Category: Earthquake

Hurricanes are a natural process that needs certain conditions to be met to allow their formation. Hurricanes are also known as tropical cyclones and are storms that typically form in the summer or autumn period when the correct atmospheric ingredients come together. Several factors go into the formation of a hurricane, of which they are; low pressure, warm ocean water, the Coriolis effect, moist mid-atmosphere, and upper atmospheric divergence. The low-pressure area has to form to start winds uplifting, the water has to be heated for a specific depth so that it can hold the energy required for a hurricane normally around 20 Celsius at a depth of approximately 50 meters. If the air is dry it will weaken the updraft of the clouds and then the hurricane won’t form therefore the air has to be moist. Moreover, upper atmospheric divergence allows the movement of mass away from the hurricane, and the Coriolis effect illustrates the spinning of the earth and how it affects the movement of air in each hemisphere. Hurricanes in the Northern Hemisphere currents from high-pressure systems pass low-pressure systems to their right, whereas in the Southern Hemisphere, they deflect fluids to their left. As a result, hurricanes in the Northern Hemisphere rotate anticlockwise and in the Southern Hemisphere clockwise (Society, 2019).

If all the conditions are met sufficiently then rain clouds and storms will start to gain momentum as the lower-level winds come together in the center of an area of low pressure. As convection increases with the formation of bands the hot air close to the surface rises and then cools which in turn allows the water vapour to condense. Subsequently, there is a great amount of heat generated from the condensation of the water vapor that then warms the center region of the low-pressure area. As the core temperature of the hurricane rises it produces lower pressure that increases the intensity of the winds. As the rotation of the hurricane becomes quicker an eye will form in the center, and the higher-pressure air will be sucked from above into the eye. (Nasa.gov)

To be officially classified as a hurricane the winds must reach a sustained value of 74mph and they are scaled on how fast the relative wind speed is by using the Sadfir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale which classifies hurricanes from 1 to 5. This scale is used to predict potential hurricane damage to buildings and properties, all hurricanes are dangerous to a certain extent, however, a hurricane measuring 3 on the scale is classed as a major hurricane (Vickery and colleagues, 2009). Major hurricanes are a threat to life and can cause serious damage to buildings due to catastrophic wind speeds. The most aggressive hurricanes form along the equator can range up to 600 miles wide and can typically last up to a week. (Vickery and colleagues, 2009)

On January 12th, 2010, Haiti experienced an earthquake measuring 7.0 on the Richter scale at a depth of 8.1 miles whereas on March 11th, 2011 Japan experienced an earthquake measuring 9.0 on the Richter scale at a depth of 20 miles below the sea bed. The Haitian earthquake killed a total of 230,000 (Bilham,2010) people in comparison to Japan’s which by April 18th had killed 13,392 nationally and an additional 15,132 missing (Norio et al., 2011), the figure now known to be 19,500 deaths, this accentuates the difference in the humanitarian impact between an LEDC and an MEDC. Haiti and Japan have comparable physical geography, both countries are small, mountainous islands that are commonly hit by earthquakes. One of the key differences between the earthquakes is the positioning of the epicenter, the quake that hit Haiti was recorded to be directly under Leogane. This would have been a contributing factor to why the damages were so extreme in Haiti compared to that in Japan from the direct damage of the earthquake. Moreover, the standard of building in Haiti is inferior and it is estimated that the number of people killed by collapsed buildings is around 200,000. This illustrates the sub-standard building of houses in Haiti, following the quake an additional 1.5 million Haitians were left homeless (Bilham, 2010). Before the earthquake Haiti was the lowest-ranked nation in the Western Hemisphere on the Human Development Index (WHO Haiti, 2012), moreover 86% of people living in the capital, Port au Prince were living in slum conditions, mainly in poorly built concrete buildings.

On the day of the earthquake, it is estimated over 300,000 people were injured, over 188,383 houses were badly damaged and 105,00 were destroyed. Furthermore, there were 19 million cubic meters of debris in the capital, 4,000 schools were destroyed or damaged, 60% of government buildings were destroyed or damaged and at its peak, 1.5 million people were living in shelters of which 100,000 people were at risk of storms and flooding (Disasters Emergency Committee, 2015). The overall damage of the earthquake was estimated to cost around £7 billion. These statistics when compared to those of Japan considering Japan was hit with a subsequent major tsunami as a result of the earthquake are not comparable from a humanitarian standpoint.

Introduction:

On May 9, 1647, Chile experienced one of the most catastrophic earthquakes in its history, known as the Kleist Earthquake. This seismic event, named after the Jesuit priest Pedro Kleist, who documented its aftermath, had a profound impact on the region. In this essay, we will explore the informative details of the Kleist Earthquake, examining its causes, consequences, and the lessons learned from this significant natural disaster.

Body:

Historical Context:

The Kleist Earthquake occurred during the colonial period when Chile was under Spanish rule. The region was characterized by a combination of geological activity due to the subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South American Plate. This tectonic setting made Chile prone to powerful earthquakes.

Magnitude and Epicenter:

The Kleist Earthquake is estimated to have had a magnitude of 8.5 to 9.0 on the Richter scale, making it one of the most severe earthquakes ever recorded in Chile. The epicenter was located near the Arauco Peninsula in south-central Chile, a region known for its high seismicity.

Impact on Human Life:

The earthquake caused widespread devastation, resulting in the loss of thousands of lives. The affected areas, including Concepción, Santiago, and Valparaíso, suffered significant damage to buildings, infrastructure, and livelihoods. The earthquake’s destructive power was amplified by subsequent tsunamis and landslides, exacerbating the already dire situation.

Socioeconomic Consequences:

The Kleist Earthquake had long-lasting socioeconomic consequences for Chile. The destruction of towns and villages led to a decline in agricultural production, which impacted the local economy. The rebuilding process was slow, and the affected communities struggled to recover from the disaster, facing economic hardship for years to come.

Cultural and Architectural Impact:

The earthquake not only caused physical destruction but also had a profound impact on Chilean culture and architecture. Many historical landmarks, including churches and colonial-era buildings, were reduced to ruins. The rebuilding efforts sought to incorporate new seismic-resistant techniques, leading to the emergence of distinct architectural styles that are still evident in Chilean cities today.

Lessons Learned and Preparedness:

The Kleist Earthquake served as a stark reminder of the seismic vulnerability of Chile. The disaster prompted a reevaluation of building codes and construction practices, leading to the development of stricter regulations for earthquake-resistant structures. The event also highlighted the importance of early warning systems and emergency preparedness, with subsequent earthquakes prompting further advancements in seismic monitoring and response strategies.

Scientific and Research Contributions:

The Kleist Earthquake became a significant case study for scientists and researchers studying earthquake phenomena. It provided valuable data and insights into the mechanics of large-scale earthquakes, contributing to advancements in seismology and earthquake engineering. The lessons learned from this event have helped shape our understanding of seismic activity and guide future disaster mitigation efforts.

Conclusion:

The Kleist Earthquake in Chile stands as a tragic reminder of the devastating power of natural disasters. Its impact on human life, socioeconomic conditions, and cultural heritage was immense. However, the event also served as a catalyst for change, leading to improvements in building codes, emergency preparedness, and scientific understanding of earthquakes. The lessons learned from the Kleist Earthquake continue to shape Chile’s resilience in the face of future seismic events, highlighting the importance of ongoing research, preparedness, and community engagement in mitigating the impact of natural disasters.

Natural disasters have always been one of mankind’s major fears and fascinations, due to their associated human and economic losses. Natural disasters such as the Kobe Earthquake, Hurricane Katrina, the Indian Ocean Tsunami, the Haitian Earthquake, and the Japanese Tsunami have been able to grab the attention of man towards the act of examining the impact and consequences of these events, as they have instilled fear in him that such large-scale devastating events are becoming more frequent and severe.

The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) has defined a natural disaster from an economic perspective as, ‘an event that causes serious disruption to the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses and impacts, which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources’ю

Natural disasters despite being a huge menace to the economy, also act as a stimulator for the businesses. They help boost production, re-establish the overall supply-demand chain of various businesses, and also provides them with an opportunity to stand out in the market. This paper will discuss 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami, as an example of how natural disasters can create situations for the development of available businesses or otherwise destroying some of them.

The Tohoku earthquake and tsunami, followed by a nuclear crisis, was a severe natural disaster that occurred in the northeastern region of Japan on March 11, 2011. It started with a 9.0 magnitude earthquake, which initiated a series of large tsunami waves, that devastated the coastal areas of Japan. This, in turn, instigated a major nuclear incident at Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant. This series of devastating events were called as the ‘triple disaster’. Not only did it cause a huge physical and human capital loss, but it devasted the country’s economy. The estimated physical damage was from $195 billion to as much as $305 billion. In addition to that, 27,000 people had been killed, and extensive damage was done to the infrastructure, homes, manufacturing plants, and other buildings. The whole situation was made worse due to radioactive contamination and aftershocks.

Although apparently, it seemed like the disastrous earthquake and tsunami that struck Japan, left behind scenes of almost apocalyptic devastation, but in reality, it did something else as well: it helped the Japanese economy in the long run. The initial economic impact of the disaster was that it caused huge uncertainty in the atmosphere, with loads of predictions coming in that Japan’s economy will soon collapse or it will go into recession. Factories and offices were being shut down, and renowned companies like Nissan, Honda and Toyota were halting production at all of their factories. Other manufacturers and businesses like Fuji Heavy Industries, GlaxoSmithKline and Nestlé also reported major damage to their factories and suspended the production process as well. In addition to this, all ports and six of the nuclear reactor units had been closed due to extreme damage. As a result, Japan was unable to generate an adequate amount of electricity which made the overall demand rise. The country was in a huge financial and economic crisis, with no electricity, running water, and the estimated economic losses of more than $100 billion. The Japanese government realized that this would require an immediate action. Massive rebuilding efforts by the Japanese government provided a short-term boost by attracting resources to the country. One such effort was the pumping of billions of yen, by the Bank of Japan, in order to help the country’s fragile economy to recover faster. The earthquake and tsunami destroyed old roads. factories, bridges and, airports but they spurred economic growth in Japan. They allowed new and more efficient infrastructure to be built and new businesses to be established. This helped the transition become more smoother and the economy to be more productive in the long term. The Japanese government set a 10 years period for recovery in July 2011 and put forward specific targets for infrastructure restoration, debris clearing and housing. The government was able to act upon the recovery plan and in the coming years, all the debris from the disaster had been removed, infrastructure including airports, bridges, roads had been rebuilt, and houses had been reconstructed. The nuclear effects and radiations made the recovery process quite difficult, but the government was able to effectively monitor the agriculture, food production and safety.

Natural disasters are considered to be a form of creative destruction. Taking the example of the Tohoku incident, it can be said that such disasters do help enhance corporate productivity as those firms which survive such disasters, implement new and better strategies, and adopt new technologies. Such firms show a higher employment growth and higher assets as compared to those which are unaffected. It is generally observed that there is an increase in the productivity level of such firms as well, as they try to overcome their losses. Japan’s economy was just starting to recover from years of recession and deflation. The Tohoku incident in turn raised commodity prices and added to the country’s economic challenges. Businesses and firms that survived the disaster observed an even more increase in their value. They received enormous amount of public aids which helped them overcome the loss and damages, and also prevented them from going into bankruptcy. Initially, a decline was observed in the domestic economy which later transitioned into an exponential rise. This proved beneficial for Japan’s economy as much of their businesses had aging employees, so such businesses would sooner or later cease to exist. More opportunities gave rise to more businesses and new ventures.

The devastating 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami, left many lessons to be learned by all. It proved to be a turning point in the Japan’s economic progression. Furthermore, it made people realize that natural hazards are unpredictable to some extent, and so they need to develop some strategies for their businesses, to deal with the losses when such unfortunate events occur. Life and property cannot always be protected by the coastal infrastructure; thus, communities should not only rely on such measures. Japan acted sensibly and not only did it implemented effective disaster management but also set up a design policy of coastal defense.

There is a trend in the global economy that businesses die down during such unfortunate incidents, but they flourish once the event is over. Such disasters cripple firms and businesses. But on the other hand, they provide market liquidity to ensure the stability of financial markets. Rebuilding requires effort and money, but it also opens new doors for more businesses and innovations. Creativity blooms in such situations and prosperity becomes the fate of the country. The same was the case with the Tohoku earthquake and tsunami, as it allowed for inefficient firms to expel out giving space for new efficient firms to enter the market, thus increasing corporate productivity and enhancing the economy. This helped the country to soon acquire new market equilibrium and stability. Although disasters cannot be viewed as a positive phenomenon even if they increase the overall GDP of the country, they do have a good impact on new businesses by allowing them to establish. The loss that occurs is humongous and thus, requires a lot of time and patience for its recovery. But it is important to consider the ‘growth follows the disaster’ line of thinking. In the words of Mark Skidmore, an economics professor at Michigan State University, “When something is destroyed you don’t necessarily rebuild the same thing that you had, you might use updated technology, you might do things more efficiently”.

Damages in Earthquake

Several types of earthquake damages may occur, and the extent of damage caused will be influenced by the severity of the earthquake, location of site from epicenter, and several other factors. Damage can be minimized by proper design analysis according to the parameters of earthquake engineering.

Basics of Earthquake

The shaking of the earth, because of the movements of plates beneath the crust of the earth, is called an earthquake. Before we study the damages due to earthquakes, let us review as to how an earthquake occurs. An earthquake is an abrupt movement or tremor of the earth’s crust that is initiated below or at the surface. The earth’s surface is moving continuously in a slow motion, due to which the plates at the surface also move along the globe. With the movement of the plates, they rub against each other or spread apart, and at a certain point the strain developed exceeds the capability of the plates to withstand more forces and they break, causing an earthquake.

Damages Due To Earthquakes

Earthquake is a natural catastrophe that may instantly kill or incapacitate a large number of people, cause huge destruction to structures, and weaken the buildings reducing their useful life. The damage is the maximum close to the epicenter, the point from where the vibrations are initiated. Different types of damages can occur due to earthquakes, and these are discussed in succeeding paragraphs.

Liquefaction

Liquefaction starts with the forceful shaking of the soft wet soils, and rearrangement of its grains, due to which the soils start functioning as liquids. The load of structures is transmitted to the wet soils that may be changed into quicksand. The material that has been liquefied, may loose its bearing strength due to the excessive weight of the structures above it, and produce landslides. Consequently, the fluid pressure of the liquefied region may cause tilting or breaking of walls, failure of basement floors, and if the foundations are weak severe damage to the structures may occur. Any items or materials above the liquefied soil may be submerged into the soft soil. The liquefied region may itself also go downwards into the earth, and in the process bury anything on it.

Ground Shaking

The magnitude of ground shaking at a particular location will determine the earthquake damage. The extent of ground shaking will depend upon the scale of an earthquake, distance from the epicenter, and nature of the material. When the earthquakes are great, the amplitude is large, duration is more, and the area is vast. The amplitude of ground shaking at a site depends upon its distance from the epicenter of the earthquake, and it decreases with the increase in distance. Similarly, motions are of low frequency when these are located at greater distances. The ground motion frequency is a significant feature that determines the extent of damage to the structures, and the nature of construction that can be affected.

Structural Hazards

Earthquakes are a severe structural hazard that causes vibrations in the structures due to the ground shaking. If the structures are weak, or extremely rigid to withstand severe vibrations, then these may collapse. The tall buildings may experience extreme vibrations due to their height, and may fall down or into each other. Other destructive effects on structures due to an earthquake are sliding away from their foundations, and their horizontal or vertical movements that may make the structures unsafe.

Other Hazards

Other hazards that may cause earthquake damage include fire that can be started on the rupturing of power or gas lines, and severe losses may occur. In addition, bricks, rocks, trees may fall, sewage may enter water supplies and drinking of such water can cause serious diseases, and failure of transportation and means of communication may hinder rescue efforts. Furthermore, valuable records held by business concerns and governmental offices may be lost creating serious difficulties.

Preventive Measures

Preventive measures may reduce the destructive effects due to earthquakes, but may not completely eliminate the risk of damages. If a building is not properly designed to withstand earthquakes, it will be exposed to greater risks of structural damage. Suitable fixing of the structure with the foundation, and among the different constituents of the structure, is important for earthquake resistance. Structures that are not properly connected with the foundations may be shifted during an earthquake.

Natural disasters have always been one of mankind’s major fears and fascinations, due to their associated human and economic losses. Natural disasters such as the Kobe Earthquake, Hurricane Katrina, the Indian Ocean Tsunami, the Haitian Earthquake, and the Japanese Tsunami have been able to grab the attention of man towards the act of examining the impact and consequences of these events, as they have instilled fear in him that such large-scale devastating events are becoming more frequent and severe.

The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) has defined a natural disaster from an economic perspective as, ‘an event that causes serious disruption to the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses and impacts, which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources’ю

Natural disasters despite being a huge menace to the economy, also act as a stimulator for the businesses. They help boost production, re-establish the overall supply-demand chain of various businesses, and also provides them with an opportunity to stand out in the market. This paper will discuss 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami, as an example of how natural disasters can create situations for the development of available businesses or otherwise destroying some of them.

The Tohoku earthquake and tsunami, followed by a nuclear crisis, was a severe natural disaster that occurred in the northeastern region of Japan on March 11, 2011. It started with a 9.0 magnitude earthquake, which initiated a series of large tsunami waves, that devastated the coastal areas of Japan. This, in turn, instigated a major nuclear incident at Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant. This series of devastating events were called as the ‘triple disaster’. Not only did it cause a huge physical and human capital loss, but it devasted the country’s economy. The estimated physical damage was from $195 billion to as much as $305 billion. In addition to that, 27,000 people had been killed, and extensive damage was done to the infrastructure, homes, manufacturing plants, and other buildings. The whole situation was made worse due to radioactive contamination and aftershocks.

Although apparently, it seemed like the disastrous earthquake and tsunami that struck Japan, left behind scenes of almost apocalyptic devastation, but in reality, it did something else as well: it helped the Japanese economy in the long run. The initial economic impact of the disaster was that it caused huge uncertainty in the atmosphere, with loads of predictions coming in that Japan’s economy will soon collapse or it will go into recession. Factories and offices were being shut down, and renowned companies like Nissan, Honda and Toyota were halting production at all of their factories. Other manufacturers and businesses like Fuji Heavy Industries, GlaxoSmithKline and Nestlé also reported major damage to their factories and suspended the production process as well. In addition to this, all ports and six of the nuclear reactor units had been closed due to extreme damage. As a result, Japan was unable to generate an adequate amount of electricity which made the overall demand rise. The country was in a huge financial and economic crisis, with no electricity, running water, and the estimated economic losses of more than $100 billion. The Japanese government realized that this would require an immediate action. Massive rebuilding efforts by the Japanese government provided a short-term boost by attracting resources to the country. One such effort was the pumping of billions of yen, by the Bank of Japan, in order to help the country’s fragile economy to recover faster. The earthquake and tsunami destroyed old roads. factories, bridges and, airports but they spurred economic growth in Japan. They allowed new and more efficient infrastructure to be built and new businesses to be established. This helped the transition become more smoother and the economy to be more productive in the long term. The Japanese government set a 10 years period for recovery in July 2011 and put forward specific targets for infrastructure restoration, debris clearing and housing. The government was able to act upon the recovery plan and in the coming years, all the debris from the disaster had been removed, infrastructure including airports, bridges, roads had been rebuilt, and houses had been reconstructed. The nuclear effects and radiations made the recovery process quite difficult, but the government was able to effectively monitor the agriculture, food production and safety.

Natural disasters are considered to be a form of creative destruction. Taking the example of the Tohoku incident, it can be said that such disasters do help enhance corporate productivity as those firms which survive such disasters, implement new and better strategies, and adopt new technologies. Such firms show a higher employment growth and higher assets as compared to those which are unaffected. It is generally observed that there is an increase in the productivity level of such firms as well, as they try to overcome their losses. Japan’s economy was just starting to recover from years of recession and deflation. The Tohoku incident in turn raised commodity prices and added to the country’s economic challenges. Businesses and firms that survived the disaster observed an even more increase in their value. They received enormous amount of public aids which helped them overcome the loss and damages, and also prevented them from going into bankruptcy. Initially, a decline was observed in the domestic economy which later transitioned into an exponential rise. This proved beneficial for Japan’s economy as much of their businesses had aging employees, so such businesses would sooner or later cease to exist. More opportunities gave rise to more businesses and new ventures.

The devastating 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami, left many lessons to be learned by all. It proved to be a turning point in the Japan’s economic progression. Furthermore, it made people realize that natural hazards are unpredictable to some extent, and so they need to develop some strategies for their businesses, to deal with the losses when such unfortunate events occur. Life and property cannot always be protected by the coastal infrastructure; thus, communities should not only rely on such measures. Japan acted sensibly and not only did it implemented effective disaster management but also set up a design policy of coastal defense.

There is a trend in the global economy that businesses die down during such unfortunate incidents, but they flourish once the event is over. Such disasters cripple firms and businesses. But on the other hand, they provide market liquidity to ensure the stability of financial markets. Rebuilding requires effort and money, but it also opens new doors for more businesses and innovations. Creativity blooms in such situations and prosperity becomes the fate of the country. The same was the case with the Tohoku earthquake and tsunami, as it allowed for inefficient firms to expel out giving space for new efficient firms to enter the market, thus increasing corporate productivity and enhancing the economy. This helped the country to soon acquire new market equilibrium and stability. Although disasters cannot be viewed as a positive phenomenon even if they increase the overall GDP of the country, they do have a good impact on new businesses by allowing them to establish. The loss that occurs is humongous and thus, requires a lot of time and patience for its recovery. But it is important to consider the ‘growth follows the disaster’ line of thinking. In the words of Mark Skidmore, an economics professor at Michigan State University, “When something is destroyed you don’t necessarily rebuild the same thing that you had, you might use updated technology, you might do things more efficiently”.