Category: Earthquake

The Nepal earthquake happened in 2015 on the 25th of April. It destroyed many homes, health facilities and took about 9000 lives away. The intensity of the earthquake had a maximum Mercalli Intensity of VIII (Severe) and magnitude of 7.8.

How it Happened

Since Nepal is in between two large tectonic plates, it is particularly prone to earthquakes. The Nepal earthquake occurred because of two intersecting tectonic plates; the U.S. Geological Survey said the India plate was overriding the Eurasia plate to the north.

Impacts + Costs

The earthquake struck just northwest of the capital of Kathmandu and killed nearly 9000 people while also destroying over 850,000 homes. The Washington Post stated that ‘the country saw a number of its quintessential UNESCO World Heritage sites and most favoured tourist attractions, some registering back more than 1,700 years, diminished to piles of debris.’ All this costs the government about $9 billion in costs, which is about half of Nepal’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP).

Mount Everest Avalanche

The intensity of the earthquake caused fatal avalanches in Mount Everest and is believed that it killed at least 17 people and injured at least 61 others who were at the base camp. The Daily Mail states ‘around 170 climbers were evacuated from the south side of the peak due to fears of further avalanches, while Chinese authorities closed the Tibetan side for security reasons.’

A survivor of the Mount Everest avalanche said that he would still have snow-related nightmares and anything that looked like an avalanche or earthquake was happening, like waves in the ocean on the beach or people running, would make him panic.

Assistance + Government Response

Companies such as World Vision Australia helped people affected by this earthquake by giving food and emergency essentials to survivors and reconstructing destroyed buildings. However, the government got heavily criticised for the slow response. Different countries helped by donating money like Australia. ‘Australia’s contribution of $16.7 million between 2015 and 2017 for Nepal’s long-term recovery (in addition to $11.9 million provided in 2014-15 for the humanitarian response) provided critical assistance to help people rebuild their lives following the April 2015 earthquake and a subsequent aftershock in May 2015.’

Prevention

Ways that Nepal could prevent or lower the damage from earthquakes like this one from destroying as many buildings are constructing earthquake-proof buildings and in order to achieve that, you need to design buildings that resist sideways movements. Taller buildings tend to stay intact better than shorter ones if they are both equally sturdy.

Recovery

After a few years after the earthquake, Nepal is still slowly but also failing to recover from the earthquake. It is still normal seeing damaged buildings, and debris lying on the floor which shows how sluggish getting everything back to normal is. The Conversation explains that ‘in the aftermath of the earthquakes, Nepal’s National Planning Commission estimated that the country needed more than US$7 billion for recovery. The billions of dollars committed by international donors were not translated into a clear plan to direct the money, which meant it has had little impact in rebuilding.’

In conclusion, the 2015 Nepal Earthquake took many lives away not only in Nepal but also people at the base camp in Mount Everest. Many buildings, facilities and world heritage sights got destroyed and damaged.

The Philippines is known to be one of the most earthquake prone countries in the world. It is in the list of the ’10 Earthquake Prone Countries in The World’ (10 Earthquake Prone Countries In The World 2019) and is located within the area known as the ‘Pacific Ring of Fire’, which comprises of a string of sites of seismic activities around the Pacific Ocean. (Society 2019) Therefore, it is very much susceptible to earthquakes. The country has experienced numerous earthquakes over the years however the most notable earthquake was the Bohol earthquake of October 15, 2013 which reached a staggering magnitude of 7.2, ultimately causing a death toll of at least 185 residents. (Save the Children – Philippine Country Office 2013) Due to the earthquake, approximately 759,640,000.00 Filipino pesos worth of damages was totalled, which equates to £11,406,667.00. Also, there were approximately 36,645 houses damaged due to the 7.2 magnitude earthquake. From these damages, the report from Save the Children states that around 78,585 families were displaced. (Save the Children – Philippine Country Office 2013) These statistics on the number of deaths, families displaced and houses damaged indicates that there is a need for improvement in the design aspect of these buildings.

As of now, there is a lot of research and published books on the subject area. There are many books that give the importance of design however, the existing resources do not have in place the sustainability aspect of the designs which is very important when focusing the research on a third world country. Finance is a big factor when constructing in a third world country as the existing books give options which are not very sustainable in terms of economy – they disregard the costs of the earthquake resistant structures. From the number of buildings being completely demolished due to these earthquakes, it is evident that there is a vast room for improvement on the design of these buildings and structures to prevent absolute damage from earthquakes.

The importance of strong foundations is clearly stated by many different sources. Firstly, a widely used handbook in the Philippines named ‘Good Building Design and Construction in the Philippines’ briefly explores what makes a foundation suitable depending on the condition of the ground. The material and design of the foundation heavily depends on the state of the ground. (German Technical Cooperation et al. 2008) However, this handbook does not cover any technical information of how the foundation is to be designed and it has its’ limitations because the handbook exclusively looks at houses rather than big structures like a multi-storey building. Moreover, literature written by Rollo Reid generally communicates the importance of lateral loading when constructing foundations. It lacks detail on how the foundation is to be designed to resist lateral loading. (Reid, R.) Like the handbook by the German Technical Cooperation, it does not specifically give the details on the design of the foundation. Moreover, another type of foundation which is being used are isolated foundations – there are bearing pads fixed between the foundation and the building and the bearings are strong and stiff on the vertical direction and flexible in the horizontal. (Padmanabhan 2019). This will be further researched to decide whether the base isolation is a suitable technique to use in scenes such as the Philippines., The existing research done on the topic do not give a clear procedure on how to design these foundations and my project will consider in depth foundation design for an earthquake resistant structure.

Building materials have a huge impact on how the structure will withstand lateral loading caused by earthquakes. The book named ‘Earthquake-Resistant Structures: Design, Build and Retrofit’ by Mohiuddin Ali Khan describes how the modern and innovative materials that are being developed can help create a more earthquake resistant structure. For example, Mohiuddin Ali Khan states that ‘Perhaps the innovations with the greatest potential for earthquake resistance are advancements in dampening technology’ (Khan 2013) This book has a lot of information on how to produce an earthquake resistant structure however, it does not touch the realm of sustainability which is essential in a third world country like the Philippines. Another book called ‘Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures’ states that the quality of materials must satisfy minimum standards of quality and resistance. (Agarwal and Shrikhande 2008) The requirements are stated in the book – this can be used to compare different materials to see which is most sustainable also meeting the requirements. To summarise, it is important that the materials used to construct an earthquake resistant structure should meet a requirement which will help prevent collapse of the whole structure and the materials should be of good quality. For the project, I will utilize this information to determine the most suitable and sustainable materials to use for a house in the Philippines.

The main body of the project will consist of the structural design of the structure. Many of the books out there cover what is needed to minimise the damage on structures caused by the seismic waves. The book by David Dowrick implies that here are two main designs which are strength-based and displacement-based. The book states that there is currently a debate on which design would be more effective. (Dowrick 2009) Using this idea, extensive research can be done to determine which design is more sustainable and most suited for construction in the Philippines. Also from preliminary research, the book ‘Guidelines for Earthquake Resistant Non-Engineered Construction’ makes it evident that ductility is desired when looking to construct a building to minimise earthquake damages. (Arya 1986) The ductility of steel as a material is very important in this modern age as steel structures ‘have been less liable to collapse in earthquakes than traditionally designed concrete or masonry ones.’ (Dowrick 2009). The concept of a strong column – weak beam is well known and is discussed in the literature titled ‘INFLUENCE OF STRONG COLUMN & WEAK BEAM CONCEPT, SOIL TYPE AND SEISMIC ZONE ON SEISMIC PERFORMANCE OF R C FRAMES FROM PUSHOVER ANALYSIS’ it states that for multi-storey buildings, it is important to have weak beams as this what makes the structure more ductile – which is desired to minimise damage caused by lateral loading from the seismic waves. (Swamy 2015) This concept will be further researched to identify whether it would be the best to have weak beams and strong columns or whether other options should be considered better. To summarise, in terms of structure the information that can be gathered from many books can be used to produce an ideal design for a multi-storey building in the Philippines. The resources will aid in determining the importance of structural design for earthquake resistance.

Another aspect to this project will be the components of the building. The structural components are not the only hazards but also architectural. The issue is often pushed aside when designing for an earthquake resistant multi-storey building. Shooshtari et al. states that a lot of the injuries come from architectural components, electrical components and building contents. (Shooshtari et al. 2010) This includes cladding and stairways which can be considered in the project to widen the detail on the importance of earthquake resistant design. The argument of safety from these components can be brought in and new ways to minimise hazards can be researched and put in place. Another aspect in which causes deaths during earthquakes is the use of glass. Glass tends to shatter when an earthquake occurs and glass falling from heights causes deaths. The online article titled ‘Seismic Behaviour of Point Supported Glass Panels’ informs us on how hazardous and dangerous these pieces of glass are. The article also gives a brief explanation on what can be done to minimise these risks such as researching what tests have been done to ensure the best type of glass and construction to use. (Martins et al. 2013) This will help the project give out more detail on what factors which should be considered to ensure a safer design to a multi-storey building. To summarise the subject of non-structural components as hazards, it is evident that many professionals believe that there is a lack of consideration when designing a building. Although ultimately the framing of the structure is what causes stability, even earthquakes of lower magnitude can trigger a hazard from one of the components in the building – as mentioned before, glass tends to shatter when being subjected to the seismic waves so appropriate designs can be researched in order to prevent injuries or possibly even death from the broken shards of glass.

The motivation behind this project is based on the fact that the Philippines is one of the most earthquake prone countries and that the need for sustainable earthquake building design is essential to saving lives. The main aim is to design a specialised sustainable earthquake resistant multi-storey building specifically for the Philippines. Because the construction in the Philippines is not as well regulated as more developed countries, research on earthquake resistance will help prevent maximum damage to buildings and ultimately save lives. This will consider the ground conditions, economy aspect and overall stability. This research project will help to aim the weaknesses of the design of the structures, specifically multi-storey buildings, in the Philippines so that action can be taken to minimise the damages caused by these mass earthquakes.

The objectives of this project comprise of gathering data to further improve existing research on the topic of earthquake resistant building design and to find the best design for a multi-storey building which will minimise the structural damage caused by the earthquakes. This can be broken down into smaller objectives such as:

• Locate information on foundations for earthquake resistance.

• Locate information on innovative earthquake resistant construction techniques.

• Email professional on this topic.

The objectives can be broken down so that it is clear on what needs to be done to complete the project.

Another objective is to look at the existing guideline for the design of buildings in the Philippines to identify what needs improving – From the information gathered on Philippines current designs against earthquakes, we can find the improvements needed. Finally, sustainability will be strongly accounted for as it is a third world country, the economical aspects of construction must be considered in order to achieve realistic solutions to the problem.

Qualitative analysis will be used during this project as the effects from these earthquakes on the design of structures can not be easily obtained and therefore the opinions of professionals in the field will be needed. Since the project will be based in the Philippines, I would need to contact these professionals via email. They can give information on the basic construction of multi-storey buildings in the Philippines. Once that data is collected, I can revise what has been given to me and identify what needs improving in order to get a sustainable seismic resistant structure design.

Experiments in the university laboratory will not be conducted as the results we would obtain by imitating a scaled down earthquake scenario will not give accurate and usable results. For this project, my main research method will be reviewing case studies and books. Most of the case studies will be found on the internet. After collecting many different resources from the library and internet, they can be compared to see the most viable option to achieving the best affordable and sustainable multi-storey building. As this project theme has already been researched previously, it will be ideal to gather different resources to identify a gap within the research of this theme. This means that the majority of this project will be the collection of secondary data. A lot of secondary data must be collected so that the project is not biased and takes the ideas of other sources, not just one or two.

Another method I will incorporate into my project is a literature analysis. This will be analysing the research collected and making it relevant to my project. This will ultimately bring my project together.

There are many resources which can be used for research. A number of books have been written in this subject area and there are many sources on the internet which specifically discuss the topic of earthquake resistant building design. The Coventry University library is filled with books on this subject so attaining adequate information will be of ease. Another resource could be the opinions from the professionals.

However, this project will have its limitations and the maths involved will be based on assumptions. The accuracy of the mathematics will be imprecise as this is due to the fact that the shear size of the structures and earthquakes can not be scaled down to be done in a laboratory giving accurate results and data. Equations which are gathered from different sources will be used instead as no actual personally collected data will be present.

Since the research conducted will collect secondary data, another limitation to this project will be the idea that documents and data collected may lack authenticity as it may not be possible to verify the authenticity and credibility of the authors. Another limitation is that if an email was sent to a professional civil engineer in the Philippines, it may consume time as the reliability of getting a reply would be questionable.

On 3rd March 2011, a rogue wave forged ahead of the coastline of Fukushima an hour after the magnitude 9 earthquake shuddered east Japan. This monumental tsunami brought over 40 meters of waves, caused the failure of three reactors in the local nuclear power plant, the devastation of property, and an estimated 14,000 dead bodies were found (Japanese National Police Agency, n.d.). This precipitous sea bore initiated attention worldwide to natural disasters and led to the investigation of the tragedy by geologists and environmentalists. The word “SEED” can be used to demonstrate why tsunamis should necessitate people’s attention.

Side effect. A tsunami can be lasted for a few days, demolishing a region by creating the wave train, which is a sequence of waves. The waves can reach over 100 feet while they strike towards the continents, forming a tremendous wall and barreling up to 500 miles per hour, as fleeting as a jet plane. In such puissant momentum, infrastructure that is not designed for resisting the tsunami including nuclear power plants would be eradicated. Once the nuclear reactor failed, the highly radioactive chemical would leak and remain in the air and water for decades, and objectives and lives would be contaminated. The repercussion of chemical leakage is so enormous that women who are pregnant may give birth to a baby with defects.

Economics depression. Since local offices, factory machines, farms, transportation, and stock are smashed after the occurrence of the tsunami, businesses are impotent to trade. Most countries rely profoundly on the tourism and retail industry, and as the disaster recovery progress takes time, during the rebuild, foreigners would avoid traveling to those countries or even boycott the products which input from the affected nations. The unemployment rate would also intensify come together with regions that only have a low financial base, and the issues of starvation and insufficient medical treatment would ensue over time.

Environmental disservices. The re-establishment of the ecosystem requires hundreds of years to evolve. The tsunami would impinge on creatures including insects, animals, and trees. The waves with hypersonic speed would completely change the living habitat of animals such as reproduction sites for sea turtles. Moreover, some rare plants and critters which cannot survive the harsh condition are most likely to be distinguished. The uprooting of vegetation would loosen soil intensity, leading to more landslides and farmlands relocation.

Damages of the parcel. The damages that a tsunami could bring are more austere than people think. Tsunamis can be triggered by earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, and air pressure disturbances. Since the tectonic movement under the deep ocean is abstruse to predict, warnings including information on precise location and time are difficult to provide before it happens. Other natural calamities, for instance, flooding, are also brought up. Due to no prognosis and fragile building structure, people who live in the low-tide area are the most vulnerable. Not only the dwellings would be covered in a shroud of water, but infectious diseases such as cholera, diarrheal, and typhoid fever would also spread in the sewage. Furthermore, when seawater returns to the ocean, it acts as a vacuum, architectures, and residents are sucked by the currents, flattening a land into a piece of paper.

Scientists and environmentalists around the world announced that there will be more and more fickle natural catastrophes in the future. Indisputably, people should recognize the long-term impacts that a disaster can bring. After all, a safe environment is second to none to human lives and the next generation.

References

1. · 津波災害 (n.d.), Japanese National Police Agency from: https://www.npa.go.jp/archive/keibi/syouten/syouten281/pdf/p02.pdf

Abstract

On January 12th, 2010 a 7.0 magnitude earthquake rocked Port-au-Prince, Haiti. Social Media platforms such as Twitter proved to be a real-time source of current information. With over 200 000 lives lost, the Haiti Earthquake received worldwide attention. Within minutes of the earthquake, Twitter reported the event in real-time, and within three days had more than 2.3 million tweets with #Haiti. The public knowledge of the devastating condition the nation of Haiti was suffering from, was further reinforced during the one-hour segment on The Oprah Winfrey Show. The initial show aired on January 20th, 2010, and potentially reached 43-55 million, viewers. On January 22nd, 2010, George Clooney and Wyclef Jean led a two-hour charity telethon, which featured speeches, performances, and a live telecast of the conditions in Haiti. Over 100 celebrities including Rihanna, Leonardo DiCaprio, Jay-z, Taylor Swift, Brad Pitt, and many more garnered 83 million viewers and raised $63 million in relief funds. On January 27th, 2010, celebrities such as Beyoncé, Madonna, Christina Aguilera, Justin Timberlake, and Jay-z amongst many others released an album “Hope for Haiti Now: A Global Benefit for Earthquake Relief” in support of the catastrophe. Altogether, the events communicated the devastation of Haiti over 150 million times. A key hallmark to gaining sympathy for the nation of Haiti was its portrayal as a corrupt, conflict-driven, poor nation, which was evident in tweets and all the events. Thus, more media and social media coverage resulted in greater knowledge about the situation Haitians were suffering from. More knowledge and the advertised poverty of Haiti resulted in more than $15 billion in relief efforts. Unfortunately, this money was not put to good use, as a retrospective study following the event showed immense poverty and Cholera outbreaks.

Origin of earthquake

On January 12th, 2010 a 7.0 magnitude earthquake rocked Port-au-Prince, Haiti. Port-au-Prince is the densely populated capital of Haiti which sits between the North American and The Caribbean tectonic plates. The earthquake was the result of a fault that lies between these plates, known as The Léogâne fault. The earthquake shook the nation of Haiti. Many aftershocks followed, leaving Haiti’s capital in rubble (Pallardy, 2019). The infrastructure was not designed to be earthquake resistant (Eberhard, 2010) hence the 2010 earthquake took more than 200 000 lives and caused between $8.1 billion to $13.9 billion in infrastructure damages (Cavallo, 2010). The death toll garnered worldwide attention as Haitians pleaded for aid.

Haiti had not seen such a devastating earthquake for more than 200 years. This leads to speculations that the strain in Léogâne’s fault was building up over several years, decades, or centuries. To avoid a high number of casualties, Haiti needs to build earthquake-resistant infrastructure -particularly in areas of high population density.

Introduction

For the second half of the twentieth century, television news was the primary source of global events(Nielsen & Sambrook, 2016). But now, with the rise of social media outlets, there has been a significant decline in television viewership. Although television news has not diminished, it is no longer the only source for global events (Ala-Fossi & Lax, 2016).

Twitter is an example of social media platform individuals is turning to, as opposed to television news. Twitter was less than four years old during the 2010 Haiti Earthquake. A tweet is a 140-character message which can be posted on the platform. By 2010, Twitter had more than 50 million tweets per day, with over 41 million active Users. A topic that was tweeted more frequently became a trend, and 85 percent of the time, it was a topic highly discussed amongst news outlets. Twitter played a more prominent role than other social media platforms in raising funds and communicating information, hence it is reflected in the paper, as opposed to other media platforms (Kwak, Lee, Park, & Moon, 2010).

This paper explores the concept of media and social media coverage that resulted in greater knowledge of the 2010 Haiti earthquake amongst the public. It also explores the portrayal of Haiti as a poor nation to garner sympathy. In turn, the high public exposure, and Haiti’s widespread poverty, provided higher monetary returns in relief aid.

Spread of knowledge

Public knowledge of natural disasters is directly proportional to the amount of media attention the disaster receives. The more informed the public becomes about the disaster, the more they are to sympathize with the victims. Most natural catastrophes are covered by television news. Usually, the larger the death toll, the more media attention the event would get. In the analysis of the number of viewers engaged, I will exclude the reporting on television news mediums as this is not possible to track. Instead, I will analyze the use of Twitter, a celebrity-filled charity telethon, a relief album, and The Oprah Winfrey Show in their role in spreading the devastation of the 2010 Haiti Earthquake. This analysis will prove that widespread attention caused by these channels, lead to greater public knowledge of the Haiti 2010 Earthquake.

Twitter

With the emergence of Twitter and Facebook, spreading knowledge about disasters has never been easier. With a reach of more than 126 million users, Twitter proves to be a source of current information, in real-time, faster than any other social media platform ((Oh, Kwon, Raghav Rao, 2010). Twitter re-proved its fast service capabilities during the 2010 Haiti Earthquake. Before television news channels could report on the natural disaster, #Haiti, was already a trend word on Twitter (Oh, Kwon, Raghav Rao, 2010). In fact, CNN used photographs and videos of the event, that were posted by Twitter Users. Within 3 days following the earthquake, over 2.3 million tweets were about the Earthquake (“Haitian Earthquake Dominates Twitter”, 2010). Haiti was number four, in the 2010 list of top-trending words on Twitter (“#Hindsight2010: Top Trends on Twitter”, 2010). Although it is very difficult to conclude the total number of users engaged via Twitter, it can be concluded that Twitter played a major role in transmitting information about the earthquake to the world, particularly, Canada and the USA, where most of the Twitter interactions happened (Wortham, 2010).

Is this information reliable?

This analysis requires an understanding of Rumor Theory. Rumor theory is a principle that states, information ambiguity multiplied by anxiety results in rumors. Rumors can be reduced by having reliable sources spread information about the event. Twitter analysis of the tweets shows that 52.9 percent of the tweets were authenticating information, 12.3 percent of the tweets were about emotions, and the remaining 23.6 percent of the tweets were work statements (Oh, Kwon, Raghav Rao, 2010). There were rumor tweets that did arise following the Haiti earthquake. It was rumored that “UPS will ship any package under 50 pounds to Haiti or several airlines would take medical personnel to Haiti free of charge to help with earthquake relief” (Oh, Kwon, Raghav Rao, 2010). However, these claims turned out to be rumors and reinforced the vulnerability of information communicated over social media. To keep the information valid, NGOs, mainstream media (on Twitter), and celebrities were reinforcing the relevant information over Twitter. Hence, 52.9 percent of the tweets resulted in validating information.

To conclude, Twitter played a major part in spreading information about the 2010 Haiti Earthquake to millions of people.

Hope for Haiti Now, a charity telethon

Following the Haiti earthquake, celebrities and television channels came together to organize a charity telethon to raise funds for the disaster. The telethon took place on January 22nd, 2010, in London, New York, Los Angeles, and Haiti. George Clooney and Wyclef Jean led the two-hour event, which featured speeches, performances, and a live telecast of the conditions in Haiti ((Driessens, Joye, & Biltereyst, 2012). Over 100 celebrities including Rihanna, Leonardo DiCaprio, Jay-z, Taylor Swift, Brad Pitt, and many more were present at the event (“Hope For Haiti Telecast Reaches 83 Million”, 2010). Given the huge number of stars supporting the telethon it was no surprise that it got over 83 million viewers in its two-hour time span. Hence, given the extensive media coverage and endorsements by celebrities, more than 83 million people were informed about the tragedy in Haiti.

Hope for Haiti Now (album)

In addition to the telethon, singers Rihanna, Jay-Z, Beyoncé, Justin Timberlake, and many more came together to make a 20-record album titled Hope for Haiti Now. The album was released digitally on January 27th, 2010, and debuted at number one on the billboard top 200 list. It sold over 250 000 copies and garnered worldwide attention. Again, the involvement of celebrities helped spread the knowledge about the devastation that the nation of Haiti was going through (Kwak, Lee, Park, & Moon, 2010).

The Oprah Winfrey Show

The then-popular Oprah Winfrey show also dedicated a one-hour segment on January 20th, 2010 to the 2010 Haiti Earthquake. Celebrities lined up to show support and mourn the loss of loved ones in Haiti. On average, The Oprah Winfrey show has between 43-55 million viewers (“The Oprah Effect, by the Numbers”, 2011); the Haiti-segment, would also have had a similar amount of exposure. Thus, celebrities once again spread the devastation of the 2010 Haiti Earthquake to more than 43 million viewers (Cloud, 2014).

There could have been overlapped among viewers in each show, and so it is unwise to state the number of users reached. However, it can be concluded that through the use of Twitter, Hope for Haiti Now telethon, Hope for Haiti Now Album, and The Oprah Winfrey Show, the devastation caused by the Haiti 2010 earthquake was communicated over 150 million times.

Donations?

From the Tweets, The Oprah Winfrey Show, and mainstream news coverage, the exposure of the Haiti Earthquake and the devastating conditions were strong. Due to this, more than $15 billion were raised to support Haiti. $63 million of the total $15 billion were raised from the two-hour star stud charity telethon (Attkisson, 2010). $4 billion came from NGOs, a little over $2 billion from US donations, and $8.75 billion from other countries, all amounting to a staggering 15 billion in donations (Attkisson, 2010). Thus, more coverage of Haiti’s 2010 Earthquake via Social Media and Media resulted in more knowledge about the devastation of natural disasters. This garnered sympathy amongst the public and resulted in more monetary donations.

The portrayal of Haiti, as a Poor nation.

Between the years 1990 to 2014, earthquakes were the number one natural disaster in terms of economic impacts and mortality rates in Haiti. However, only one such event occurred: the 2010 Haiti Earthquake. This shows, that the 2010 earthquake had a negative large impact on Haiti. The INFORM risk index attributed Lack of Coping Capacity to be Haiti’s most serious source of risks (ArcGIS Online, n.d.). This means that Haiti has above-average levels of corruption, failed government policies, a low number of physicians, a low number of hospital beds, and little to no insurance. This established poverty in Haiti.

Due to the poverty and the over 200 000 deaths, the 2010 Haiti Earthquake caused an outpour of worldwide relief response. NGOs used positive emotions to engage the public and gave hope that the money will be used towards rebuilding Haiti (Muralidharan, Rasmussen, Patterson, & Shin, 2011). The television news outlet restated Haiti’s tense political environment, as well as the poverty Haiti, was in (Muralidharan, Rasmussen, Patterson, & Shin, 2011). This resulted in Haiti’s devastating conditions being discussed more than 150 million times, raising over $15 billion in donations.

Haiti: Where Did the Money Go?

Haiti received over $15 billion in relief aid from its worldwide attention during the 2010 Haiti Earthquake. But did the money help in rebuilding the nation?

Haiti: Where Did the Money Go? is a 2012 documentary that aired on PBS and describes the repercussion of the 2010 Haiti Earthquake. The film shows the immediate relief efforts the NGOs offered and their impacts on the Haitian population. It shows the lack of coordination among NGOs in allocating resources. In October, following a small hurricane, there was a Cholera outbreak due to the lack of access to clean water (Mitchell, 2012).

Cholera outbreak

Cholera is an infection that causes watery diarrhea and is deadly because it can quickly kill the affected individual between 12 hours to 5 days after contraction. The 2010 Haiti Cholera outbreak resulted in 8534 deaths. Poor sanitation, highly populated area, and lack of clean water allowed for the infection to grow to over 600 000 individuals (Orata, Keim, & Boucher, 2014).

The film retreats to 20 months after the 2010 Haiti Earthquake and portrays that conditions still have not improved much (Mitchell, 2012).

Conclusion

2010 Haiti earthquake’s large death doll, and the nation’s history of poverty, garnered worldwide attention. This paper synthesis, that more media coverage of the Haiti 2010 Earthquake resulted in greater public knowledge about the devastating impacts it had on Haitians. More public knowledge resulted in greater monetary returns, a staggering $15 billion for Haiti. But ultimately, the money failed to help the Haitians to the proper goodwill it was meant to. Haiti is still under immense poverty and the results were little to non-existent. The power of social media raised the funds Haiti asked for but failed to generate the results it promised.

References

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The aim of this CBA is to understand the role of socio-vulnerability in natural calamities I choose this geographical event because I wanted to learn how did this earthquake cause more fatalities than an earthquake of comparable size.

On Tuesday 12th January 2010 at around 4.53 local time, a massive earthquake struck the capital of Haiti, Port-au-Prince causing an astonishing amount of damage, loss of life, and dislocation. The earthquake had a magnitude of 7.0 with its epicenter being only about 25km southwest of the capital and the focus only about 13km from the surface making its effect even greater.

What is an earthquake?

An earthquake is a sudden violent shaking of the ground caused by movement in the earth’s tectonic plates. The movements of the plate tectonics (sliding, colliding, separating) creates intense shaking in the outermost layer of the earth by seismic waves. Materials on earth’s crust are dislocated by pushing forces from either side Depending on the intensity of the pushing and opposing forces, some quakes may not have a gross impact since they are hardly felt. However, other tremors might

Earthquakes are measured on the Richter scale. The Richter scale measures the magnitude of an earthquake (how powerful it is). It is measured using a machine called a seismometer which produces a seismograph. A Richter scale is normally numbered 1-10, though there is no upper limit.

How do earthquakes cause damage?

The destructive effects of earthquakes are landslides, tsunamis, fires, and fault ruptures. The violent shaking of the ground produces the greatest property losses and personal injuries.

Aftershocks are even more disastrous than primary quakes since such tremors can significantly cause an additional loss of life and property bearing in mind that the structures have already been weakened by the primary quake and are highly susceptible to further damages. In the case of Haiti, fourteen aftershocks were experienced with a magnitude greater than five while thirty others with a magnitude more than four. These aftershocks took place within a span of one day after the onset of the main earthquake How do earthquakes affect buildings? | U.S. Geological Survey (usgs.gov)Cause of the 2010 Earthquake in Haiti?

Haiti is the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere, due largely to its history of colonization, occupation, and exploitation by Spain, France, and the United States. It is located on the boundary of the Caribbean and North American plates, on a transform or conservative plate boundary. At a conservative plate boundary, the plates move horizontally past each other, without creating or destroying any of the earth’s crust The Caribbean and North American plates constantly creep past one another each year, the North American plate is moving west and the Caribbean plate is moving north respectively. Somewhere along the move, the two plates slid past one another and pressure began to build because the North American plate was still trying to move West. This pressure had to be released somewhere, so it was released at the weakest point, the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault line which housed the epicenter of the earthquake. There hasn’t been a major quake on this system for about 200 years.

Why do earthquakes in Haiti be so devastating?

It’s a combination of factors that include a seismically active area, a high population density of 11 million people, and buildings that are often designed to withstand hurricanes — not earthquakes. Poor building practices can also play a role. To overcome this more earthquake-resistant buildings need to be constructed

Who was affected

• The earthquake affected 3,500,000 people.
• 220,000 people estimated to have died
• 300,000 and more people were injured

Socio-economic impacts

The Haiti earthquake killed more than 200,000 people and left more than 300 000 people injured. In less than a minute, over a quarter of a million (70%) homes and buildings were destroyed, so many people were forced to live either on the streets or in the wreckage. At least 50 hospitals were damaged in the earthquake which meant that it was harder for the injured to receive treatment for their wounds. Transport and communication links were largely disrupted and survivors had no way of contacting family members and friends

More than 600 000 people left Port-au-prince due to the spread of disease. Haitians, especially children, also faced psychological issues, a large number of children were orphaned and left without parents, where they were homed in crowded tents with little or no security and privacy. Cultural features were also destroyed, churches and community halls collapsed, and buried their innocent victims. The disaster even crippled all emergency services, leaving no effective police, ambulance, or firefighters.

• Haiti’s major airport’s control tower was badly damaged, as well as the docks and many major roads meaning that it was difficult for the people of Haiti to receive foreign aid packages containing much-needed things like medicine, food, and clean drinking water.
• The clothing industry (which is Haiti’s largest) suffered a huge blow as many of the factories were damaged in the earthquake.
• Haiti’s largest prison was also affected and around 4 000 inmates escaped alive

Environmental impact

The earthquake had major environmental impacts. The built landscapes of Haiti were destroyed. Broken electricity cables started fires that damaged woodland areas in Haiti. There were many landslides that occurred that destroyed natural landscapes and blocked off rural areas. Important natural and human landmarks, such as the presidential palace were also destroyed. The earthquake also triggered flooding in coastal areas due to tidal waves. The earthquake created a lot of rubble and demolition materials causing the streets to be covered with dust. It also affected hugely on agriculture, farms and crops were damaged causing the food supply to become a major concern. It also caused more problems with water quality which caused cholera, air quality, and climate change.

Solid Waste Sanitation Access:

Crowded conditions, poor sanitation implementation, and flooding are causing environmental damage and increasing infectious diseases. Toilets and latrines, when present in shelter sites, are generally extremely unhygienic and do not meet Sphere Standards

Chemical: Hazardous materials from households and small commercial and industrial sites will be concentrated as debris is collected and processed. There is also the risk of oil and chemical spills throughout the process

Health-Related Issues Drugs: In some areas, medicine is in short supply, and inventory information may not be available to ensure usage and dissemination.

• a decade later, Haiti continues to face multiple crises. Worsening food insecurity and malnutrition, water-borne disease epidemics, and high vulnerability to natural disasters have placed added pressure on women and children
• A major outbreak of diseases such as cholera stuck with the remaining population of Haiti. It was caused by the decomposing corpses that clogged the streets as well as the lack of sanitation that followed the earthquake. Also, the lack of medicine and medical facilities and the cramped conditions meant that disease spread far and fast.

Biohazards: Emergency response operations were generating significant amounts of biohazard waste throughout affected areas of the country, including amputated limbs, as well as a continuing flow of bandages and other medical waste.

What was the cultural impact of the Haiti earthquake?

The earthquake destroyed Haitian culture. The Haitian cultural symbol is of strength and beauty, the earthquake destroyed some of Haiti’s most cultural buildings and practices. Some of Haiti’s most national treasures filled with heritage were destroyed in the earthquake, this included buildings such as the national palace, the presidential building, the holy trinity church, and the Haiti museum The people of Haiti were also left without hope.

Factors to consider for future management of calamities

The Haiti earthquake could have best been managed by critical timing as part of saving lives. However, communication breakdown led to a slow response in coordination and assessment. Local communities should be trained in disaster preparedness skills so that they are in a position to respond to emergencies at the initial stages before other external parties lend their hand. There were several members of the international community pledged to offer their assistance to the victims of the Haiti earthquake. An Irish telecommunications company Digicel also offered assistance in repairing the broken telecommunication network.

Port-au-Prince was the hardest hit by the earthquake. It is vital to sample soil types from this region. This can be used to evaluate whether the given soil type can amplify vibrations during earthquakes. As a result, buildings and other structures constructed in disaster-prone areas such as in the capital can be modified to withstand any possible shaking.

Moreover, seismic stations should be set up in the country to assist in monitoring earth movements in Haiti as possible indicators of earthquakes to provide early warning signs so that civilians can be evacuated before calamity strikes.

Nobody expected it. This was an event that killed nearly 16,000 people. It was also an event that cost $360 billion dollars worth of damage. Over 2,500 people remain missing from this catastrophe. This once-in-a-generation disaster was caused by two tectonic plates colliding along a subduction zone at a 9.0-9.1 magnitude. The tsunami started when two tectonic plates from the Pacific Ocean and North America slid over each other. It all started on Friday, March 11, 2011, when an earthquake that was undersea with a magnitude of 8.9 struck Japan’s northeast coast. Japanese authorities immediately issued a tsunami warning. A few hours later, a tsunami with 30-foot waves, triggered by the earthquake measured at 10 meters struck that same coast along with powerful aftershocks. This damaged several nuclear reactors in the area. This earthquake and tsunami also had geological effects on places that one would not expect such as orbits in space and icebergs in Antarctica. Fortunately, the United States does not have to worry about such a thing occurring on its land due to the position of the tectonic plates. The same goes for tsunamis because the United States coasts can withstand the type of waves Japan encountered on that day in 2011. Many people fail to understand the causes of this earthquake and other earthquakes in general. Some also fail to link the earthquake’s power with the tsunami’s power. The following research aims to explain all of these points in great detail.

Introduction

Japan is no stranger to deadly natural disasters. In fact, this particular disaster is not even the deadliest in their nation’s history. The Great Kanto Earthquake in 1923 resulted in the deaths of over 100,000 people. In 1995, another earthquake in the city of Kobe resulted in almost 6000 deaths. Other natural disasters in this country include volcanic eruptions and mudslides. These disasters can be connected to people’s lives due to the fact Japan is home to 126.8 million people and a constantly booming tourism industry. When discussing this particular disaster, it is important to note that it was not predicted prior or its occurrence. On March 11th, 2011, an earthquake measured at an 8.9 magnitude on the Richter Scale occurred on Japan’s northeastern coast. This allowed a tsunami with 30-foot waves to also hit the coast. Accompanying them were aftershocks with many of them surpassing a 7.0 magnitude. Shortly thereafter on the same day, the Japanese government announced that four nuclear power facilities were located within the affected areas. The very next day, American Geological Survey finds that the earthquake was powerful enough to Honshu, the main island of Japan by 2.4 meters. Many questions still remain from this catastrophe. What caused all of this? Why could this have not been predicted? Why is Japan prone to natural disasters as opposed to other countries? Can something like this ever occur here in the United States? What causes other earthquakes? What was the geology and oceanography of the tsunami? How exactly are these earthquakes measured and what makes some higher and lower magnitudes? What was the worst effect it had on nuclear plants? The following pages will address all of these outstanding questions in great detail utilizing visuals such as charts, maps, data, and photos. They will also explain the geological process of the occurrence of earthquakes and tsunamis.

What Caused This?

Typically, earthquakes occur when underground rock begins to break on a fault. There were many moving parts that caused this earthquake and tsunami to occur. Two of earth’s tectonic plates collided with each other along a subduction zone. According to Becky Oskin of Live Science, “A subduction zone is the biggest crash scene on Earth. These boundaries mark the collusion between two of the planet’s tectonic plates. The plates are pieces of crust that slowly move across the planet’s surface over millions of years”(Oskin 1). It is here where a plate begins to move into the earth’s mantle. The two plates at the forefront of the earthquake are the Japan Trench and the Pacific Ocean plate. The plates within these zones gain heat and stick with each other for years while acquiring energy over time. This process takes hundreds of years in order to release the amount of tension it released on that day. When this earthquake occurred on March 11th, 2011, it was a result of centuries of tension buildup. Kenneth Chang wrote in the New York Times, “The largest earthquakes occur in subduction zones, places where an ocean plate collides with and slides under a continental plate, particularly around the edge of the Pacific Ocean. But some subduction zones seemed to produce more large earthquakes than others.” Chang elaborated on his theory by adding, “The older, colder, and denser ocean plates like those of Java and the Marianas trench in the Pacific would sink more easily and not produce the giant catastrophic quakes’ (Chang 1). The tsunami was a direct result of this powerful earthquake. The tsunami was a result of the North American tectonic plate sliding right over the ocean plate. The sea floor was lifted and produced 30-foot waves as it approached land. It took approximately 25 minutes for the tsunami to.

What were the Geological and Oceanographical Parts of the Tsunami?

Gregory A Petsko of Genome Biology writes, “The word ‘tsunami’ comes from the Japanese words for harbor (tsu) and wave (NAMI). It refers to a series of giant undersea waves that travel at high velocity for very long distances, and that crest when they hit a shoreline in the form of a devastating surge, sometimes as much as 30 meters high” (Petsko 1). This tsunami exceeded that definition and description because it was 128 feet high or 39 meters. Typically, the speed of the tsunami depends on how deep the ocean is. The deeper the ocean the higher velocity it produces. The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest ocean in the world with an average depth of 4280 meters. The tsunami occurred because the North American tectonic plate slid over the tectonic plate belonging to the Pacific Ocean. The sea levels began to rise as they progressed towards the northeastern Japanese coast. The tsunami was responsible for the damage more than the earthquake because the earthquake was about only 20 kilometers deep when it began. According to the United States Geological Survey, some earthquakes have the capability of reaching 470 kilometers. Emily So, a USGS engineer informed the New York Times this indicates that the fast-moving waves coming from the ocean at 500 miles per hour. Tokyo University professor Takashi Furmura says, “The quake’s shallow focus and massive scale explain why the tsunami was so huge” (Formula 1). In other words, due to the fact that the earthquake was not spread out and had only one focal point, the tsunami was able to build its height alongside its considerable size to hit Japan with unprecedented force.

Why Was This Not Predicted?

Have you ever noticed that other natural disasters can be predicted such as hurricanes, tropical storms, floods, and snow storms? Notice how earthquakes are not mentioned in that list. Peggy Hellweg, an Operations Manager at the University of California Berkley told Weird.com, “Seismologists just don’t have enough information about the processes that are going on in Earth. We know the stress is building up, but we don’t know the details of each particular location, and when the stress is going to be too much for it. That’s the problem with earthquake prediction” (Hellwegg 1). She is telling us that the earth is constantly changing. Some of the changes are big. Some of the changes are small. We are unable to find which changes in terms of location will affect earth the most. Technology simply has not developed yet that would allow us to know exactly when an earthquake will take place and where it will take place. As far as the 2011 earthquake in Japan was concerned, scientists predicted a small-scale earthquake would strike a different region around that time. Travis Donovan of the Huffington Post interviewed Dr. Daniel McNamara, a seismologist of the United States Geological Survey. McNamara told Donovan, “If you find a scientist that has been studying a specific region and predicting an earthquake and one occurs out of that region, they will say it’s a surprise, but it’s still an active region” (McNamara 1). There are, however; some technologies that help seismologist measure earthquakes and alert them of movement within the earth. For instance, a Seismograph Model helps monitor the earth’s soil and gives a timeline of when an earthquake may occur. Tokyo residents received a one-minute warning before the earthquake began due to the fact the earthquake had already begun in other coastal cities along eastern Japan and strong shaking had been felt for three to five minutes.

The Nuclear Disaster as a Result

Andrea Thompson of Scientific American had a take. A massive nuclear disaster arose from this event and it was called the Fukushima Accident. It took place at the Fukushima Daiichi plant in northern Japan and it is the second-worst nuclear accident in history. “This nuclear plant has 6 generators and at the time of the earthquake and tsunami, 3 of them were operational while the other 3 were under maintenance. It was reported that the waves from the tsunami were responsible for damaging backup generators in the plant. The earthquake was powerful enough to cut the plant’s power from the national grid. Operators at the plant were able to turn off the reactors; however, the power went off causing cooling systems to crumble. The reactors could not get the cooling they needed from the backup generators and because they were already at very high temperatures, they overheated and a steam explosion occurred. Around 4 in the afternoon that day, a 46-foot tsunami exceeds the protective wall and floods the entire facility. This immediately causes all of the generators, both main and backup, to completely shut down. At this point, all power is lost and temperatures quickly rise. The three reactors lose all water levels which leaves the fuel rods exposed to heat and melting. When this happens, harmful radiation can be exposed miles from the plant which forces the government to evacuate citizens living within a twelve-mile radius of the facility. All reactors eventually meltdown and two of them exploded. The effects of this disaster continue to this day. For example, approximately 50,000 households are still evacuated. Furthermore, food that was around the plant such as fish and vegetables have been banned due to potential radiation poisoning. Finally, the water from within the plant has been seized by the Japanese government in order to prevent it from going into the environment and poisoning wildlife and people.

Could this Happen Here?

After such a devastating natural disaster, one has to ask if something like this can happen in the United States. Geologists are able to answer that question by breaking down each of the regions of this massive land. When determining which areas are more likely to experience earthquakes and tsunamis, it is important to understand the location. The closer a place is to a subduction zone, the higher risk it has of experiencing what Japan experienced. Historically, the west coast of the United States has been vulnerable to tsunamis because it is on the Pacific Rim where many earthquakes occur. More evidence found by the United States Geological Survey such as submerged vegetation indicates that the west coast has earthquakes with high magnitudes every 500 years. This gives geologists reason to believe that the west coast could also be subject to devastating tsunamis in the future. On the contrary, the eastern coast of the United States mainland has no big subduction zone so the risk and frequency of tsunamis and earthquakes are extremely low. The east coast is more vulnerable to other natural disasters such as hurricanes. American territories such as Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands are more vulnerable to tsunamis because they share a subduction zone with the Caribbean Sea. When it comes to the Gulf Coast, earthquakes and tsunamis are present; however, they are not destructive. As a matter of fact, tsunamis reported in this region are typically less than a meter high. The only two places that may be the most susceptible to earthquakes and tsunamis are Alaska and Hawaii. Hawaii is in the heart of the Pacific Rim which is sometimes referred to as the “Ring of Fire” due to volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. Alaska is bordered south by a massive subduction zone which makes the state prone to earthquakes and tsunamis.

Conclusion

This event will be remembered as one of the worst natural disasters in history. According to worldvision.org, this is the costliest disaster in history with a whopping $360 billion worth of damages and destruction. Approximately 20 million people died or went missing. It caused a nuclear meltdown resulting in the release of harmful radioactive material. It displaced tens of thousands of Japanese citizens. There is food in Japan that the government bans due to the continuing effects of radiation.

In conclusion, the earthquake was caused by two of the earth’s tectonic plates colliding at a subduction zone. The tsunami was a result of the earthquake and the height of the waves of the tsunami was contributed by the Pacific Ocean’s depth. This was not predicted by seismologists just do not have enough technology to predict it. This event caused a massive nuclear meltdown with long-lasting effects that are present today. The United States mainland is not subject to these events; however, Hawaii and Alaska could face similar hardships as those in Japan.

Works Cited

1. “Can It Happen Here?” Can It Happen Here? www.usgs.gov/natural-hazards/earthquake-hazards/science/can-it-happen-here?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects.
2. “Can You Predict Earthquakes?” Can You Predict Earthquakes? www.usgs.gov/faqs/can-you-predict-earthquakes?qt-news_science_products=0#qt-news_science_products.
3. Chang, Kenneth. “Blindsided by Ferocity Unleashed by a Fault.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 21 Mar. 2011, www.nytimes.com/2011/03/22/science/22predict.html.
4. Donovan, Travis. “Scientists: Japan Quake Shifted Coastline Nearly 8 Feet.” HuffPost, HuffPost, 25 May 2011, www.huffpost.com/entry/japan-earthquake-axis-shift-climate-change_n_834985?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAAMVKncjwkbC1bRffdibTZWkgW8-xo2T0hM7XpVi4ZyguBOgTnybyJifpuH7ErqPQ6TT7chXGHC6z_tQn-5I6LAjv5a9rQHK3Z7PlVia9IkUzWvPHmbfcuu4CgYsa-Bj91bYMCQhvExtNDe_K_dJpmKt-ShSVYKgZcbWg3vRMS9MJ.
5. Oskin, Becky. “What Is a Subduction Zone?” LiveScience, Purch, 7 May 2015, www.livescience.com/43220-subduction-zone-definition.html.
6. Petsko, Gregory A. “Tsunami.” Genome Biology, BioMed Central, 31 Jan. 2005, genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/gb-2005-6-2-104.
7. Thompson, Andrea. “Radioactive Glass Beads May Tell the Terrible Tale of How the Fukushima Meltdown Unfolded.” Scientific American, Scientific American, 11 Mar. 2019, www.scientificamerican.com/article/radioactive-glass-beads-may-tell-the-terrible-tale-of-how-the-Fukushima-meltdown-unfolded/.
8. Walker, Marley. “Chill Out, No One Can Predict Earthquakes-Including Japan.” Wired, Conde Nast, 3 June 2017, www.wired.com/2016/11/chill-no-one-can-predict-earthquakes-including-japan/.

The New York article The Big One written by Kathryn Schulz is representing the idea the the “big one” is also known as a huge earthquake coming soon and this time it will be bigger than ever. In the beginning, people did not really think about earthquakes happening since it was normal for them. In 2011 Japan had such a horrific earthquake but before they had already been experiencing three tiny ones in one week. Chris Goldfinger who is a paleoseismologist from Oregon State University was taught how long earthquakes are supposed to last for their magnitude to be indicated. While witnessing this type of earthquake, Goldfinger was astonished but also surprised at the same time. Goldfinger at first did not think the earthquake was as strong as they say, but as time passes, the shaking increased severely and Goldfinger and his co-workers had to evacuate from the seismology meeting. He felt like he was driving through the rocky terrains in a car without any shocks or that he was on a raft with high seas while the earthquake was going on. Goldfinger also mentioned that there were weird rattling noises and the flagpole at the top of the building was swinging like crazy. Goldfinger and his coworkers are fortunate enough that the building they evacuated from has a “seismic-safety technology” which allows the building to be stable on movable bearings rather than on its actual base. But this earthquake was so strong that it was swaying back and forth which caused a digging of a trench in their yard. This earthquake lasted about three minutes and now Goldfinger could tell that the magnitude was around eight or nine. Many people were surprised that it lasted so long.

Yasutaka Ikeda who is a geologist argued against the fact that in the future, the nation should be prepared for an earthquake of a magnitude of 9.0 because in Japan there earthquakes and tsunamis have been unprepared and it was based on inaccurate information. Goldfinger began to notice that the shaking was starting to reach the four-minute mark this was a perfect representation of the Japanese Cassandra right that the planet was trying to prove. He thought witnessing this was pretty amazing since he and his coworkers were looking at a real-time revolution in earthquake science but immediately after they weren’t amazed anymore because they knew what was about to come. One of the coworkers pulled out his phone to be able to stream this experience from the Japanese broadcasting station which is shot by helicopters that flew out to the sea right after the earthquake started. Thirty minutes after Goldfinger went outside he saw that a tsunami rolled in on a two-inch screen. The earthquake of 9.0 and the tsunami together caused more than eighteen thousand people to die and a meltdown at the Fukushima power plant which added an estimated amount of two hundred and twenty billion dollars if the damage was done. Japan’s earthquake ended up being the most massive earthquake in the world’s history. Goldfinger has an idea that there will be more earthquakes in the future, but most people believe that the next big shock will be the San Andreas which nearly runs the length of California. This is known as the San Andreas since every fault line has an upper limit determined by its length, width, and how far it can slip. San Andreas is the most studied and best-understood fault line with an upper limit of 8.2 which is roughly six percent stronger than the earthquake in Japan in 2011.

On the contrary, above the San Andreas, there is another fault line known as the Cascadia subduction zone which goes seven hundred miles off the coast of the Pacific Northwest. The “subduction” is referred to the planar in which one tectonic plate slides underneath another tectonic plate. In the southern part of the Cascadia, the subduction zone will give off a rupture with an 8.7 and 9.2 scaling which is very enormous. The tsunami has now diminished and the shaking has come to an end, but now the region will be unrecognized and many people will eventually die just like the San Francisco earthquake that happened in 1906. The Fema projects also believe that at least thirteen thousand people will die in the Cascadia earthquake and twenty-seven thousand will be injured from the tsunami. With this information given, it would lead the agency to provide some type of shelter for the millions of people that are going to be displaced from food and water. Even though these numbers are just what is to be expected, it is truly difficult to realize that years ago no one even knew the Cascadia subduction zone had a massive earthquake. The Cascadia to this day is still a mystery since researchers are improving every day and are on the lookout for what may come.

Introduction (around 200 words)

The “Earthquake Essay” is a captivating piece of writing that is not merely academic in its scope but transcends into the realm of experiential learning and public awareness. This form of essay holds significant importance in our understanding of one of nature’s most unpredictable and devastating phenomena, earthquakes. Earthquakes have the power to alter landscapes, destroy infrastructures, and reshape human lives in the span of mere moments. 

The primary purpose of an earthquake essay is to analyze and provide insights into the scientific aspects of earthquakes, such as their causes, their effects, and the strategies for mitigation and management. However, the power of such an essay extends beyond the scientific scope as it also addresses the societal implications of these seismic events, including public safety measures, the resilience of communities, and the influence of policy and planning on reducing the impact of such disasters.

Crafting an earthquake essay is a task that requires meticulous research, a strong grasp of geophysical concepts, and an understanding of human elements such as social behavior, policy planning, and community resilience. As we navigate through this essay, we’ll gain a comprehensive understanding of earthquakes and shed light on the human capacity for survival, adaptation, and growth amidst adversity. 

Earthquake Essay 1 (100 words)

Earthquakes are a powerful natural phenomenon, capable of leaving profound impacts on the landscapes and communities they touch. Originating from the rapid release of energy in the Earth’s lithosphere, earthquakes result in seismic waves that shake the ground, often leading to widespread destruction and loss. Despite their destructive nature, earthquakes contribute to the Earth’s dynamic geological processes, including creating mountains, valleys, and various landforms.

Understanding earthquakes involves grasping complex geophysical concepts, such as plate tectonics and fault lines. Through studying these seismic events, scientists hope to predict their occurrence better and minimize their impacts on human life and infrastructure with the aid of technology.

Earthquake Essay 2 (200 words)

Introduction

Earthquakes, one of nature’s most powerful and terrifying events, hold a profound fascination due to their unpredictability and potential for destruction. They remind us of the volatile and dynamic world beneath our feet, in constant motion and transformation.

Earthquake

An earthquake occurs when stress accumulating within the Earth’s crust reaches a breaking point. The stress, primarily generated by tectonic forces associated with plate movements, releases seismic energy, producing ground shaking and potentially devastating surface ruptures.

The magnitude of an earthquake is quantified using the Richter scale, while the intensity of shaking experienced at specific locations is described by the Modified Mercalli Intensity scale.

Earthquakes also serve a vital role in the Earth’s geology, facilitating the development of new landforms and contributing to the planet’s ever-changing topography. They provide essential clues about the Earth’s interior structure and plate tectonic processes, aiding our understanding of its geological past and future.

Conclusion

In conclusion, earthquakes epitomize the dynamic nature of our planet, serving as potent reminders of the powerful forces at play beneath the Earth’s crust. Understanding and adapting to them remains an ongoing challenge and a testament to human resilience and ingenuity. Exploring earthquakes deepens our knowledge about the Earth and our capacity to endure and thrive amidst its ceaseless changes.

Earthquake Essay 3 (300 words)

Introduction

Among the myriad natural phenomena on our planet, earthquakes and volcanoes occupy a distinct place due to their profound influence on the Earth’s landscape and their potential to affect human lives and civilizations. Volcanic earthquakes are particularly intriguing, a unique kind of seismic activity that merges the elements of these powerful natural events.

Volcanoes

Volcanoes are geological formations that form when magma from the Earth’s mantle or lower crust rises to the surface, often creating stunning and iconic landforms. Depending on the magma’s viscosity and gas content, these eruptions can be explosive or effusive. Volcanoes contribute to the Earth’s topography and play a significant role in the planet’s carbon cycle and influence the global climate.

What is a Volcanic Earthquake?

A volcanic earthquake is a type of seismic event that is directly related to the active processes within a volcano. Unlike tectonic earthquakes, caused by the Earth’s crust’s stress release due to plate movements, volcanic earthquakes are typically triggered by the movement of magma and volcanic gases beneath the Earth’s surface.

There are three main types of volcanic earthquakes: long-period, hybrid, and volcano-tectonic. Each type is associated with specific volcanic activities. Long-period earthquakes, for instance, are often related to the movement of magma or volcanic gas. In contrast, volcano-tectonic earthquakes, the most common type, are caused by the physical stresses exerted on the surrounding rocks by the upward movement of magma.

Conclusion

In conclusion, volcanic earthquakes provide compelling insight into the dynamic interplay between seismic activity and volcanic processes. They represent another facet of the Earth’s restlessness and a reminder of our need to understand, adapt, and prepare for the powerful forces of nature. As we continue to unravel their mysteries, our capacity to predict and manage the impacts of these natural phenomena on our lives and societies will undoubtedly improve.

Earthquake Essay 4 (400 words)

Introduction

Earthquakes are arguably one of the most profound manifestations of the Earth’s dynamism. These natural phenomena intrigue, terrify and fascinate us due to their unpredictable nature and considerable impacts on our world. An in-depth understanding of earthquakes requires a broad exploration of their types, causes, and effects.

Types of Earthquake

Earthquakes can be classified into three main types, namely tectonic, volcanic, and artificial or induced earthquakes.

Tectonic earthquakes, the most common type, occur due to the sudden release of energy in the Earth’s crust resulting from plate tectonic movements. As discussed earlier, volcanic earthquakes are closely linked to volcanic activity and are triggered by the movement of magma and gases beneath the surface. Lastly, induced earthquakes result from human activities such as mining, reservoir-induced seismicity due to the filling of large reservoirs behind dams, and hydraulic fracturing or ‘fracking’.

Causes of Earthquake

At the heart of most earthquakes is the concept of plate tectonics. The Earth’s lithosphere is divided into several large and small plates that constantly move due to the heat currents from the Earth’s mantle, a process known as convection. When these plates interact at their boundaries, they can collide, move apart, or slide past each other, accumulating stress over time. When this stress exceeds the rock’s strength, it is released as seismic energy, leading to an earthquake.

Induced earthquakes, on the other hand, are typically caused by human activities that alter the Earth’s crust’s stress conditions, such as fluid injection into the ground during hydraulic fracturing or the excavation of large volumes of rock in mining operations.

Effects of Earthquake

The effects of earthquakes can be immediate and devastating, including loss of life, destruction of infrastructure, and displacement of populations. Moreover, earthquakes can have long-term effects, including economic disruptions, psychological trauma, and changes in the landscape.

On the positive side, earthquakes contribute to the Earth’s geological processes, shaping the topography and providing valuable insights into the Earth’s interior structure and plate tectonic activities.

Conclusion

In conclusion, earthquakes represent a powerful interplay of geophysical forces and human activities. Their unpredictability and potential for destruction necessitate a deep understanding and effective management strategies. By exploring their types, causes, and effects, we enhance our knowledge and preparedness, reinforcing our resilience against these formidable manifestations of Mother Nature. Despite their challenges, earthquakes also remind us of our remarkable ability to adapt, innovate, and thrive amidst our planet’s dynamic and ever-changing conditions.

Earthquake Essay 5 (500 words)

Introduction

Earthquakes pose formidable challenges due to their unpredictability and potential for destruction. However, these impacts can be substantially mitigated through effective earthquake management and the cultivation of a calm, informed response during seismic events. This essay delves into the comprehensive approach of earthquake management, spanning prediction, preparedness, response, and recovery, and underscores the importance of maintaining composure during an earthquake. By understanding these aspects, we can enhance our resilience, minimize losses, and navigate these seismic occurrences with increased confidence and efficiency.

Earthquake Management

Earthquake management is a comprehensive approach that includes prediction, preparedness, response, and recovery.

Prediction involves monitoring seismic activities to anticipate potential earthquakes. While the precise timing and location of earthquakes are beyond our predictive capabilities, seismologists can identify zones of high seismic risk and forecast long-term probabilities.

Preparedness encompasses public education, the development of earthquake-resistant infrastructure, and disaster planning. Public education is crucial to teach individuals about safe behaviors during earthquakes. Building earthquake-resistant structures can significantly reduce damages and loss of lives. Disaster planning involves preparing resources and protocols for effective response in the aftermath of an earthquake.

The response phase follows the occurrence of an earthquake, focusing on rescue and relief operations. This phase often requires coordination among various governmental and non-governmental entities to provide medical aid, shelter, and food to the affected communities.

The recovery phase involves restoring the affected region to its pre-disaster condition or even improving it. This phase can include rebuilding infrastructure, rehabilitating affected individuals, and implementing measures to prevent future disasters.

Do not Panic during an Earthquake

A crucial aspect of dealing with earthquakes is maintaining calm during the event. Panic can lead to accidents and impede effective response efforts.

Firstly, one should remember the “Drop, Cover, and Hold On” technique. Drop to your hands and knees, cover your head and neck, and if possible, take cover under a sturdy piece of furniture. Hold on until the shaking stops.

Stay away from windows, glass, or anything that may shatter during the quake. If you are outside, move to an open area away from buildings, trees, streetlights, and utility wires. If you are driving, pull over to a safe spot, stay in the vehicle and wait until the shaking stops.

Always remember that aftershocks can follow the main quake. Once the shaking stops, evacuate calmly, watching out for hazards created by the earthquake.

Conclusion

In conclusion, earthquakes, while daunting, can be managed effectively through a blend of scientific knowledge, preparedness, and appropriate responses. Earthquake management is a collective effort, necessitating the involvement of governments, professionals, and individuals alike. Moreover, our personal reactions to earthquakes can significantly influence our safety. By replacing panic with calmness and knowledge, we enhance our ability to navigate these seismic events, underscoring our capacity to coexist with the dynamic and often unpredictable nature of our planet. As we continue to learn, adapt, and innovate in our interactions with these natural phenomena, we reinforce our resilience and perpetuate our journey as an enduring part of the Earth’s narrative.

Earthquake Essay 6 (600 words)

Introduction

The United States, with its diverse geography and tectonic settings, has experienced some of the world’s most significant earthquakes. These seismic events have shaped not only the country’s landscape but also its disaster management policies and practices. This essay explores some of the major earthquakes in the U.S., identifies the most earthquake-prone areas within the country, and discusses the effects of earthquakes on society and the environment.

Major Earthquakes in USA

The U.S. has been the site of numerous major earthquakes throughout its history. Notably, the 1906 San Francisco Earthquake remains one of the most significant. With a magnitude of approximately 7.9 on the Richter scale, it resulted in substantial destruction and loss of life, marking the city’s history.

Another infamous event is the 1964 Great Alaskan Earthquake, the most powerful earthquake recorded in U.S. history, with a magnitude of 9.2. It triggered tsunamis that reached Japan and Hawaii, leading to extensive casualties and property damage.

More recently, the 1994 Northridge Earthquake in California caused significant destruction in the Los Angeles area, prompting advancements in earthquake preparedness and building codes.

Earthquake Prone Areas in USA

Certain regions in the U.S. are more susceptible to earthquakes due to their tectonic settings. The Pacific Coast, particularly California, Oregon, and Washington, is the most earthquake-prone region due to the presence of the tectonic boundary between the Pacific and North American Plates.

In California, the San Andreas Fault poses a constant seismic threat. In the Pacific Northwest, the Cascadia Subduction Zone could potentially generate a catastrophic earthquake and tsunami.

Furthermore, Alaska is highly seismic due to the subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the North American Plate. In the central U.S., the New Madrid Seismic Zone in the Mississippi River Valley is known for a series of severe earthquakes in the 19th century.

Effects of Earthquake

Earthquakes, with their formidable power, can cause immediate and long-term effects that are significant and far-reaching. The immediate effects are often visually dramatic and devastating. These include the shaking of the ground, collapsing of buildings and infrastructure, and loss of life. The quake’s force can rupture roads, bridges, and utilities, disrupt communication, and cause widespread destruction.

In addition to the direct damage, earthquakes can trigger secondary hazards like landslides, tsunamis, and fires, leading to further devastation. For instance, the shaking can loosen steep slopes, causing landslides that buried homes and block roads. Underwater earthquakes can generate tsunamis that inundate coastal regions, causing extensive loss of life and property.

The long-term effects of earthquakes are also significant. Economically, earthquakes can lead to the loss of businesses, unemployment, and high rebuilding costs. The affected regions may suffer from reduced economic growth and increased poverty. Psychologically, earthquakes can cause trauma among survivors, leading to long-term mental health issues.

On the other hand, earthquakes play a crucial role in shaping our planet’s landscapes and providing valuable insights into the Earth’s interior and tectonic processes. These seismic events, while destructive, are integral parts of Earth’s dynamic geological cycle.

Conclusion

In conclusion, understanding the history, prone regions, and effects of earthquakes in the U.S. is essential for effective disaster preparedness and management. The country’s experience with significant seismic events has driven advancements in earthquake prediction, building design, and public safety measures. Despite the inherent challenges, the knowledge acquired from past earthquakes underscores our capacity to learn, adapt, and build resilience. As we continue to improve our understanding and mitigation strategies, we reinforce our ability to coexist with the dynamic forces of our planet, ensuring our collective endurance amidst the shifting landscapes of time and geology.

Earthquake Essay 7 (700 words)

Introduction

Earthquakes, the vibrational shudders of our planet, are consequential events of geological activity that capture worldwide attention. Their causes, how we measure them, their impacts, and our response strategies form a complex narrative of human interaction with these potent natural phenomena. This essay aims to understand earthquakes comprehensively, dissecting their origins, the science behind their measurement, their immediate and far-reaching effects, and the essential dos and don’ts during these seismic events. By delving into this subject, we gain increased respect for Earth’s dynamic processes and better equip ourselves for future seismic occurrences.

Measurement

Earthquakes are measured using a seismometer, which records the seismic waves that an earthquake produces. The resulting graph, or seismogram, represents the earthquake’s intensity and duration.

The Richter scale, developed in 1935, quantifies the energy released by an earthquake, or its magnitude, based on the seismic waves’ amplitude. On a logarithmic scale, each unit increase on the Richter scale represents a tenfold increase in the amplitude of the seismic waves and approximately 31.6 times more energy release.

The moment magnitude scale (Mw) is currently the most used for medium to large earthquakes due to its more accurate and consistent estimates across a broad range of sizes.

The Mercalli scale describes an earthquake’s intensity based on observed effects, such as damage to structures and the land and people’s reactions.

Effects of Earthquake

Earthquakes can cause immediate and profound effects, including ground shaking, damage to structures, and loss of life. Secondary hazards, such as landslides, tsunamis, and fires, can amplify the disaster.

The long-term effects include economic disruption due to the loss of businesses, high reconstruction costs, and psychological trauma among survivors. Despite their destructiveness, earthquakes also contribute to Earth’s geological processes, shaping our landscapes and providing valuable insights into our planet’s interior and tectonic activity.

Causes of Earthquakes

Earthquakes predominantly occur due to the movement and interaction of tectonic plates, the vast rock slabs that constitute the Earth’s outer layer, or lithosphere. There are three primary types of plate boundaries: convergent, divergent, and transform, each with distinct movements that can generate earthquakes.

In convergent boundaries, plates collide or converge, often causing one plate to be forced beneath the other in a process known as subduction. The intense pressure and heat at these zones can cause earthquakes and volcanic activity.

At divergent boundaries, plates move apart or diverge, creating a gap where magma rises to form new crust. Earthquakes often occur along these zones as the crust fractures and shifts.

At transform boundaries, plates slide past each other horizontally. The friction between the plates can cause them to become stuck while the rest continues to move, accumulating stress over time. When the stress surpasses the rocks’ strength, it’s released in the form of seismic energy, causing an earthquake.

Additionally, human activities such as mining, reservoir-induced seismicity, and hydraulic fracturing, known as fracking, can induce seismic events, often referred to as induced earthquakes. These activities can change stresses in the Earth’s crust and trigger earthquakes.

What to do in an Earthquake?

During an earthquake, it’s essential to stay calm and remember the “Drop, Cover, and Hold On” principle. Find a safe location away from windows and items that could fall, drop to your knees, cover your head and neck, and if possible, take shelter under a sturdy piece of furniture and hold on until the shaking stops.

If you’re outside, move to an open area away from buildings, trees, and utility wires. If driving, pull over to a safe spot, stay in the car, and wait until the shaking stops.

After the shaking, evacuate calmly, watching for hazards created by the quake, and remember that aftershocks can follow the main quake.

Conclusion

In conclusion, earthquakes, as manifestations of the Earth’s dynamic geological processes, demand our understanding and respect. Knowledge of their measurement, causes, and effects, along with appropriate responses, are integral to our safety and resilience. As we coexist with these formidable forces of nature, our capacity to learn, adapt, and thrive amidst the challenges they present reaffirms our indomitable spirit and enduring place within the Earth’s narrative. Our journey with earthquakes is a testament to our resilience, adaptability, and relentless pursuit of knowledge in our dynamic world.

I have never witnessed any sort of emergency, I have never even been in a mild earthquake, but in this essay, I will try to describe what would happen if a strong earthquake was to happen in my city.

The city I live in is very small, so in case of an earthquake, definitely, everyone living in the city will be affected. Since there are more buildings, apartment buildings, and more houses in the middle area of the city, the earthquake would have brought more damage in these places rather than on the outskirts of the city. Since most hospitals were built keeping in mind these scenarios, they will not collapse, and even though it won’t be enough, they can have some of the injured people in there.

Most of the city’s infrastructures, including school, houses, hotels, and other buildings, will have collapsed, so many people would be living in tents outside on the streets, without much of their belongings or any resources. Imagine, due to the earthquake, there was an accident in one of the companies that produce gas and there was a big explosion on the one side of the city. Right now, there is a lot of smog and dust in the air due to this explosion and also from the collapse of the buildings. The hospitals are also overcrowded and many of the doctors are not available as they had to perform emergency surgeries to those that were directly affected by the earthquake and by the explosion. There are many volunteers and health care professionals that are trying to distribute clean water, food and blankets but it is not enough. There is no power and the hospitals and other public spaces are the only ones with generators.

People that already had respiratory problems and children who could not resist all of the air pollution are developing some respiratory diseases. Because many people are living in an overcrowded state, outside in the tents, these diseases are quickly spreading from child to parent and from neighbor to neighbor. Some of the people decided to get water from the river nearby but ended up getting diarrhea instead. So, now there is another disease going around, affecting especially the children, and there are not enough resources to help hydrate these infected people. Many of the elderly and many of the children below 3 years are one of the first victims of these diseases. Some have to also deal with other disease and sicknesses that they had before the earthquake.

As we have many people suffering from different wounds continuously coming in to the hospitals, we need to have some order so that we know which wounds are more serious and which patients need more care at the moment. But in order to do so we first need to set order in the whole city, as we cannot work properly and efficiently if we keep getting distracted by the new diseases that are spreading through town. Not only are these diseases spreading rapidly, but they can be stopped. First, we need to stop immediately the spread of acute upper respiratory tract infections and diarrhea, because they are the most serious disease going around. We already know the causes of these two infections, as the first one is caused by the crowding, lack of hygiene and the air pollution caused by the collapse of buildings and the explosion at the industry that produces gas, and the second one is caused by the contaminated water of the river that people are still trying to drink. In order to stop these diseases from spreading any further, we first need to isolate anyone that is showing any of the symptoms for diarrhea, including watery stools, fever, nausea or vomiting, or symptoms for acute upper respiratory tract infections, including symptoms of the common cold or pneumonia, fever and coughing. After the people infected with these diseases are isolated, we need to stop people from drinking water from the river. Once these two sources of spread of disease are stopped, everyone needs to receive enough water and food and everyone should have easy access to a health care provider in case of emergency or even if they want to ask questions. This way we can decrease people panicking and hurting themselves any further. As soon as the spread of disease and panic is neutralized, we can focus on concentrating on the people that need medical care. In order to do so we need to have more medicine and more doctors in the hospitals. We also need some volunteers that can help us separate the patients by the severity of the wounds or diseases so that we can start with those that are in more danger. On top of all this, we need to make sure that the hospitals are properly equipped and that there is enough medicine and other instruments to take care of everyone that might need care.

If we manage to do all of this, I am sure that we will have everything under control in a short time and we can prevent the loss of more lives until we get further help from the outside.

About 50,000 earthquakes are big enough, to occur around the world naturally. Of these, around 100 are big enough to inflict serious harm if their centers are located close to housing areas. Averagely, some very large earthquakes occur once a year. Over the years, it caused hundreds of thousands of deaths and an untold amount of economic loss. Earthquakes have numerous impacts such as seismic changes, damage to buildings created by human beings, and effects on humans and animals. Much of these impacts are on stable land, but since most earthquake focuses actually lie below the seabed, extreme effects on the ocean’s margins are also seen. An earthquake represents a rapid displacement on the earth’s crust. It’s called a shake, trembling, or trembling. Earthquakes are so small as not to make those violent enough to throw people around and ruin towns, in general, seem as large as possible. The seismic or volcanic behavior in a region concerns the magnitude, form, and scale of earthquakes over time.

Earthquake

An earthquake is a spontaneous movement on the earth’s crust across the earth’s rocks from moving seismic waves. It’s sometimes referred to as trembling, shaking, or trembling. The scale of an earthquake can change, and mild earthquakes may not be felt often, but strong earthquakes may kill entire towns and villages. It all depends on the magnitude, form, and scale of a time-long earthquake. It is calculated on the Richter scale. A seismometer can recognize the vibrations caused by an earthquake, and trace these vibrations on a seismograph. The Richter scale also evaluated an earthquake’s intensity or extent. If an earthquake on the Richter scale was around 7 or 8, it may be catastrophic (GOYAL, 2020). Earthquakes and abrupt ground shakes are produced by seismic waves passing across the rocks of the earth. Seismic waves come when unexpectedly some energy is released in the crust of the earth, often when masses of rock suddenly struggle and slip against each other. Earthquakes most often occur near geological culpabilities, small areas in which rock weights pass together. On the peripheries of the immense tectonic plates which make the earth’s crust, the world’s main fault lines are found.

Earthquake Causes

Earthquakes happen as the earth’s surface is suddenly moving. South lateral or longitudinal motions on the earth’s crusts induce earthquakes. Or if tectonic plates ride over each other and enable building mountains to come together. Due to the borders of moving plates, the greatest failures occur on the surface of the earth. It’s more serious when there’s a relative movement between plates. The Circum-Pacific Belt is a large earthquake that affects many of the Pacific Ocean’s inhabited coastal regions, such as New Zealand, New Guinea, Japan, etc. In earthquakes from those whose epicenters are in this belt, the energy is measured at about 80 percent. The rocks slip and emit large quantities of energy, and is called an earthquake, as the friction overcomes mechanical tension. As the displacement between the plates occurs, the tension increases and tends to cause the trapped part of the error to slide over and unleash the accumulated energy as waves of shock (GOYAL, 2020). Earthquake damage occurs from floods, earthquakes, soil ruptures, tsunamis, and liquefactions. The most significant secondary consequence is earthquake disruption caused by explosions.

Tectonic

The southern release of energy is caused by earthquakes in a tiny area of the earth’s rocks. Elastic pressure, gravity, chemical reactions, and even large body movement can all generate energy. The most significant cause of all these is the release of elastic strain, this source of energy is the only type that can be saved in enough amounts on the earth to make serious interruptions. Tectonic earthquakes are considered earthquakes correlated with this kind of energy release (Grützner, 2012).

The elastic rebound theory of American geologist Harry Reid, following the breakup of the San Andreas Fault in 1906, which produced a great earthquake in San Francisco, explains tectonic earthquakes. As per the theory, a tectonic earthquake is caused by the deposition of strains in rock masses, which surpass the strength of rocks, resulting in an unexpected fracture. These fractures spread quickly through the soil, generally in the same direction, and spread over a local region of failure often for several kilometers. For example, in 1906, a 430 km long plane ran through the San Andreas Fault. The earth was horizontally shifted from this line up to 6 meters (20 feet). The rock volumes are flung in opposing directions when a failure goes along or up the fault, and therefore sprinkle back to a spot where the tension is reduced. At some point, this motion cannot take place immediately, but in erratic steps; these abrupt slow-downs and restarts give birth to seismic waves. The simulation of earthquake origins now involves both physically and mathematically certain irregular features of fault rupture. Fault ruggednesses are called asperities and areas that are described as fault obstacles when rupture delays or stops. Fault rupture begins at the point of the earthquake, which is nearly 5-15 km below the surface in many instances. In either or both ways, the rupture spreads across the fault plane before the barrier is stopped or slows down. Often the fault breach re-emerges at the other edge, rather than stopping at the fence; some crack the barrier and it goes on (Bolt, 2021).

Volcanism

A volcanic eruption of a different type of earthquake is often considered an earthquake. However, also in these situations, probably, a rapid slip of rock masses next to the volcano and consequential release of the elastic stress energy arise from disruption. But, because of the heat produced by the magma flowing through reservoirs below the volcano or the release of gases under pressure, the accumulated energy may in part have a hydrodynamic source. The geographic spread of the volcanic, in particular on the Circum-Pacific Ribbon and all along the oceanic ridges, correlates clearly to major earthquakes. Even so, volcanic winds usually are several hundred kilometers from major shallow earthquakes, and a large number of causes of earthquakes do not occur close to active volcanoes. And if an earthquake focuses specifically on buildings characterized by volcanic vents, there would certainly not be an obvious causal link between the two events (Bolt, 2021).

Artificial Induction

Earthquakes are also triggered by human action, including the injection of deep well fluid, the eruption of massive nuclear underground explosions, mining digestion, and large storage tanks. Elimination of rock causes improvements in the strain of tunnels in the case of deep mining. Slip into the new cavities on neighboring, pre-existing faults or external rocks will happen. For fluid injection, slip is supposed to be caused by premature release of the elastic pressure when fault surfaces are liquid-lubricated, as is the case for tectonic earthquakes. Large nuclear blasts under the ground have already created slips for already tense faults around the test equipment (Bolt, 2021).

Reservoir Induction

The filling of major reservoirs is one of the most critical of the numerous earthquake-causing activities listed above. More than 20 major cases of local seismicity have been reported after water imposition from the high barrier. The fact that no evidence exists to enable a comparison of earthquakes before and after the reservoir has been filled cannot always be substantiated. The most widely accepted hypothesis for the event of an earthquake suggests that rocks surrounding the reservoir are already stressed to the point of close defects from regional tectonic forces. A pressure disturbance is added to the reservoir water, which causes a fault breakage. The pressure effect is maybe exacerbated by the fact that, due to increased water-porous pressure, the rocks around the fault have less weight. These causes, however, have not caused earthquakes significant enough to pose a challenge to the overflowing of most large reservoirs (Bolt, 2021).

Earthquake Impacts

There are terrible and destructive impacts of an earthquake. Various buildings, schools, hospitals, and a whole city could have collapsed. Many are assassinated and wounded. Several people are losing their belongings and wealth. It affects not only human health but also weakens mental (GOYAL, 2020). Earthquake impacts on the landscape include surface defects, tectonic elevation and subsiding, tsunamis, soil liquefaction, soil resonance, terrestrial landslides, etc.

Surface Phenomenon

Earthquakes are also responsible for significant geomorphologic shifts, including earthquakes – horizontal or vertical – of geological fault traces; rising, falling and tilting soil surface; changes in the distribution of soil; sandy soil fluidity; landslides and drifting. Geodetic steps which are routinely carried out in many countries which are heavily impacted by earthquakes help to examine topographical changes. Earthquakes can cause substantial damage to houses, bridges, pipelines, roads, reservoirs as well as other infrastructure (Bolt, 2021). The type and degree of damage are linked to the strength of the soil movement and the behavior of the soil. The consequences of a serious earthquake are typically complicated and depend on the topography and condition of superficial materials in its most heavily affected region of the meizoseismic zone. Sweet alluvium and unconsolidated sediments are also more extreme than hard rock. The predominant damage was caused by seismic waves that pass along the surface at distances of over 100 km from its source. Low depths of a few hundred meters are mostly little damaged in mines, while the surface of the soil is significantly affected. The recordings of distinctive noises and light are often associated with earthquakes. The sounds are usually narrow, and the sound of an underground train passing past a station is equal. This is associated with the propagation through the earth of high-frequency seismic waves. Light flashes, streamers, and light balls were often recorded during earthquakes in the night sky (Bolt, 2021). The electrical induction in the air along the earthquake source is responsible for these lights. Landslides are attributed both to overt destruction and to the steady shaking of unstable pathways. They can quickly wreck houses along the way, block roads and railways, or take hilltops when you topple. Often, they will also damage rivers. Earthquakes, particularly in areas with water-sick soil, can cause landslides and mudslides. Landslides will lead to rocks and debris colliding with human beings, plants, wildlife, buildings, and vehicles. They can also obstruct highways and interrupt public transport routes.

Tsunami

A rapid dislocation of seabed onto a seabed is the common cause of a tsunami, which causes a vast body of water to raise or decrease quickly. This deformation could be the cause of an earthquake, or it could be an underwater slip caused by an earthquake. Tsunamis seem to be a collection of water waves that can migrate wide distances in a brief time as the sea floor moves upwards in an earthquake (Anderson, 1997). The tsunamis are a surge of waves, with a slight withdrawal, a very sudden wave moving in, and a further withdrawal followed by, etc. When a wave arrives, the best thing to do is run as fast as possible up the land from the beach. A tsunami, a very long wave actually exists, is triggered by a quake produced inside the Pacific Ocean. Big tsunamis to the surface of the ocean floor are harmful to human health, property, and infrastructure. Over the coast, there are long-term impacts of tsunami damage.

Liquefaction

Liquefaction does not represent a type of ground collapse; it is indeed a physical mechanism that can lead to soil failure during certain earthquakes. The liquefaction causes temporary loss of strength and behavior of clay-free soil repositories, mostly sands and silts, as viscous fluids and not like solids. Liquidation occurs on the saturated granular floor layer as seismic scar waves cross, deform the granular composition, and bring about a collapse of some of the void spaces. Disturbance to soil generated by such collapses causes the soil shaking load to be transferred to the pore water from grain to seed contacts in the soils. The earthquake shaking will make loose soil a liquid during an earthquake (Anderson, 1997). Fluidity can weaken houses, bridges, pipes, and roads’ pillars and supports, causing them to fall into the soil, crumble or dissolve. The liquor and subsidence of the land, in particular in unconsolidated soil, are important effects that also cause much damage. Liquor is when grains from sediments literally float in groundwater, allowing the soil to lose its strength. This transfer of load raises the pressure of the pore water, causing either drainage or a sudden rise of the pore water pressure if drainage is limited. The granular soil coating is more like a fluid than like a solid for a brief time as the pore-water pressure increases around the pressure of a column of soil. Deformations will quickly happen in this state. Liquefaction is limited to some geological and hydrological conditions, particularly where in the last 10,000 years sand and silts have been deposited and soil is less than 30 meters from the earth.

Fires

The second most frequent threat is earthquake destruction facts, which indicates fires from earthquakes. Earthquake fires begin as electricity and gas lines dislodge because of the shaking of the earth. Gas is freed as gas pipes are destroyed and a spark begins a firestorm. After earthquakes, fires are really a significant cause of damage. Ground breakdown and liquefaction will quickly break natural gas and water supplies, which contribute to and impede fire ignition attempts. Shaking also helps to launch fires by the knockdown of power poles, flame retards from storage boxes, and the throwing of hot coals from barbeques and stoves (Anderson, 1997).

Consequences

Earthquakes have countless consequences, along with earthquakes, damage to human buildings, and human and animal effects. Much of these impacts are on stable soil, but because the emphasis of most earthquakes is below sea level, severe marginal effects are also seen. Earthquakes generally appear near geological guilt, small areas where rock weights go together. The major fault lines of the world are discovered on the peripheries of the huge tectonic plates that give the earth a crust. Earthquakes occur as the earth’s surface moves abruptly. The earth’s crusts cause earthquakes with southern lateral or longitudinal movements. Because of shifting plate boundaries, the most severe failures happen on the earth’s surface. When the relative movement between plates occurs, this is more severe. Earthquakes, involving deep, fluid injections, eruptions of huge nuclear explosions in the underground, mining digests, and huge storage tanks, are also caused by human action. The removal of rock in the case of deep mining results in reductions in the tension of tunnels. Slip into nearby cavities, pre-existing flaws, or external rocks. The land-use effects include surface defects, tectonic lifting, tsunamis, land liquefaction, soil resonance, terrestrial slides, etc. Earthquakes affect the landscape. Many houses, clinics, schools, etc. are lost. Many are murdered and injured. Many lose their property and fortune. It impacts the physical and mental health of individuals.