manna gum
0
0
4
4
scrub specie 1
1
1
2
4
Herb 1
1
1
3
4
Scrub specie 3
2
3
2
8
Grass specie 1
6
9
9
9
Grass specie 2
2
4
7
11
Herb 2
3
1
4
4
Scrub specie 2
1
2
2
2
Herb 2
1
4
4
5
Grass specie 4
5
9
12
17
Cumulative number of species
25
36
54
68
Biotic components
From the data, it is important to note that the number of most species increased depending on the size of the sample area. This is shown in the figure below.
Interaction between biotic and abiotic components
Both plants and animals in Melbourne have been adversely affected by the soil structure of the area. The Northern part, which is majorly rocky, has the least animal population compared to the other areas that contain rich soils. In fact, the area recorded very limited plant population.
The rocky surface in Northern part of Melbourne, prevents water from reaching the plant roots. The plants, on the other hand, develop deep roots that crack the large rocks to smaller pieces so that the underlying rocks are eventually weathered.
Energy flow
Primary producers:
Primary producers are organisms that make their own food using simple compounds; they are mainly plants (Newman 2000). From the data, the most common primary producer was the grass specie number 4. Some grass species were shorter with very green leaves resembling blades, while others were much taller. Specie number 3 was very short and had long reddish brown leaves.
Primary consumers:
Primary consumers directly feed on the plants for example the herbivores and browsers. The short brown hare and a possum were observed in this category. These consumers feed on the barks, roots, and the flowers of plants.
Secondary consumers:
Those animals that feed on plant materials directly form the trophic level of secondary consumers. Secondary consumers feed directly on herbivores or browsers. Several examples were observed as listed below:
Red foxes that preyed on some bird species.
Frog mouthed owls that fed on some species of birds and possums
Whites skink that fed on small invertebrates.
Tertiary consumers
No tertiary consumers were observed. However, the presence of the vultures could not be ruled out especially in Northern Melbourne.
Food chain
Chemical cycling
Coastal areas have plenty of dead plant materials especially the leaves. The wetlands contain plenty of decaying plant roots and leaves in the water (Widdowson 2007). In the soil, the top layer where the leaves are rotting have thick humus as compared to inner layers.
Micro-organisms are involved in the saprophytic breakdown of the plant materials into smaller absorbable units. These microorganisms are likely to be the saprophytic bacteria. They break down the complex dead matter into smaller units absorbable by plants (Specht & Specht 1999).
Conclusion
This report gives detailed study of the ecosystem of Melbourne area in Australia. It describes the unique characteristics of the area as well as the species interactions.
Reference List
Newman, EI 2000, Applied ecology and environmental management, Blackwell Science, Oxford, Eng.
Specht, RL & Specht, A 1999, Australian plant communities: dynamics of structure, growth and biodiversity, Oxford University Press, South Melbourne.
Waterwatch Victoria 2012, Melbourne Region Waterwatch Program. Web.
Widdowson, M 2007, Laterite and Ferricrete , in D Nash & S McLaren (eds), Geochemical Sediments and Landscapes, Blackwell, Malden, MA, pp.46-94.
Just for a moment, think about being in a calm forest with a beautiful setting around you. Imagine trees everywhere surrounding you and sounds of bird in the background, accumulating to create the perfect calm atmosphere of the tropical rain forest. Tropical rain forest has become a fundamental ecosystem therefore this paper seeks to describe tropical rain forest and also illustrate the key issues that threaten this ecosystem. It also goes further by providing the possible solutions to overcome this problem.
Tropical Rainforests
The tropical rain forest is called so because rainfall is evenly distributed and therefore the climate is always wet. The tropical rain forest is characterized by tall tree canopy which provides a continuous cover to the underneath plants. Therefore the plants below the canopy are shielded from the sunlight and as a result they grow without branches. The temperatures have a minimum range of 20-30 degrees Celsius in each year since it does not experience any winter period (Newman 30).
Composition of Tropical Rainforests
It is worth to note that scientists have estimated over half of the plant and animal species to live in the tropical rainforest yet it only covers 6% of the earth surface. There are varieties of species of tree in a rain forest and this is established by a study which approximates 100-300 species of tree per hectare of the rainforest. There are about four layers of plant in a rain forest; emergent, upper canopy, understory and forest floor (Michael 10).
On the contrary, animal species are many in the tropical rainforest. Species which are likely to be found in large number are mammals and birds. However there are also amphibians and reptiles in the tropical rain forest. Apes are widely found in this type of forest. Insects are also found in large numbers which include mosquitoes, ants, conspicuous butterflies and camouflaged insects (Rhett 12).
Importance of Tropical Rainforests
Tropical rain forest is the major source of medicine. Scientific research points out that tropical rainforests are the principle sources of not less than a quarter of all medicines used by humans. For example, the quinine for treatment of malaria comes from the cinchona tree; curare comes from the tropical vine and diversity of plant species that are found on tropical rainforest (about 1400) are thought to have the ability to cure cancer (Simons 42).
Threats
The major threat to tropical rainforest is man and his activities. The ever expanding population of human race is causing pressure on the available resources found on the tropical rainforest. It is obvious that the available resources are limited while there is tremendous increase in human population. Consequently, the resources have been utilized to a maximum which has led to their dilapidation of which has a negative impact on the rainforest (Threats to the Rainforest par.3).
As a result of this, there is competition for the available resources and food therefore there is struggle for survival i.e. the strong animals will survive while the weak animals will die and become extinct. Many animals have become extinct since they can not compete with man for the available food and resources.
The second human activity that threats tropical rain forests is the clearing and burning of bushes which have caused a great destruction in the rain forest since it has led to soil erosion. Many people who are displaced from their home seek asylum in the tropical rainforest by creating new settlements. It is for this reason that people tend to encroach to areas of rainforest thereby damaging the resources (Threats to the Rainforest par 4).
The effect of clearing and burning of the rainforest is that the inhabitant animals are displaced from their habitats. They are forced to live in unfavorable condition and they eventually die. It is for this reason that most species of birds and animals have been endangered.
The third human activity that has caused havoc to the tropical rainforest is illegal logging. Trees are usually cut down in order to obtain timber for construction and to build other furniture. The trees found in the tropical rainforest are indigenous and takes longer time to grow hence can never be replaced easily. This has caused a significant damage to the tropical rainforest (Simons 12).
Illegal logging has destroyed habitats for the birds and therefore most of the birds species have been endangered while some of them have become extinct. Furthermore, there is a change in climate which has led to dry conditions that is unfavorable to plant and animal in the tropical rainforest.
Mining has proved to be a threat to the tropical rainforest. Many nations continue to explore their tropical rainforest in search of mineral and oil. Even though the mineral is found, it has proved to be unsustainable. Hence the damages of mining activity on tropical rainforest have proved to be greater than the benefits (Newman 18).
This is especially true because the ecosystem is destroyed resulting in unfavorable condition hence plant and animal species have been endangered.
Measures to Protect the Forests
One of the measures to solve these problems is to preserve the rainforest by protecting it against fire and clearing. Alternative settlement schemes should be built so that displaced person could settle there.
Another appropriate measure is to plant more trees in order to preserve the ones in tropical rainforest. Tropical trees are of high value and therefore should be protected from illegal loggers. Illegal logging should be banned since it has caused a major problem in tropical rainforest (Michael 22).
Lastly, unsustainable mining activity should be avoided since it causes more harm than good to the tropical rainforest.
Conclusion
In conclusion, tropical rainforest is of significant value since it is not only the home of various endangered animals but also it is a rich source of medicine. Therefore it is a challenge to the policy makers to design ways to protect the beauty nature of tropical rainforest.
Works Cited
Michael, George. Rainforest Biome. 2001. Web.
Newman, Arnold. Tropical Rainforest: A World Survey of Our Most Valuable Endangered Habitat With a Blueprint for Its Survival. New York: Facts On File, 1990.
One of the most endangered ecosystems on the planet is the Senegal River basin and specifically acacia forests. The area of the Senegal River is traditionally associated with the abundance of fish, wildlife, grazing land, and vegetation, with the most remarkable being acacias. The ecosystem is reminiscent of the Nile, as floodwaters of the river irrigated a vast land area making it fertile and supporting indigenous communities (Kotschoubey). The floodwaters were also beneficial for several species of fish and shrimp, as they served as a nursery home for juveniles. In short, the Senegal River Delta is a fragile ecosystem that can be easily disrupted by human activities.
In recent years, the ecosystem has been severely disturbed to the level of becoming endangered. According to Kotschoubey, the primary reason for the degradation of the area is the lack of water due to human activity. Indeed, the construction of dams and roads can severely affect water routes making ecosystems change accordingly. Another reason for environmental changes is intensive agriculture, as irrigation canals are built to support crop yields (Kotschoubey). These canals and new fields also interfere with the natural water flow, causing extended droughts. As annual floods decrease in volumes due to the disruption of natural water routes, more saline water of the Atlantic Ocean penetrates the land (Kotschoubey). Ocean waters pose a threat to the drinking water supply and agriculture in general. In short, the central problem with the ecosystem of the Senegal River is the alteration of the natural river flow.
Special attention needs to be paid to the effect of intensive agriculture and livestock exploitation. The problem is acacia forest devastation due to the need for new fields for crops and cattle food. Deforestation has caused decreased biodiversity, and some animals and birds that helped to maintain the ecological balance disappear. Moreover, intensive agriculture is associated with the use of fertilizers that disrupt natural biogeochemical cycles, which can cause severe environmental problems, such as the disappearance of vegetation cover, soil erosion, and reduction of fauna. Due to the rapid environmental degradation of the region, the situation has to be addressed to save the ecosystem from disappearance.
Even though the problems described above are difficult to overcome, there are ways of restoring the ecosystem. The only way to preserve the Senegal River Delta in its natural state is to let the water back into the basin. The exact measures are described and assessed by Kotschoubey and seem to be feasible. However, there is a consideration to be made in terms of the financial aspect of the measure. As the International Union for Conservation of Nature has included Senegal River acacia forests in its top ten most threatened ecosystems, the place is becoming increasingly popular. Therefore, it can be positioned as a tourist attraction, and the raised money can be used to restore the environment. In short, even though the matter requires considerable investments and efforts, the Senegal River Delta can be returned to its natural state.
Water hyacinth is a perennial aquatic plant which freely floats in tropical as well as sub-tropical waters. Water hyacinth is native in South America but has since been introduced to many regions. This plant has glossy, broad, ovate and thick leaves and rises up to 1 meter above the water surface.
Water hyacinth is among is among the fastest growing plants ever known and reproduces through stolons or runners that form daughter plants. There has been raging debate on the overall significance of water hyacinth on human society. Despite that the plant has some economic and ecological benefits; its adverse effects are overwhelming.
The presence of Waterhyacith has been associated with numerous economic and ecological damages. Water hyacinth has great harm on the local ecosystems. Water hyacinth degrades water quality and affects habitats for aquatic life. This research paper will explore, discuss and analyze how water hyacinth harms the local ecosystem.
Identification of Waterhyacith
Water hyacinth has been ranked as one of the worst invasive species. The reputation of water hyacinth has been doomed due to its ecological and economic effects. Being a native plant in South America, water hyacinth has spread to other regions of the world. Water hyacinth produces beautiful flowers, though its problems are higher. Water hyacinth can be easily identified since it freely floats on water surface.
This plant has dark green, shiny and glossy leaves. The leaves are elliptical and round in shape. The leaves of water hyacinth are approximately 6 inches wide alongside being waterproof. Another key feature of water hyacinth is that it rises over 3 feet above the water surface.
The roots of water hyacinth are distinctive and hang below water surface, whereby they have a feathery appearance. Despite the harmful effects of water hyacinth on ecosystems, the plant has very attractive flowers (Villamagna Murphy, 2010).
Fig 1. Water hyacinth Flowers.
Effects of Waterhyacith on local ecosystems
Water hyacinth has great harm on the local ecosystem and affects aquatic life and water quality. This plant blocks photosynthesis thus degrading water quality. The reduction of water quality through deprivation of oxygen has a cascading effect on aquatic life. Fish, plants and other sea life are adversely affected by this phenomenon. The biological diversity is greatly degraded by water hyacinth.
This is because water hyacinth has a negative effect on submersed plants. Water hyacinth also interferes with immersed plant communities through crushing and pushing them. By so doing, the general ecosystem is impacted. Animal communities are negatively affected through the elimination of plants as well as blocking the access of water which the animals rely on for nesting and shelter (Mariana et al, 2006).
The effects of water hyacinth are enormous on the ecosystem. This can be attributed to the fast growing nature of the plant. Water hyacinth grows very dense to the point that a single acre of the weed weighs over 200 tons. This is a great catastrophe to the ecosystem in the sense that it blocks oxygen in the waters thus inhibiting aquatic life.
The thick and dense mats formed by water hyacinth overwhelm lakes and rivers thus inhibiting biological and economic process. The life of other plants and animals is jeopardized by the rapid growth of water hyacinth. The enormous growth and concentration of the plant decreases water flow as well as leads to oxygen depletion.
As a result, a good environment for mosquito breeding is developed. Native plant species are overwhelmed by the plant thus leading to their elimination. Based on these changes, water hyacinth alters the entire ecosystems which animals and plants rely on (Weijden and Bol, 2007).
Degradation of water quality
Water hyacinth has a distinctive effect on water quality. Past research has shown that the dense mats formed by the plant have adverse effects on water quality. The plant forms dense and interlocking mats which affect the oxygen flow in the water. As a result of the dense and interlocking mats formed by the weed, the dissolved oxygen concentrations declines, hence degrading water quality.
A low level of phytoplankton productivity also takes place which in turn dooms water quality. The higher levels of sedimentation resulting from the dense mats as well as the complex root structure of water hyacinth also affect water quality.
Water hyacinth leads to high levels of evapo-transpiration rates due to the dense leaves of the plant. This is in comparison with the evaporation rates hence leading to heavy sedimentation (Villamagna Murphy, 2010).
The levels of temperatures and PH in waters are also affected by the plant. Water hyacinth destabilizes temperatures and PH levels in the lagoons. This scenario prevents stratification thus increasing mixing in water levels. This phenomenon affects water quality since oxygen levels are degraded. The rates and levels of photosynthesis are also greatly inhibited by water hyacinth.
Water hyacinth does not produce oxygen as compared to other submerged vegetation and phytoplankton. This leads to low levels of dissolved oxygen concentration thus negatively affecting water quality.
The capacity of the plant mats determines the level of oxygen concentrations. High concentrations of water hyacinth mats lead to low penetration levels of light into water columns thus inhibiting photosynthesis (Mariana et al, 2006).
Decrease in dissolved oxygen concentrations
Water hyacinth has been associated with the degradation of oxygen in water. This is in comparison with other aquatic invasive species like Sagittaria lancifolia and Hydrilla verticillata. Research has shown that water hyacinth greatly reduces oxygen concentration.
Water hyacinth has been categorized as the only plant leading to a massive decline in average levels of oxygen concentrations. An inverse relationship between water hyacinth and dissolved oxygen concentration has been identified. a significant decrease in the amount of dissolved oxygen beneath water hyacinth mats in relation to that of open water has also been established.
This offers a clear picture of the negative effects of the plant in decreasing dissolved oxygen concentration (Villamagna Murphy, 2010).
A point of concern is that the rate of decreasing oxygen concentration is not constant. The size of a water hyacinth mat that can cause a significant decrease in oxygen varies from one region to another.
Over 25% of cover in 0.05ha can decrease oxygen concentration to levels which threaten aquatic life mostly fish survival. Nevertheless, a negative relationship exists between dissolved oxygen and water hyacinth concentration (Streever, 1999).
In the case of dissolved oxygen, areas infested with water hyacinth usually demonstrate lower ranges as compared to waterhyacith free waters. Shorelines without the plants or with lower concentrations have high levels of dissolved oxygen. This is in comparison with water hyacinth free regions.
The absence or decline of dissolved oxygen has adverse effects on the ecosystem. Low levels of dissolved oxygen inhibit plant growth and survival of aquatic life. The low concentration of dissolved oxygen is a result of blockage by the water hyacinth mats.
The metabolic activities of aquatic life are jeopardized thus leading to extinction of some of the animals, plants and insects. This leads to loss of biodiversity, which is in this case a great harm to the ecosystem (Weijden and Bol, 2007).
Absorption of heavy metals
Alongside the decrease of oxygen concentration, water hyacinth absorbs heavy metals. Water hyacinth is dangerous in the sense that it absorbs large amounts of nutrients in the water column as well as heavy metals. This is a serious problem in relation to aquatic life.
The mercury concentrations of water hyacinth are very high. Research on water hyacinth in California indicated that water hyacinth leaves had same mercury levels as the sediments beneath. Poor disposal of the plant on the environment will definitely lead to contamination.
This will lead to ecological problems since animals and plants which depend on the contaminated environment will be affected. Nevertheless, the ability of water hyacinth to absorb large amounts of nutrients justifies its use as a tertiary or secondary biological alternative for waste water treatment (Streever, 1999).
Water hyacinth has a higher capacity of holding heavy solids as compared to shorelines without the plant. Water hyacinth waters have a higher turbidity as compared to clear waters. The levels of suspended solids in infested waters are alarming.
Water hyacinth traps phytoplankton and detritus which in turn affect water quality. Water which would have otherwise been fit for domestic use is rendered useless. High level of suspended solids inhibits zooplankton organisms hence decreasing energy transfer. The safety of human transport and other recreational activities in infested waters is jeopardized (Mariana et al, 2006).
Alteration of water PH levels
Water hyacinth affects pH levels and free carbon dioxide. PH levels are greatly decreased by the presence of water hyacinth. On the other hand, a high level of free carbon dioxide exists in areas infested with water hyacinth. In comparison with water hyacinth free shorelines, areas infested with the plant have a higher free carbon dioxide.
These high carbon dioxide levels are as a result of respiration, decay and the decomposition process of water hyacinth. Water hyacinth mats which are dense and large in size also prevents free entry of oxygen. This phenomenon is very harmful to aquatic and human life.
Oxygen demand for aquatic life is doomed, hence leading to death of some species. This leads to decline of biodiversity, thus illustrating the harm of the plant on the local ecosystem (Richard et al, 2011).
The high absorption rate of water hyacinth on nutrients is harmful to the environment. This is because it destabilizes PH level of the waters as well as the surrounding environment. The high absorption rate of nitrate, ammonium and phosphate can not only cause ecological harm but also affect aquatic and human life.
Despite that the high intake capacity is useful in reducing nutrient concentrations; it may lead to environmental contamination. Land on which the plant is disposed will be affected by the chemicals. This will have adverse effects on plants, animals and humans (Villamagna Murphy, 2010).
Depletion of Nutrients
Water hyacinth has a great impact on the ecosystem since it affects the overall nutrient composition. This may lead to the disappearance of some of the plant species or animal species which depend on them. Existence of water hyacinth leads to a high decrease in phosphorous and nitrogen. This calls for continuous control of the plant so as to counter its negative effects on the ecosystem.
Despite that waterhyacith provides phytoremediation, it leads to significant nutrient loss. This however depends on the concentration of water hyacinth. In light with this scenario, the decrease in nutrients affects the biological process of the plants and animals. Plant and animal loss will definitely occur thus demonstrating the effects of water hyacinth on the ecosystem and biodiversity (Streever, 1999).
The levels of nitrate concentration as a result of water hyacinth are lower compared to shorelines without water hyacinth. The average of nitrate concentration in water affected by water hyacinth is significantly lower as compared to that of shorelines free from the plant.
This is associated with absorption of nitrates by water hyacinth. The high capacity of nitrate absorption by water hyacinth is hazardous since it affects the overall concentrations of nitrates in the waters. This has great negative impacts on PH levels and also on the aquatic life (Weijden and Bol, 2007).
Increase in Water temperatures
Water temperatures in water hyacinth infested areas are slightly above average. Research shows that the average temperatures of water in areas infested with water hyacinth is higher compared to the shoreline temperatures. The difference in water temperature would not occur without the water hyacinth. This clearly shows the effects of water hyacinth in influencing water temperatures.
Higher water temperatures are attributed to the dense mats of the plant, which in turn hinders transfer of heat. Decay of organic matter resulting from the water hyacinth also leads to heat generation hence leading to temperature rise.
Temperature fluctuations in areas infested with water hyacinth is hereby a common phenomenon. Breeding of insects like mosquitoes is hereby likely as a result of the temperature changes (Richard et al, 2011).
Breeding of harmful insects
From another perspective, water hyacinth offers favorable conditions and environment for the breeding of mosquitoes and other animals and insects. The breeding of these insects like mosquitoes will definitely threaten human life since it leads to diseases.
Snails also get a prime habitat as a result of the water hyacinth. A good example of the snail species is the parasitic flatworm. This is a dangerous species of snails which causes schistosomiasis (Mariana et al, 2006).
Water hyacinth forms good breeding places for mosquitoes and other insects. The prolific and high growth of water hyacinth leads to excellent breeding areas for harmful insects like mosquitoes. Incidents of malaria, skin rash, encephalitis, cough; gastrointestinal disorders, bilharzias and schistosomiasis are very rampant in areas infested by water hyacinth.
Water hyacinth is harmful to aquatic life since it reduces the concentration of oxygen by de-oxygenating the water. Nutrients for young fish are also reduced. This is due to the high absorption rates of nutrients by water hyacinth.
The effects of water hyacinth are diverse and a catastrophe for aquatic life. The large and dense mats of water hyacinth block water supply and thus, affecting local subsidence fishing. This is an ecological disaster which calls for urgent measures in addressing the problem (Streever, 1999).
Inhibits fishing and transport
Water hyacinth has been blamed for starving subsistence farmers and will become a major problem if not controlled. This is associated with the diseases it enhances through the breeding of snails and mosquitoes which threaten humans.
The blocking or covering of waters by water hyacinth also inhibits fishing. Invasion of water hyacinth into waters associated with human activities can easily unbalance natural lifecycles. Aquatic life can hereby suffer a fatal blow as a result of the waterhyacith. This in turn contributes to loss of biodiversity (Weijden and Bol, 2007).
Fig 2. Water Hyacinth.
Lack of controlling and managing water hyacinth will lead to total coverage of ponds and lakes. This can have unprecedented effects on the local ecosystems. Covering of water deprive the native aquatic plants light and oxygen thus killing them.
Fish and other aquatic life will also be harmed since their food which consists of aquatic plants is no more. Death of aquatic plants and animals translates to loss of biodiversity (Villamagna Murphy, 2010).
Water hyacinth has a serious impact on local ecosystems in the sense that it inhibits free movement of aquatic life and humans. It has become common knowledge that water hyacinth inhibits water activities. For instance, boating, fishing and other human expeditions are also obstructed by water hyacinth.
The robust growth of water hyacinth outstrips other aquatic life. This leads to unnecessary competition for survival thus leading to near eradication of some of the species (Tacio, 2009).
The effects of water hyacinth on fishing and transportation are immediate. This is due to the thick mats and covering of the waters by the plant. Access to the beaches is hindered by waterhyacinth. This is due to the dense mats of the plant which hinder human transport. The dense mats formed by waterhyacinth hinter fishing. The movement of fish and other aquatic life is adversely affected by the water hyacinth.
This is an ecological problem in the sense that free movement of the aquatic life is hindered. On the other hand, water hyacinth inhibits irrigation, water treatment and water supply. These are natural and human processes which ought to be facilitated for sustainable coexistence.
Without proper water treatment and supply, biological and environmental catastrophes can emerge. For instance, the contaminated water is both harmful to humans and aquatic life. This is a clear manifestation of the hazardous nature of water hyacinth on the (Richard et al, 2011).
Reduction in biodiversity
Water hyacinth is an ecological disaster due to its prolific growth. This has resulted to its categorization as an ecological nuisance. The fast rate of growth of water hyacinth leads to covering of water surface thus affecting the growth and survival of other aquatic life. The fast proliferation of water hyacinth threatens the survival and development of aquatic species.
The effects of water hyacinth on water temperatures, photosynthesis, PH and nutrients are a serious threat to the survival of other aquatic life. For instance, the effects of water hyacinth in preventing penetration of light are unacceptable. Based on this phenomenon, the adverse effects of water hyacinth on the ecology are demonstrated (Mariana et al, 2006).
Water hyacinth has a serious effect on biological diversity. The prolific growth and spread of the plant has negative impacts on native submersed plants. Immersed plant communities are also altered by the growth of water hyacinth. This is because water hyacinth has fast growth and as a result pushes and crushes the native plants. Animal communities and other aquatic life are also altered by water hyacinth.
This is because the plant affects the local environments by altering temperatures, oxygen, PH and inhibiting penetration of light. By eliminating some of the plants, the animal communities are also affected. This is because the animals depend on the plants and vice verse.
Fish and other aquatic life usually disappear due to the changed environments in aspects of temperatures and PH. A serious human problem resulting from water hyacinth is that it results in the breeding of dangerous animals and insects.
For instance, areas infested with water hyacinth have higher chances of snakes and crocodiles. This ecological problem is a not only a threat to the human species but also to the entire biodiversity (Tacio, 2009).
Control of Waterhyacith
Due to the adverse effects and harm of water hyacinth on the environment, there is the need for prevention and control. Research has established different ways in which the weed can be eliminated or managed. At present, there are different control approaches for controlling the rapid spread of water hyacinth. The harmful effects of water hyacinth on the ecology and economical prospects have called for its control.
Chemical, biological and physical control mechanisms have been established. Despite that each control mechanism has its benefits; they have also reported diverse weaknesses and drawbacks. Chemical through the use of herbicides affects communities and environment, thus the need to abandon it.
In addressing the problem of water hyacinth, there is a need to identify and administer the best control mechanism. Mechanical approaches of controlling water hyacinth have been widely used. In this approach, dredgers, mowers and other manual extraction methods are used. Nevertheless, this approach is costly and is not possible in large areas.
On the contrary, mechanical approaches for eradicating water hyacinth also offers only short-term solutions. Biological approach to eradication of water hyacinth is most favored due to its long-term and short-term effects. This is not only a sustainable but also an economical approach to controlling the weed (Tacio, 2009).
Manual or mechanical control
Physical control is mostly applied in short-term basis and in small scale. Mechanical methods are the best approach in providing short-term solutions. Nevertheless, this approach is costly and requires both machinery and human labor (NSW Department of Primary Industries, 2010).
Early control using physical means targets concentrated areas. Physical methods remove the weed from their mats and dump them on land to die. Manual removal of the weed has proved successful in small scale as especially in farm drains and dams. However, the high rate of growth of water hyacinth makes it hard to attain total eradication. This approach is only successful when the rate of removal is higher than the plants rate of re-growth. From another perspective, physical of manual removal is not successful in large scale. This is widely due to the higher costs and labor (Denise et al, 2007).
Research has shown that mechanical control of water hyacinth is at times effective. Large infestations of the weed have been manually eradicated though at a higher cost. The time and cost of eradicating water hyacinth through manual means is high. It order to attain success, the removal should be done before flowing and seed set of the water hyacinth (NSW Department of Primary Industries, 2010).
Fig 2. Dredging of waterhyacinth.
Chemical removal
The use of herbicides in the removal of water hyacinth has been overwhelming in recent days. Chemical removal of water hyacinth has proved successful, whereby it has been applied for years in different regions. The success rate of using chemical methods is higher as compared to manual methods.
Nevertheless, there has been high concern for the health of communities as well as the environment in relation to chemical removal. In areas where people wash and collect drinking water as well as fishing, chemical application can turn hazardous. A number of herbicides have been registered which help in the control of water hyacinth. High volume spraying is the most used approach in the application of herbicides.
Handgun power sprays from the banks or on a boat can be adopted in applying the herbicides. Aerial spraying of herbicides can also be considered for large infestations. Herbicides should be considered in growing season mostly in Spring so as to enhance effectiveness.
Spraying recklessly can result in environmental and human catastrophes. Spraying on heavy infestation leads to sinking of the mats, which eventually rot. This can result into ecological disasters through de-oxygenation of water hence potentially killing aquatic life like fish.
In this case, spraying should be consciously undertaken by spraying only portions like a third of the area at a time. Physical or manual removal of some of the weeds before spraying is also advantageous and sustainable (Denise et al, 2007).
Biological
Biological methods of removing water hyacinth have been the most recommended due to their sustainability and ecological friendliness. Biological researchers have identified insects which can be effectively used to combat the spread of water hyacinth.
Two weevil species including neochetna bruchi, neochetina eichhomiae and moth species, Xubida infusellus, and niphograpta albiguttalis have been discovered to help control water hyacinth. These insects have proved to be successful in destroying the spread of water hyacinth.
The insects which feed on leaves by creating small scars have great effect in controlling water hyacinth. The laying of eggs by the insects on the water hyacinth leads to infection by fungi and bacteria thus causing the plant to be waterlogged and ideas.
Nevertheless, the inactivity of these insects during winter makes it hard for them to be relied on. Neochetina bruchi on the other hand has proved to be reliable during winter hence complements the inactivity of the other insects (NSW Department of Primary Industries, 2010).
It is however notable that biological control can not be solely applied in control of the weed. Biological control only reduces the prolific growth of water hyacinth but does not lead to total eradication. Biological control ensures substantial reduction in growth rates and flowering thus countering the proliferation of water hyacinth.
The damages on the plants lead to sinking of the mats thus reducing their effects. Since chemical and mechanical control techniques are quite expensive and inefficient, biological removals offer the only suitable approach in controlling water hyacinth.
Researchers have confidence that biological methods are more resilient and effective as compared to the use of herbicides and mechanical control. This is the most sustainable approach to combating invasive water hyacinth, hence reducing their ecological damages (Denise et al, 2007).
Other control mechanisms to water hyacinth include cultural control, mulching, windrowing, and managing flood-stranded infestations. In the case of cultural control, nutrients run to infested areas should be limited. Reduction of water levels in dams and drains can significantly reduce water hyacinth.
Introduction of salty water into infested waterways can also help in combating the spread of water hyacinth. Flood-stranded infestations should be managed by using Earthmoving equipments to remove water hyacinth. This is applicable to verges and roads, which helps in breaking down the water hyacinth.
Windrowing water hyacinth with tractor-mounted blade is an effective approach to removing water hyacinth (NSW Department of Primary Industries, 2010).
Conclusion
The study has clearly demonstrated the harm of water hyacinth on the local ecosystems. Water hyacinth has greatly impacted on the physico-chemical environments thus affecting the ecosystems. Based on the research, water hyacinth affects local water temperatures, PH, concentration of dissolved oxygen, photosynthesis and nutrients in the water.
These influences have great harm on the local ecosystems by altering the normal environments for biological, cultural and economic activities. Aquatic life is adversely affected by the changes in the water environments thus leading to eradication of some species. Water hyacinth has led to significant reduction in biodiversity in infested areas due to the alteration of favorable conditions for survival aquatic plants and animals.
Based on these problems, effective water hyacinth control measures should be adopted. Chemical, biological, mechanical and cultural control methods should be considered. Cultural and biological methods of water hyacinth control are most sustainable hence the need for their prioritization.
References
Denise, B. et al. (2007). Undesirable Side-Effects of Water Hyacinth Control in Shallow Tropical Reservoir. Freshwater Biology. Vol 52 (6), p1120-1133.
Mariana, M. et al. (2006). An Experimental Study of Habitat Choice by Daphnia: Plants Signal Danger More than Refuge in Subtropical Lakes. Fresh Water Biology. Vol 51 (7), p1320-1330.
Villamagna, M. Murphy, R. (2010). Ecological and Socio-economic Impacts of Invasive Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia Crassipes): A Review. Freshwater Biology. Vol 55 (2), p282-298.
Weijden, W. and Bol, L. (2007). Biological Globalization: Bio-Invasions and Their Impacts on Nature- The Economy and Public Health. New Jersey: McGraw Hill.
Population growth among the humans is leading to over exploitation of the eco system in trying to provide food, shelter and clothing. Santa in her publication World Is Undergoing Mass Extinction shows how over exploitation of the environment is causing imbalance in the eco system.
The imbalance in ecosystem is eventually leading to extinction of some species from the earth surface. In equatorial Africa, over exploitation of the equatorial forest to provide trees for timber and medicinal herbs is leading to desertification. The Equatorial forest together with the Amazon forest used to boast of the widest varieties of birds and animals which most of them no longer exist. The extinction and endangerment of animals in these forests are caused by human being activities.
Sheldon, in the article Endangered Species/Species Extinction Causes, Statistics, and Trends, suggests that human beings should develop a way to exploit the environment without affecting other species living within the same surrounding. Natural extinction can be slowed down even if it is caused by forces of nature. The natural extinction within the Amazon forest is being brought about by climate change.
The climate change is brought by human activities which include industrialization and farming. Using of environmentally friendly sources of power to run the industries might reduce the global warming by 25%. The Greater Horseshoe Bat a bird found in Britain is endangered because of human activities of lumbering and use of pesticides within its eco system. The bird left without a natural habitat and food making is hard to survive in the new polluted environment.
Laws developed to protect the endangered animals are not enough to protect the rare species. Governments need to involve the local communities in trying to protect the animals which would be an effective process. Kurpis, in her article Ways You Can Help Endangered Species, suggests that communities should be involved in forming game reserves or parks where the endangered animals will be reared.
The need to protect endangered animals is a necessity because of the technological advancement among the humans. Human beings have come up with weapons that can kill some of these animals in thousands within a short period. Poachers use these weapons to hunt the endangered animals eventually contributing to eradication of certain species of animals like the white rhino. The anti poaching laws and willingness of people have proved pivotal in increasing the white rhinos population within the Earths surface.
Research by Bishop, in his publication Biodiversity loss from species extinctions may rival pollution and climate change impacts, has shown areas with massive extinction are facing decrease in biodiversity. The extinction is leading to such things as global warming, low production, and air pollution.
These changes are some of the contributors to global warming a major problem in the current century. Environments that harbor a wide variety of species have a large production of food. The massive production is brought about by ability of nature to control all factors of production using natural means.
Human beings will be the greatest losers because of the extinction of certain species. Extinction of herbivores within some eco system is leading to conflict between human beings and carnivores like lions. Such conflict would not take place if humans did not over hunt the herbivores for meat leaving carnivores with nothing to feed.
Myers, in the article 10 Recently Extinct Animals Top 10 Lists | List verse, shows that human beings are the main contributors to the extinction of species in the current century. These leaves human beings with a moral obligation of ensuring the endangered species do not get extinct by protecting their habitat. Protection of their habitats will ensure they get safe bleeding places, and enough food to survive.
Works Cited
Bishop, Adrian. Biodiversity loss from species extinctions may rival pollution and climate change impacts. Earth Times. 2012. Web.
Kurpis, Lauren. Ways You Can Help Endangered Species. Endangered Species. 2007. Web.
Myers, Stephanie. 10 Recently Extinct Animals Top 10 Lists | List verse. Top 10 Lists List verse. 2009. Web.
Santa, Barbara. World Is Undergoing Mass Extinction. Science News. 2008. Web.
Sheldon, Joseph. Endangered Species/Species Extinction Causes, Statistics, and Trends. Clean Funny Cartoons / Environmental Issues on Grinning Planet. n.d. Web.
1. The primary producers in an ecosystem refer to those organisms in the ecological unit that are capable of synthesising inorganic compounds to produce bio-mass.
The primary producers in grassland ecosystem are the plants consumed by animals (Miller & Spoolman 2012, p. 62). The main three primary producers in the ecosystem include grass, trees and flowers. Among the three, grass is the most common primary producer in ecosystems.
2. A primary consumer in an ecosystem is an animal that consumes and obtains its energy from plants (Miller & Spoolman 2012, p. 62).
In the grass land ecosystem, the main types of primary consumers are wild beasts, which feed on the grass, gazelles, which feed on leaves, and giraffes, which feed on foliage. Apart from the leaves and foliages, the primary consumers in the grass land ecosystem can also feed on the roots and backs of trees.
3. A secondary consumer in an ecosystem is an animal that feeds on and obtains its energy from other animals (Primary consumers). The secondary consumers do not get as much energy the primary consumers (Miller & Spoolman 2012, p. 64). In the grassland ecosystem, the main types of secondary consumers are hyenas, which consume gazelles, wild dogs, which feed on the rabbits and leopards that feed on the wild beasts.
4. A tertiary consumer is the animal at the topmost level in an ecosystem that only feeds on the secondary consumers (Miller & Spoolman 2012, p. 65). In the grassland ecosystem, pythons that feed on the wild dogs are examples of tertiary consumers.
The tertiary consumers are always fewer in any ecosystem. There is a loss of energy from one level to another in an ecosystem. Therefore, tertiary consumers have to be fewer in number to survive on the energy reduction (Keller & Botkin 2008, p. 56).
A Simple Food Chain in Grass Land Ecosystem
Chemical Cycling in Grassland Ecosystem
1. In the grassland ecosystem, dead organic materials are mainly obtained from the primary producers and primary consumers that happen to die in the ecosystem (Sharma 2005, p. 161).
The non-living things, plant and animal material come from the dead grass, trees, leaves, and branches of the trees, which fall off the remains of primary consumers that are killed by the secondary consumers. The secondary consumers grow old or become sick and die on their own (Miller & Spoolman 2012, p. 72).
2. The dead organic materials in the grassland ecosystem are decomposed by various micro-organisms. There is a continuous breakdown of these materials to become nutrients that the living primary producers obtain from the soil.
The bio-products of the dead organisms in the ecosystem include carbon dioxide, water, phosphates. The rate at which the animals are decomposed depend, among other factors, on the temperature of the area (Sharma 2005, 163).
3. The main micro-organisms that are involved in decomposing the dead materials are fungi and bacteria (Miller & Spoolman 2012, p. 74).
These organisms are called reducers; they reduce the dead organic materials to smaller quantities that can be absorbed by the primary consumers. The decomposers accomplish their functions in the ecosystem through the help of the abiotic components such moisture, solar radiation and temperature (Sharma 2005, p. 167).
References
Keller, E. A, & Botkin, DB 2008, Essential environment science, John Wiley, Hoboken, NJ.
Miller, G. T., & Spoolman, S 2012, Living in the environment: principles, connection, and solutions, Brooks, Belmont, CA.
Sharma, P. D 2005, Ecology and environment, Rastogi Publications, Meerut.
An ecosystem can be described as an environment that is biological and includes all living organisms that could be found in that area. It also includes physical components, which are nonliving, in the area. Examples include the air, sunlight, water and soil. It also describes how the biological organisms interact with these nonliving things in their habitat. Therefore, a desert ecosystem can simply be described as living organisms in a desert together with how they interact with their desert environment.
This ecosystem is present in most parts of the world. It can as well be found in the United State of America, especially North America. These deserts are mostly found between the east of Sierra Mandrel Oriental and the mostly Rocky Mountains. There is also the Transverse, Peninsular Ranges and Sierra Nevada that are majorly due to the western rain shadow. To cut the chase, there are about 3 greatest deserts in North America.
Chihuahuan Desert covers Texas, Mexico, Arizona and New Mexico and is about 140,000 sq miles. Sonoran Desert covers California, Mexico and Arizona and is approximately 120,000 sq miles. Mojave Desert covers Utah, Nevada, California and Arizona and is about 22,000 sq miles (Defenders, 2007). Others include Alvord Desert in the County of Harney south-eastern parts of Oregon, Amargosa in Nevada County of Nye and Baja in California.
Desert climate could be defined as one that does not stand a chance of being classified as polar climate. It is thus characterized by very low amounts of precipitation which is always not enough to enable the proper blossoming of vegetation and hence the term arid climate. Precipitation in desert areas would mostly be less than 250mm each year.
Although some area might experience more than 250 mm of precipitation, these areas would end up losing more in form of vapor and hence end up still retaining their desert nature. The mean temperature varies from an average of 180 C for hot deserts to between 0 and -30C for cold deserts. Additionally, these desert environments would always have an annual precipitation
The type of vegetation in this ecosystem has drastically been made to adapt to these harsh climatic conditions. Therefore, these many plants have ended up thriving in these conditions. Such an example is the famous cactus called saguaro which could be found mostly in the Sonoran desert.
Other cactus plants include prickly pear organ pipe and many others. Shrubs are also found in these places for example the desert sunflower in the Baja California. Xeric shrubs can also be found in these ecological regions. They however create some varied associations that are based on conditions of the soil and the general elevation. Therefore to summaries, these desert ecosystems would normally have shrubs and cactus forming the major part of their vegetation.
Just like any other place, there would be animals that are specially adapted to these desert conditions. Snakes and lizards form the first batch of wildlife that is adapted to these harsh climatic conditions. This is due to their ability to survive scarce water conditions due to their thick hardy skin or sometimes spiny to prevent water loss.
Some of the other animals in the desert include the Mexican gray wolf or the famously called el lobo in the Sonaran desert (Elora, 2003). Other wildlife in this desert is the mountain lion, horned owl and the all too famous rattlesnake. Most of the animals in these hot places are usually buff colored or a bit light gray. This is usually so as to provide adequate amount of camouflage. It also acts as a form of preventing absorption of light. Most of these animals could as well be found in other North American Deserts.
A typical food chain in the ecosystem includes the shrubs or cactus acting as the autotrophs or producers. In deserts like the Baja desert, the major consumer of this vegetation is the Mule deer.
The deer along with other herbivores like the Desert Bighorn sheep forms the second level of the food chain. Unfortunately for them, they become the major target of other omnivores and carnivores like the mountain lion and the coyote. However, it all comes down to the decomposers like bacteria who form the fourth level in the food chain (Amsheri, 2005).
These organisms feed on dead plants and animals eventually returning the nutrients to the soil where. An example of a prey/Predator relationship that exists in these deserts is the one between the Big Horn sheep and the Kit fox in the Sonoran Desert. Another relationship is between the coyotes and other small animals in the Baja desert like the rats.
Environmental issues in play in these deserts include the threat from the human population. This is from game hunting and overgrazing in the little remaining shrubs in the desert. This is especially true in the California desert of Baja. Other environmental issues affecting this desert include the continuing expansion of the desert due to increasingly higher global temperatures.
