The ELISA test on the “Ebola virus” was performed. In general, 25 students’ “blood” samples were tested. Initially, only two of them contained “the infection”. However, after samples mixing “Ebola virus” became spread among half of the population. For the determination of “infected” samples, the standard indirect ELISA protocol was used. Positive and negative controls confirmed the veracity of the obtained results. The purpose of the analysis was to estimate the initially “infected” samples. Accomplishing this, the analysis of the samples’ mixing scheme was conducted.
Methods
As a material, “blood” samples were used. Each student has a sample. Only two of them were infected with the “Ebola virus”, while 23 were free from viral infection. Each student randomly mixed his “blood” sample with three other students’ samples, which resulted in the “Ebola virus” spreading among the population. Table 1 shows the scheme of sample mixing. Afterward, ELISA analysis was performed for testing all the samples on “the infection”.
Table 1.
The Scheme of Students’ Samples Mixing
No of the Sample
No of student’s partners
No of the Sample
No of student’s partners
The 1st
The 2nd
The 3rd
The 1st
The 2nd
The 3rd
1
23
8
21
14
21
6
15
2
22
10
11
15
8
5
14
3
18
25
9
16
25
4
17
4
6
16
20
17
24
12
16
5
9
15
7
18
3
13
6
6
4
14
18
19
12
20
25
7
13
24
5
20
11
19
4
8
15
1
23
21
14
22
1
9
5
11
3
22
2
13
21
10
23
2
12
23
10
1
8
11
20
9
2
24
17
7
25
12
19
17
10
25
16
3
24
13
7
18
22
–
–
–
–
The standard indirect ELISA protocol was used for the analysis. One 12-well strip was used for two students: three wells for the positive control, three wells for the negative control, and three wells for each student’s sample. In the first stage, 50µl of controls and samples were added to the appropriate wells. After 5 min of incubation, the strip was washed two times with 100µl of wash buffer. Before adding the buffer, liquid from the wells was removed from the paper. After washing, 50µl of the first antibody solution from the green tube was added to each well. After 5 min of the incubation and washing two times, 50 µl of the second antibody solution from the orange tube was added. After 5 min of incubation, the strip was carefully washed three times with the purpose to remove unbounded antibodies. Finally, 50 µl of enzyme-substrate was added. The results of the analysis could be observed after 5 min. Positive results were blue, negative ones were colorless.
Results
Figure 1 shows the results of the ELISA test of one team’s samples. According to Figure 1, both students’ “blood” was “infected” with the “Ebola virus”. The liquid in wells from the 7th to the 12th was colored, which means that the analysis was positive. The liquid in positive controls wells was blue, while the negative controls wells remained colorless. Positive and negative controls confirm the correctness of the ELISA analysis procedure and obtained results.
Table 2 demonstrates the results of the ELISA for the whole group’s samples. According to it, a part of students’ “blood” became “infected” after the procedure of mixing, while the rest of them remained free of “virus”. Wells with “infected” samples were blue after the reaction, and wells with “non-infected” samples were colorless. Positive and negative controls also were correct. According to Table 2, twelve samples were colored and contained “Ebola virus”, and thirteen samples were free from the “viral infection”.
Table 2.
Results of the ELISA Analysis
No of the Sample
Result
No of the Sample
Result
1
Positive
14
Negative
2
Negative
15
Negative
3
Negative
16
Negative
4
Negative
17
Negative
5
Positive
18
Positive
6
Positive
19
Negative
7
Positive
20
Negative
8
Positive
21
Positive
9
Negative
22
Positive
10
Negative
23
Positive
11
Negative
24
Positive
12
Negative
25
Positive
13
Positive
–
–
Discussion
The ELISA test shows the presence of the “viral particles” in the sample. If “blood” was “infected”, “viral particles” bounded with the specialized antibodies to them. The second antibodies solution contained the antibodies to the anti-viral antibodies. In the final stage, the enzyme solution was added. This solution changed its color in the case of the second antibody’s presence in the well. Thus, this analysis allows detecting the “infected” samples.
Initially, only two “blood” samples contained the “Ebola virus”. After samples were mixed, the “virus” was spread, and half of the population became “infected”. For the determination of the primary infected samples, connections between participants of the experiment should be studied. First of all, all the samples with negative results should be excluded, as well as the samples, they had contacts with. After this procedure, only three numbers of possible “infected” samples remained: No 1, 7, 13. However, sample No 7 could be excluded because it was mixed with No 24 and 5 and did not spread “the infection” to them. It could be assumed that sample No 7 received “the infection” after mixing with sample No13. Therefore, it could be concluded that samples No 1 and 13 were initially “infected”, and they contaminated all other samples.
Introduction: Ebola Crisis and the Concept of Humanitarian Politics
Despite its comparatively recent emergence, the Ebola epidemic has already become infamous everywhere across the world community. Because of the humanitarianism approach, whither the UNO promotes as the key tool for handling the problem, as well as the individual concerns of the current world leaders, the problem of Ebola has shifted from the healthcare domain to the political and economic one.
Healthcare background: Ebola epidemics in West Africa
Though the Ebola disease has a rather long history (WHO Ebola Response Team 1), its reoccurrence in 2011 took the healthcare services by surprise and was not addressed properly, which resulted in its rapid development. Caused by ebolaviruses, the disease affects kidneys and liver, triggering a severe fever, headache, sore throat, etc. (Dixon and Schafer 548). Due to a rapid drop in blood pressure, which occurs as a result of a major loss of blood, the disease is extremely hard to treat. First contractions of Ebola were witnessed in 1976; in 2014, an outbreak of Ebola occurred in West Africa, causing a lot of people to die (Qui et al. 1).
Political background: key tenets of the humanitarian politics
Academic sources define the policy of humanitarianism as “assisting people in need of help –an action based on notions of saving humans and humanity from real and perceived danger” (Shrestha 2). As soon as the 2014 Ebola epidemics started, it was decided that the politics of humanitarianism should be adopted in order to address the issue. The residents of West Africa have been receiving medical assistance and essential support since. Nevertheless, the support of the areas of West Africa that have been affected by the virus seems to have exhausted itself due to the threats that the involvement in the issue may lead to.
Research Hypotheses: Humanitarianism Politics vs. the Politics of Fear
Null hypothesis
The changes in the course of the humanitarianism politics, which can be observed at present among the states that assist West Africa in handling the Ebola crisis, have nothing to do with the moods that are created among the citizens and authorities of the aforementioned states with the help of the traditional and especially modern media.
Hypothesis A
The current crisis that can be witnessed in the context of the Ebola epidemics can be viewed as the crisis of humanitarianism politics, as the fear-mongering reports in traditional and modern media shape people’s attention towards the issue, therefore, altering the geopolitics and isolating West Africa politically and economically from the rest of the world.
Hypothesis B
The crisis that occurs in West Africa at present can be related to the failure of the humanitarianism politics resulting from its marriage with the militarist politics and, therefore, the use of the Ebola crisis as the means for using the crisis as a tool in political confrontations between West Africa and the U.S., which, in its turn, is bound to trigger a major political conflict, and the politics of fear, therefore, blows the conflict out of proportions.
Methodology: Defining the Tools for Addressing the Issue
Research type: qualitative study for addressing a humanitarianism related concern
Seeing that the issue requires the development of a theory rather than the proof of the one, it will be desirable to choose the qualitative research design. Indeed, the study is obviously aimed at establishing a synapse between the variables; consequently, the adoption of the qualitative approach seems most reasonable for the study in question.
Research method: general research as the key to understanding the issue
As far as the research method is concerned, the general research has been chosen as the key tool for the data analysis, as the information concerning the Ebola epidemics can hardly be tested with the help of any other research design.
In order to gather the data required for the research, it will be needed to analyze the latest resources on the political implications of the current Ebola-related international policies, especially the ones that concern humanitarianism and the military plans that the United States supposedly have for West Africa. Peer-reviewed academic resources will be analyzed in order to obtain key information.
Literature Review: Analysis of the Policies towards the Ebola Crisis
Despite its comparative novelty, the issue of Ebola epidemics and the humanitarianism policy issues that it has spawned have already been discussed vastly. Recent researches claim that what at first was an attempt of the U.S. and Europe to put a stop to epidemics has lately turned into fear-mongering fueled by political goals that may compromise the ethics of international relationships (Tamboo 45).
Though the subject matter is very touchy, the fact that it is viewed as either a threat or an opportunity for making a political statement by the governments involved cannot be doubted: according to Kinsman, the unrests that the threat of Ebola contraction triggered in West Africa, were seen “as a gold mine to deliver a political statement” (Kinsman 24).
The fear politics mentioned above, however, is obviously being fueled among the residents of the United States and Europe, as the governments of these states attempt at evaluating the situation. Indeed, it is obvious that the governments of the states that are in one way or another related to the issue in question are attempting at pointing out the threats, which the involvement in the conflict will ensue (Kinsman 25). Herein the paradox lies; on the one hand, a case in point is a breeding ground for making powerful political statements; on the other hand, by participating in the discussion of the subject matter, the governments of the states seem to tread a very delicate territory, which may affect their own wellbeing. Herein the hesitation and lingering associated with the Ebola crisis lie.
Hence, it is obvious that the humanitarian politics adopted towards West Africa is suffering a serious crisis due to the introduction of military goals into the initially neutral attempt at helping those in need. Some researchers, in fact, have gone as far as stating that the international collective action, which was aimed at fighting the epidemics, suffered a major failure: “The escalation of the present Ebola epidemic points towards crucial shortfalls in humanitarian action” (Philips and Markham 1181). This recent refusal from taking a more active part in cooperation with West Africa is obviously to the detriment of the relationships between the latter and the U.S. Therefore; it can be concluded that the humanitarianism policy is being combined with the military one, thus, showing that the states volunteering previously for addressing the issue are now obviously reluctant to provide any assistance to the residents of West Africa whatsoever.
Researches show that there are several valid explanations for the phenomenon in question to occur, the political conflict between the United States and some of the states in the West African area being the key one. Recent researches have shown that the relationships between the above-mentioned states have deteriorated over the past few years (“Small Arms and Conflicts in West Africa” para. 1). In the light of these issues in the relationships between the U.S. and West African states, the military politics of the United States may be seen as an attempt to take the superior position in the relationships with the African authorities (Wan para. 1). The endeavors of the United States to take control over the political, economic and social life of West Africa, though somewhat dubious, may be deemed as reasonable because of the recent concerns voiced by the Human Rights Watch; according to the latter, the area in question has been known for disturbingly high rates of human rights abuse (Affa’a-Mindzie para. 3). The specified issue must be blamed on the lack of control over the military conflicts within the area, as well as the fact that these arms are distributed among both soldiers and civilians: “Quantities of arms have flowed to the region despite the rampant misuse of such weapons by state and non-state actors alike” (“Small Arms and Conflicts in West Africa” para. 2). The concerns of the USA government for the safety of the people inhabiting the troubled West African regions are, therefore, rather understandable.
The aforementioned idea can be supported by the fact that the sharp focus on the West African issue has been retaining its high propriety for an impressive amount of time despite the emergence of other concerns (Wan para. 2). According to the recent report, the states that have taken part in addressing the Ebola crisis in West Africa have displayed “the collective failure to respond in a manner that might have avoided or at least limited the scale of the present Ebola epidemic” (Philips and Markham 1181).
In other words, the humanitarian policy has obviously suffered a major failure in West Africa due to the integration of the military goals into the plans for addressing the Ebola crisis. This proves Hypothesis B, in accordance with which the combination of the militarism and the humanitarianism policies towards the states of West Africa.
One must also admit that the existing media tend to depict the current situation in West Africa in a rather unsettling manner, which causes panic rates among the citizens all over the world to rise drastically. A single glance at some of the specimens of modern and traditional media descriptions of the Ebola epidemics will reveal that very few sources portray the problem in a relatively objective manner, whereas most seem to be overstating the actual danger (Eichelberg 1285). The given approach, in fact, is quite well known in 21st-century politics under the name of fear-mongering and is viewed as a tool used for very particular goals of shaping the attitudes towards certain phenomena among general audiences (Adeyanju and Oriola 33). In fact, the U.S. resorted to a similar strategy when managing the health issue in Chinatown, New York: “Even without a single case of SARS, the community was identified quickly as a site of contagion and risk. The American public, including Chinatown, had become infected with an epidemic of fear, not of disease” (Eichelberg 1285).
A range of studies has confirmed that, by expatiating the Ebola-related concern to the nth degree, media sources create the opportunities for people’s attitude towards the subject matter, as well as the population of West Africa, change under the pressure of fear: “the media problematized the case by cross-articulating a health scare of Ebola with immigration, crime and ‘race’” (Adeyanju and Oriola 32). Therefore, the shift of the focus in the humanitarianism policy of the United States may trigger another political concern, which is related to the subject of race. By stirring fear among the general audience towards the representatives of the Black communities in West Africa, state authorities create a strong tension in the relationships between members of the American/European and African cultures. As a result, humanitarianism endeavors may be stifled easily once the fear factor is incorporated into the environment created by traditional and modern media. Hence, it can be concluded that fear-mongering, which the authorities of the United States and Europe are encouraging with their current political strategies, shapes the policy of humanitarianism, reducing the significance of compassion and cooperation to a minimum.
Results and Their Analysis: When Humanitarianism Meets Militarism and the Politics of Fear
As the results of the study have shown, the crisis of humanitarianism in West Africa can be explained by the politics of fear and militarism, which is promoted to the population of the U.S. and Europe with the help of modern media. Therefore, the null hypothesis regarding the complete absence of any changes in the current strategy of the humanitarianism politics caused by militarism and fear-mongering has been proven wrong. Hypothesis A, which renders the connection between the variables of the changes in geopolitics and isolation of West Africa economically from the global trade realm, has been proven. Likewise, hypothesis B, which views the reasons for the crisis of the humanitarian policies as the effect of the confrontation between West Africa and the United States, has also been supported by numerous pieces of evidence and, hence, can be considered proven.
Conclusion: What the Crisis May Possibly Result in
Though one must admit that at some point, the humanitarianism initiative was launched by some of the states in order to address the issue concerning the outbreak of Ebola in West Africa, the politics of fear-mongering took its toll over the key responses to the African crisis rather fast. Since the link between the recent changes in the policy of humanitarianism, the militarization strategy introduced by the United States recently and the fear-mongering technique, which is obviously being utilized with the help of both traditional and modern media, is rather strong, the null hypothesis still does not seem to work. The problem of the Ebola epidemics is, therefore, of a primarily political nature; because of the issues that the United States and Europe have been having with the states located in the area of West Africa, the healthcare concerns are being left behind, which makes the essential issue of providing assistance to those in need and searching for new and more efficient methods of Ebola treatment shrink away from the spotlight.
Works Cited
Adeyanju, Charles T. and Temitope Oriola. “Not in Canada’: The Non-Ebola Panic and Media Misrepresentation of the Black Community.” African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies 4.1 (2010): 32–54. Print.
Affa’a-Mindzie, Mireille. “Strengthening the Rule of Law and Human Rights in the Sahel.” International Journal: Stability of Security and Development 2.2 (2012), 1–12. Print.
Dixon, Meredith G. and Ilana J. Schafer. “Ebola Viral Disease Outbreak — West Africa, 2014.” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) 63.25 (2014), 548–551. Print.
Kinsman, John. “‘A Time of Fear’: Local, National, and International Responses to a Large Ebola Outbreak in Uganda.” Globalization and Health 2012, 8.1 (2012), 15. Print.
Philips, Mitt and Áine Markham. “Ebola: A Failure of International Collective Action.” The Lancet 384.9949 (2014), 1181. Print.
Qui, Xiangguo, et al. “Reversion of Advanced Ebola Virus Disease in Nonhuman Primates with ZMapp.” Nature 514.7520 (2014): 47–53. Print.
Shrestha, Christie. “New Issues in Refugee Research.” Research Paper No. 208. 2011. Web.
Tamboo, Ernest. “Non-Conventional Humanitarian Interventions on Ebola Outbreak Crisis in West Africa: Health, Ethics and Legal Implications.” Infectious Diseases of Poverty 3.1 (2014), 42–53. Print.
Wan, James. “Experts Weekly: What Next for US-Africa Relations?.” Think Africa Press. 2013. Web.
WHO Ebola response Team. “Ebola Virus Disease in West Africa – The First 9 Months of the Epidemic and Forward Projections.” The New England Journal of Medicine 10.1(2014), 1–15. Print.
Texas was the first state in the United States to report a case of Ebola. Thomas Eric Duncan, the patient in this case showed up at Texas Presbyterian Hospital emergency room on September 26th 2014 complaining of high fever, severe pain and general weakness. Despite the fact that these signs required a stay in, Mr. Duncan was sent home with antibiotics. Due to the critical nature of his condition, he died three days later. Even though Mr. Duncan mentioned the fact that he had just arrived from Liberia no course of action was taken. Mr. Duncan needed attention, yet the medical staff did not attend to him.
The Malpractice
Mr. Duncan’s case is a classic representation of malpractice. Any failure by the doctors or health professionals to diagnose a disease or to delay in diagnosing a disease is a common base for medical malpractice (Stubenrauch, 2007). The medical practitioners in this case failed to act on indications of a critical health problem that Mr. Duncan was facing. In addition, appropriate tests were not conducted in accordance with standard medical procedures to ascertain Mr. Duncan’s condition (Croke, 2003).
Ethical issues of Ebola
First, the medical practitioner should establish the nature of the signs. Get the facts regarding the travel patterns of the patient. This information will help to identify any whether the patient has interacted with an infected person.
Upon verifying the presence of Ebola, it is important to send the patient to specialized rooms for Ebola patients. This will give the staff adequate time to monitor the situation. In addition, the patient will be treated in isolation.
Let the senior medical professionals within the hospital know about the situation in advance.
It is important to find out if the patient has been in contact with other people. This will help the hospital to notify the concerned people about the need for a medical checkup.
Disciplinary Actions
Cases of malpractice lead to legal court suits (Croke, 2003). There are several legal suits in progress due to malpractice. If the professional is found guilty, some are barred from practicing. While others are jailed, depending on the nature of harm inflicted on the patient. These suits are harmful to the hospital and the entire medical profession since they generate public distrust.
Conclusion
It is important to create a clear framework on how to handle Ebola cases. Such an approach will ensure that patients who report symptoms similar to Ebola obtain appropriate medical attention. This will reduce cases of malpractice in the medical institutions.
References
Croke, E. M. (2003). Nurses, Negligence, and Malpractice. American Journal of Nursing ,103 (9), 54-62.
Stubenrauch, J. M. (2007). Malpractice vs. Negligence. American Journal of Nursing ,107 (7), 63-68.
An article by Michaud and Kates seems to suggest that if there are no changes in the projected epidemic outbreak, then the possible future outcome of Ebola epidemic could reach 1.4 million by the end of January 2015 based on the CDC’s new Ebola model (Michaud & Kates, 2014).
This estimate could be the worst-case scenario for Liberia and Sierra Leone. The earliest case of Ebola was diagnosed over six months ago in West Africa and the outbreak has persisted steadily, particularly in the two West African states (Michaud & Kates, 2014).
The article depicts a grim case for Ebola epidemic in the future, if there is no substantial action adopted immediately. It creates a sense of urgency by relying on stark new data from the WHO, which show vast underestimates, unreported, uncounted and undetected cases and projections from the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).
While the CDC has provided the future possible projections for Ebola, the WHO as acted an authoritative source by providing data which the global health community and other stakeholders depend on for updates and situation reports. The WHO has actively gathered data from relevant stakeholders since August. The WHO figures represent the ‘gold standard’.
However, Michaud and Kates claim that one cannot view them at face value because the WHO has clarified that those numbers are vast underestimates (Michaud & Kates, 2014). In addition, several cases are not detected, reported or counted because of many diverse reasons. Consequently, the WHO has concluded that “actual number of cases is two to four times greater than the official reported numbers” (Michaud & Kates, 2014).
The WHO has constantly revised its figures because of new emerging trends. For instance, the latest data have captured rapid epidemiological factors such as the reproductive rate of disease and average number of new infections associated with the Ebola outbreak.
Based on these observations, the WHO has provided new estimates as 1.51 and 1.38 for Liberia and Sierra Leone respectively. The most important factor to consider is that a reproductive rate beyond one represents a severe situation and it suggests that the outbreak will expand exponentially, unless immediate interventions are adopted to change these projections.
The article points out a critical issue facing the global health community with reference to the current Ebola outbreak in West Africa – insufficient, untimely and unreliable data (Michaud & Kates, 2014). As a result, any interventions in terms of personnel, supplies and related services are hindered because of vague and time-delayed estimates (Michaud & Kates, 2014).
Available information cannot exactly confirm affected and infected persons, areas, new cases, declining cases and areas facing major risks of new infections. Michaud and Kates have attributed these challenges moderately to a lack of vital data and poor surveillance abilities in West Africa. Moreover, there are rapidly changing and chaotic circumstances on the ground.
Has the global health community – doctors, epidemiologists, humanitarians and policymakers done enough to combat Ebola and any other epidemics that can occur in the future? The world is asking why and how the epidemic has spread so fast and has continued to expand rapidly (Gharib, 2014).
While the global health community continues to fight the virus, discover a cure and prevent future outbreaks, public health policies have demonstrated critical weaknesses. For instance, there is poor knowledge about Ebola, myths, distrust, poor health infrastructures, misconceptions and a general lack of reliable data for decision-making.
References
Gharib, M. (2014). How the global health community is responding to Ebola. Web.
This article is aimed at examining the efforts of the American government to overcome the effects of the Ebola epidemic. In particular, the Department of Defense intends to send more troops to West Africa in order to limit the spread of this disease in the region.
Additionally, much attention should be paid to the cooperation between Pentagon and the Health and Human Services Department (The Kaiser Family Foundation, 2014b). The soldiers and medical workers will operate in Liberia which is badly affected by this disorder.
Overall, the outburst and spread of this epidemic can be attributed to various factors. For instance, it is possible about the lack of cooperation between the governments of different countries that have the resources and expertise to minimize the effects of Ebola.
Thus, one can speak about the political aspects of this problem. Additionally, it is important to mention that the effects of Ebola epidemic can be attributed to significant social problems within Liberia. In particular, one should speak about the inability of many people to afford medical services.
Apart from that, one should not keep in mind that for a long time, the dangers of Ebola have been disregarded. The attitudes of international organizations and policy-makers have changed only at the time when the number of people affected by this disease has increased dramatically. More importantly, at this point it is quite probable that this virus can be transferred to other countries as well.
This issue can be related to Millennium Developmental Goals. In particular, one should speak about the need to promote global partnership that can eventually foster the development of many people living in developing countries. Overall, the cooperation between healthcare organizations representing different countries can be vital for the identification of possible risks as quickly as possible.
For instance, medical institutions can join their efforts to assist patients affected by contagious diseases such as Ebola. Furthermore, one should focus on the necessity to promote universal primary education. By achieving this goal, policy-makers can increase people’s awareness about the risk of contagious diseases. These are the main details that can be singled out.
Question: What strategies would you recommend to limit the spread the Ebola epidemic in West Africa?
U.S. Health Officials Move To Calm Fears Over Ebola As Epidemic Becomes Political Issue
This article highlights the efforts of American policy-makers to curb panic provoked by the spread of the Ebola epidemic. It should be noted that one case of Ebola has already been registered in the United States. To a great extent, this event has highlighted the need to take precautions against the possible outbreak of this contagious disease in the country.
This is why many journalists have expressed concerns about this risk of epidemic and its impact on public health in the country. In turn, many public administrators note that medical workers have quarantined people who could have contacted the first patent affected by Ebola (The Kaiser Family Foundation, 2014a).
Thus, many of the misgivings are exaggerated. Additionally, many people stress the need for travel bans on countries influenced by this epidemic (The Kaiser Family Foundation, 2014a). One of the main concerns expressed by policy-makers is that the growing panic can be even a more dangerous threat to the community (The Kaiser Family Foundation, 2014a).
Overall, these examples indicate that there are many health problems that should not be overlooked by the international community since they can adversely affect people living in different countries, even those ones in which many of the contagious diseases have been completely eradicated.
U.S. Lawmakers Press For Travel Ban From Ebola-Hit Countries, But Experts Warn Ban Could Make Outbreak Worse
This article is aimed discussing the efforts of American policy-makers to eliminate the risk of Ebola outbreak in the United States. In particular, some governmental officials emphasize the need to impose travel bans from those counties in which the case of Ebola have been registered (The Kaiser Family Foundation, 2014c).
Much attention should be paid to the countries located in West Africa. People living in this region are at a greater risk of becoming afflicted by this epidemic. Public administrators argue that this precaution can be critical for eliminating the risks of this disease. This is one of the strategies that policy-makers may adopt in the future. Nevertheless, healthcare professionals argue that this policy can produce just the opposite effects.
The problem is that medical workers would find it more difficult to help patients living in African countries (The Kaiser Family Foundation, 2014c). This is why this strategy is not the most optimal one.
Still medical workers suggest that the citizens of the United States refrain from going to those regions in which they can become infected with this virus. They should keep in mind that these countries, they may not have access to efficient medical care. This is one of the risks that should not be overlooked.
This article is aimed at discussing the way in which U.S. healthcare organizations can respond to the threat of Ebola epidemic in the country. It should be noted that one case of this disease has already been registered in America, and this event has attracted the reaction of many medical workers, public administrators, and journalists.
Apart from that, this patient contacted several people before being quarantined (Kaiser Family Foundation, 2014b). Moreover, medical workers were not able to identify the symptoms of this disease as quickly as possible. Additionally, they could learn that the person came from a country affected by Ebola. Nevertheless, they did not do it immediately (Kaiser Family Foundation, 2014b).
This delayed response prompted many people to speak about the possible outbreak of this disease in the country. Nevertheless, public administrators argue that these concerns are largely exaggerated (Kaiser Family Foundation, 2014b).
Overall, this event has highlighted the potential inefficiency of the healthcare system. Moreover, it is vital to develop effective precautions against potential threats. These are some of the main details that can be distinguished.
Relevance to global health policy
This article illustrates the need for improving screening procedures that can be applied by healthcare professionals working in various countries. These people should be able to identify at-risk individuals and quarantine them if it is necessary. This precaution is vital for limiting the spread of Ebola and other contagious diseases throughout the world.
Additionally, these professionals should bear in mind that in the globalized world, healthcare problems affecting one country may soon manifest themselves in other regions. These issues should be taken into account by people designing global health policy.
They should pay more attention to the training of people who are responsible for identifying people affected by contagious diseases such as Ebola. Additionally, they should raise people’s awareness about the dangers of such viruses. They need to keep this issue in mind when travelling to other countries especially those ones which are located in West Africa. These are the main arguments that can be put forward.
Ebola, in recent months, has emerged as a major health hazard to the world populace. African countries such as Liberia and Sierra Leone are affected by this contagion. This epidemic is likely to become a momentous global event. Critical global response is needed to deal with this tribulation. According to the WHO, Liberia and Sierra Leone reported growing Ebola incidence of 0.49 percent.
Hordes of Ebola cases are not reported. This implies underreporting with reference to this ailment. At present, this disease has infected 14,000 people. This ailment is likely to infect 1.4 million people in Liberia and Sierra Leone by January 2015.
In Liberia, approximately 263 people die every week due to this ailment. Compared to this, malaria contributes to the death of 140 persons. It is apparent that Ebola has the potency to affect large numbers of people (Michaud & Kates, 2014).
Relevance to global health policy
Paucity of data has affected the capability of global health policy makers to prepare for the Ebola contagion. In all probability, medical experts have miscalculated the impact of Ebola on the world population. Global health professionals need to obtain precise data concerning the potency of Ebola. It is imperative that the WHO gives guidance to the government and non-governmental organizations to deal with this predicament.
Dearth of a pertinent policy is expected to affect large numbers of people in the world (Michaud & Kates, 2014). Ebola virus has affected the African countries. In the near future, it is likely to extend to other parts of the world. It is vital to create a suitable global health strategy to deal with Ebola.
The U.S. government & global emerging infectious disease preparedness and response
Summary
Emerging infectious disease (EID) has appeared as a major health-related tribulation for the US and the world community. In the 1980s, EID such as HIV/AIDS contributed to the death of 39 million people. This disease affected 79 million people in varied parts of the world. The American and world population have discerned EIDs such as mad cow disease, bird flu, SARS, and MERS.
Swine flu led to the bereavement of more than 200,000 people, and it distressed the world community. Global health leaders have comprehended the need to report and prevent EIDs. To achieve this object, International Health Regulations (IHRs) have been executed. These rules oblige governments to report EIDs to the international community.
Governments are also compelled to implement measures to restrain their expansion to other regions of the world. Simultaneously, factors such as poverty and lack of healthcare technology have affected the wherewithal of underdeveloped countries to take effectual measures to deal with this challenge (Kaiser Family Foundation, 2014).
Relevance to global health policy
Since the 1990s, the U.S. government has made substantial investment to identify and report EIDs. Agencies such as Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the National Institutes of Health (NIH), USAID, and DoD are active in reporting and averting the spread of EID (Kaiser Family Foundation, 2014).
The U.S. has initiated measures to impede the proliferation of EIDs in the country. At the same time, it is imperative for American healthcare institutes to work closely with the global health organizations to deal with this distress.
Ebola, as well as other health epidemics have always been put under control through the use of technology. In West Africa, information communication technology (ICT) played a significant role in the prevention and control of the virus. However, this technology was not fully utilized given the potential that it has. This paper will therefore expound on how ICT can be used in West Africa and the whole world in general to control future outbreaks of Ebola and other diseases by using approaches such as mapping and geomapping, digital training and data collection, wireless communication, and social media.
Introduction
Developing nations face a number of health challenges, including failure to control preventable diseases that result in premature deaths. In West Africa, for instance, the eruption of the Ebola virus resulted in the death of thousands of people before it could be put under control (Chetley, 2006). This high level of casualty is a result of inequality in the access to health care services, poor service delivery in the health care industry due to underfinancing, poor allocation of health care resources that tend to be scarce in these regions and the lack of proper coordination among key stakeholders in the process of identifying and controlling preventable diseases (Chetley, 2006).
Application of ICT in Health Care
The 20th century saw the introduction of ICT. However, it is in the 21st century, this technology has grown through innovative and creative advances. Technologies such as mobile communications, computing and broadband internet have made it possible to devise various epidemic and response strategies (Chetley, 2006). As asserted earlier, the health care industry has highly relied on technology to control and prevent health predicaments. However, the recent outbreak of Ebola in Western Africa showed the potential that ICT has in controlling and preventing predicaments. As asserted by Chetley (2006), the application of ICT cannot curb the spread or cure diseases, however, if it can be used effectively to educate, warn, and empower individuals regarding a specific disease, hence significantly reducing its spread and overall impact in a given society. This paper will cover five areas in which ICT can be used to achieve the above goals.
Mapping and Geolocation
The main challenge in previous health outbreaks has been the process of identifying patient zero, the places where infected individuals have visited and the individuals they have been in contact with. This was the case with the recent Ebola outbreak in West Africa. This is where geographical information systems techniques can be effectively applied. Through the use of mapping and geolocation, it is possible to get data with regards to the places and individuals whom infected individuals have been in contact with. This information is important in isolating individuals to safe environments, hence controlling the spread of an infectious disease (Luege, 2014).
Digital Training and Data Collection
In the process of collecting relevant information on a given health epidemic, it is important to conduct interviews. In the case of the Ebola outbreak in West Africa, this process was conducted manually and then the data was then entered into a computer (Luege, 2014). From a critical point of view, it is evident that this process is slow, tedious, and prone to errors. To overcome this challenge in future, digital forms have been developed. These digital forms are effective and efficient since enumerators can fill them using their mobile phones and can transmit this data remotely to tallying stations saving time and reducing errors.
At the same time, technological advancement in mobile computing has made it possible to train health workers remotely. This can be achieved using applications such as Oppia browser and e-Buddie that enables direct exchange of information (Koeleman, 2015). At the same time, the use of voice and video calls also play an integral part in the training exercise saving time and money as compared to direct training. This ensures that health workers have up to date knowledge, information, and skills that are necessary not control and prevent the spread of an infectious disease.
Wireless Communication
Outbreaks are usually characterized by intense isolation. This in turn makes it difficult, and so some extent impossible for loved ones who are isolated to communicate through each other. Given the fact that communication amongst individuals, especially loved ones is essential, it is important to ensure that various channels of conveying messages are available (Wilkins, 2014). The use of mobile messaging, wireless calls (VOIP) and social media can greatly enhance communication in such situations. In developing nations, however, access to such technologies might be difficult, hence local Wi-Fi networks can be set up to facilitate communication within specific areas.
Decimation of Epidemic Information
Various kinds of SMS sending and receiving information can be set up to ensure that real time information with regards to the spread of a given epidemic is conveyed within and out of the crisis zone. In West Africa, mHero was set up to convey Ebola updates among health workers within this region (Luege, 2014). This system works in conjunction with UNICEF’s RapidPro system. The presence of effective and efficient communication systems is important, especially in ensuring ease of decimation of critical information. In an event of an Ebola outbreak, for instance, it is key to convey to the local population information on the appropriate precautions that they need to put in place to control and prevent the spread of the virus. Consequently, this portal can be used to send reminder messages to the local population on the same issue over and over again. Therefore, the use of SMS services will ensure that precise information is conveyed directly to the target population and appropriate measures taken.
The Use of Social Media
Social media is the most used platform by individuals and corporations for communicating and interaction purposes. Given the coverage that it has, social media can be influential in preventing and controlling the spread of health epidemics such as Ebola. At the present moment, however, only a small proportion of the West African population access to the internet, therefore making it not to be a useful tool as it should be for this purpose. Despite this fact, most of these individuals have huge diasporas. For instance, Liberia alone has approximately 450,000 diasporas living in the USA alone (Luege, 2014). These individuals have access to the internet and social media platforms and therefore, they are in a position to use social media to air the current situation in epidemic areas hence seeking international support.
Conclusion
While ICT cannot directly stop the spread of an epidemic, this approach can be used to significantly control this spread by generating and decimating critical information that can be useful in education and empowering individuals hence reducing the overall impact. Advances in ICT such as mapping and geolocation, the digital training and data collection, wireless communication, and the use of social media are examples of means through which this new avenue can be used to curb the spread of an epidemic by providing relevant information that on one part will enhance the preparedness of health workers to put under control the epidemic and on the other hand improve the preparedness of the local population educating and training them on the necessary precautions that they can take to prevent its spread.
References
Chetley, A. (2006). Improving health, connecting people: The role of ICTs in the health sector of developing countries: A framework paper. Web.
Koeleman, D. (2015). Four ways technology can help fight future epidemics. Web.
The threat of Ebola has recently become one of the major concerns for many American medical workers and public administrators who want to eliminate even the minor risk of epidemic outbreak in the country. The instances of this disease have already been registered in the United States and this issue is widely discussed in various news reports.
One should note that these events have increased the concerns of many people who want to safeguard themselves against possible risks. On the whole, this case demonstrates that a healthcare problem can have profound implications for society and political life of the country.
In particular, the threat of Ebola has significantly increased people’s sense of insecurity. To some extent, this situation can be explained by the influence of mass media because journalists can profoundly shape the views of many people. Additionally, this risk has prompted governmental officials to consider restricting travel to and from countries which are badly affected by Ebola. So, this issue has affected the decisions of policy-makers.
On the whole, this issue has highlighted the need for cooperation between healthcare professionals and public administrators because these professionals have sufficient knowledge and expertise to address this problem. Moreover, this case illustrates the role of mass media that can shape the opinions of many people; yet, their influence may not be always beneficial. These are the main questions that should be discussed in greater detail.
It should be mentioned that in the early nineties, Ebola has been described as one of the major health risk, especially in the world that was becoming more and more globalized (Leach 488). There were many films that highlighted the dangers of this virus. For instance, it is possible to mention such works as The coming Plague and The Hot Zone (Leach 488).
One should keep in mind that the risks of Ebola did not attract much attention of people living in advanced countries because it could be observed primarily in African countries (Leach 488). Nevertheless, the situation changed dramatically, especially at the time when a patient infected with this virus came to the United States. Similar cases were registered in European countries as well. This is one of the reasons why this topic has attracted the attention of various stakeholders.
Thus, at the beginning, this problem only affected West African countries. However, it later became clear that even the United States cannot safeguard itself against the risks of this contagious disease. It should be mentioned that several years ago, Ebola was perceived mostly as a “local disease” (Leach 488). However, this situation has changed dramatically over the last two months.
Therefore, it is possible to argue that various diseases continue to have significant social implications that should not be disregarded by various stakeholders. One should also mention that some American policy-makers intend to impose bans on travel from countries such as Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Nigeria (U.S. Passports & International Travel). Thus, this issue has changed the relations between the United States and other countries. Thus, social and political impacts of Ebola cannot be disregarded by public administrators.
One should also point out that such events normally attract more attention of the mass media, even though there are more serious healthcare concerns such as malaria. Moreover, in many cases, journalists prefer to overlook the idea that the symptoms of Ebola can also be attributed to other diseases because this interpretation may not be of great interest to the public (Bergstrom 140).
Thus, reporters should remember about the impacts of their activities on the society, especially people’s behaviors. One should keep in mind that panic can often lead to hostility or even violence (Bergstrom 140). Certainly, journalists should help people make informed decisions; nevertheless, they should make sure that they do not mislead the audience into panic that can become even a greater threat to many people. This is one of the points that can be made.
Currently, medical workers want to make sure that people affected by this disease are identified as quickly as possible. Their main task is to limit the spread of this disease in the country (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). In turn, this task can become particularly challenging in a very urbanized country such as the United States.
In particular, one should isolate each of the patients before he/she can contract a great number of people. If this goal is not achieved, the disease can spread at a very rapid rate. However, healthcare professional argue that this disease can be effectively localized (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). Additionally, medical workers suggest that American citizens should refrain from travelling to West Africa.
One of the main threats is that in these countries, a person cannot always gain access to efficient medical assistance. As a rule, such individuals are at a greater risk of acquiring this disease that can be very deadly. In particular, they should bear in mind that currently there is no effective cure for Ebola (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). These are the main details that can be distinguished because they are important for understanding the impact of Ebola on people living in the United States.
This threat has not affected me directly; nevertheless, I am familiar with people who seem to be too much concerned about Ebola. In particular, they tend to believe that practically every form of ailment such as high temperature or headache can be attributes to Ebola. It seems that me that such behavior is not always rational because there are greater threats than Ebola.
For instance, it is possible to mention the risk of cardiovascular diseases or diabetes that may also cause many deaths in the United States as well as other countries. Nevertheless, people seem to be less concerned about these issues. This is one of the points that can be distinguished because it can throw light on the irrationality of group behavior which is not necessarily based on logic and empirical evidence (Bergstrom 140).
Certainly, a person cannot remain indifferent of this issue, but one should not become obsessed with it. In turn, healthcare professionals also state that the fears of Ebola must not prevent medical workers from addressing other important problems such as HIV, malaria, tuberculosis, and other contagious diseases (Leach 489).
Thus, it is important to use resources very efficiently because this efficiency is vital for protecting public health. Moreover, researchers argue that the risks of panic can also be rather dangerous (Bergstrom 140). In some cases, this panic can result in the discrimination against people who may come from African countries (Bergstrom 140).
In the past, this behavior was observed in other countries, for instance, one can mention Canada where many African immigrants could face discrimination (Bergstrom 140). This is one of the pitfalls that should be avoided because it can result in many violent conflicts.
Overall, Ebola has highlighted the dangers of the modern health issues. The problem is that modern countries no longer seem to be isolated from one another. Due to the economic cooperation between countries, various contagious diseases can easily cross boundaries. This is one of the challenges that should not be overlooked. This is why it is important to provide necessary resources to people who struggle against such diseases.
These healthcare professionals are able to protect various stakeholders who may be living in different countries. Currently, they need to develop and implement procedures that reduce the threat of the epidemic outbreak. For instance, one can speak about EVD (Ebola Virus Disease) screening that can identify people who have acquired this disease (U.S. Passports & International Travel). This is one of the details that can be identified.
On the whole, this discussion indicates that the threats of epidemic can profoundly influence the experiences of many people. This situation can be partly explained by the fact that the threats of Ebola were widely publicized in mass media. The threats of Ebola can be effectively addresses provided that that medical workers use the necessary safety procedures in order to detect the cases of this disease at an early stage.
To a great extent, these professionals are also responsible for curbing panic and fears. This is one of the tasks that these people should perform to minimize the risk of various hostilities. Apart from that, the threats of Ebola have influenced the political and social life of the country. In particular, it increased people’s sense of insecurity and shaped the decisions of policy-makers. These are the main arguments that can be put forward.
Works Cited
Bergstrom, Kelly. “Deadly fever: Racism, disease and a media panic.” Canadian Journal of Communication, 38.1 (2013): 139-140. ProQuest.
Politics and the securitization of the threat of the Ebola virus have influenced responses in different ways. Decades of civil war in countries most affected by Ebola made the situation worse. Several villagers lack faith in governments and foreign healthcare workers. In Sierra Leone, the government is associated with corrupt practices, non-transparent dealings, and lies.
Some civilians claimed that both the government and healthcare workers were intentionally spreading the virus; the government wants to sell their blood or conduct rituals with patients’ body parts. Some claimed that the chlorine could be used to spread the virus, or the government simply invented the disease to get more donations. Other villagers chased away healthcare workers, rejected education on Ebola, and insisted on burying their dead according to the tradition.
Such suspicions complicated Ebola control and management.
When villagers feared that government and healthcare workers were part of the Ebola epidemic, they undermined all efforts to control the spread of the virus through isolation of infected persons. Even the WHO could only offer estimates on the numbers of Ebola casualties because it could not get actual data from any sources.
Hence, its power was equally limited. The WHO had provided the required recommendations to combat Ebola and outlined appropriate security measures to protect healthcare workers and patients. The government, however, did little or nothing to implement recommendations, protect healthcare workers, and quarantine areas.
In this case, politics and securitization play critical roles in responses to Ebola. The government reacted by declaring a state of emergency that was meant to impose strict quarantine. In many locations, however, the quarantine was not imposed as expected as villagers continued to roam freely and failed to understand its meaning.
The international community reacted in different ways. For instance, the US CDC (Center for Disease Control) provided regular updates on Ebola. Canada announced that it would not allow foreigners from Ebola-hit countries to enter its borders. Governors of New York, Illinois, and New Jersey declared their intentions to quarantine healthcare workers from West African countries with Ebola cases, while others opted for strict border controls.
The US also sent its military as a part of the securitization of Ebola. The role of the military is to ensure strict enforcement of quarantine. Consequently, many villagers could not understand why they were prohibited from moving.
In the case of West Africa, a lack of education made securitization worse. It led to a lack of trust between villagers and other stakeholders. As a result, many villagers shunned healthcare centers and providers. Securitization of Ebola did not take into account the culture of West Africans associated with touching the dead irrespective of the outcomes.
The responses offer critical implications for future approaches. Ignorance, misconception, and a lack of education were responsible for the widespread of Ebola. Effective, coherent politics and securitization of Ebola could have targeted these factors. There was a need to create awareness and educating the public about Ebola. A lack of information, behavior change, and attitudes hampered interventions. The public did not understand the facts about Ebola or practices that could have exposed them to infection.
It is the responsibility of the international community and the national stakeholders to ensure better practices in creating awareness and educating the public. There was a need for widespread education about Ebola, its existence, and its consequences. This is a targeted and responsible securitizing strategy, which could have reduced distrust between villagers and the government and foreign health workers and enhanced the global awareness about Ebola.