Category: Dyslexia

Introduction

Educationists and policymakers have been working on ways to ensure inclusion in education whereby students with special needs are fully integrated into the mainstream system (Buli-Holmberg & Jeyaprathaban 2016). However, in some cases, such students require special attention to ensure that they get a quality education.

Discussion

According to Huag (2016), inclusive education requires a change of attitude by teachers as they play a central role in determining how students perceive and interact with learning contents and materials. Carrington (1999) highlights the need to foster a culture that allows students with special needs to function optimally in the mainstream education system. For instance, dyslexic students may not perform well when subjected to normal testing methods.

Therefore, teachers need to adopt multiple ways as alternatives to written tests. In the theory of multiple intelligences, Howard Garber proposes a model whereby human intelligence is differentiated into specific modalities (Sener & Cokcaliskan 2018). This approach departs from the conventional way of thinking where intelligence is assumed to be dominated by a general ability. Teachers working in fully inclusive schools have formed a value base that offers a platform for students with special needs to enjoy quality education in the mainstream system (Suprapto, Lui & Ku 2017).

Some of the multiple ways that teachers can adopt when testing dyslexic students include creative art, dance, oral dialogue, multimedia presentations, projects, and tape recording. For instance, instead of requiring dyslexic students to write down answers during tests, learners can be allowed to give oral answers. This way, the teacher saves such students the trouble of having to write down answers, which is a problem for them. If the answers must be written down, a teacher can read the test questions to students, allow them to respond orally, and write the answers himself or herself. Alternatively, students can be allowed to record test answers on tapes.

Conclusion

Additionally, dyslexic students can be allowed to take tests in quiet locations with minimal distractions away from classrooms. In other cases, dyslexic students with sensory processing challenges can be allowed to make physical movements in the classroom during tests. This approach improves their attention through physical stimulation. Therefore, teachers should tailor testing approaches based on the individual students needs. However, Paliokosta and Blandford (2010) note that one of the barriers to ensuring fully inclusive education is teachers knowledge and conceptualizations. This problem can be addressed by ensuring that teachers are involved in policymaking together with being given requisite skills to empower them conceptually and practically for inclusive teaching.

Reference List

Buli-Holmberg, J & Jeyaprathaban, S 2016, Effective practice in inclusive and special needs education, International Journal of Special Education, vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 119-134.

Carrington, S 1999, Inclusion needs a different school culture, International Journal of Inclusive Education, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 257-268.

Haug, P 2016, Understanding inclusive education: ideals and reality, Scandinavian Journal of Disability Research, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 206-217.

Paliokosta, P & Blandford, S 2010, Inclusion in school: a policy, ideology or lived experience? Similar findings in diverse school cultures, British Journal of Learning and Support, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 179-186.

Sener, S & Cokcaliskan, A 2018, An investigation between multiple intelligences and learning styles, Journal of Education and Training Studies, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 125-132.

Suprapto, N, Lui, W-Y, Ku, C-H 2017, The implementation of multiple intelligence in (science) classroom: from empirical into critical, Pedagogy, vol. 126, no. 2, pp. 214-227.

Children with special educational needs require their learning to be taloried to meet desired learning objectives. In addition, children who have significantly greater difficulty learning often struggle to keep up with others of the same age, due to the severity of their disability and therefore extra school support is needed. One of the most prevalent learning disabilities found within pupils is dyslexia, a disorder which impedes the development of literacy skills such as reading, writing and spelling. Since this disorder affects learning and consqeuently performance it’s necessary schools implement inclusive practice within the classroom to prevent the use of segregated schooling and ensure dsylexic pupils meet their educational goals.

The term ‘inclusion’ implies all teachers are responsible for the education of all children. Although, the classroom is fraught with emotional, social and cognitive demands which in turn puts pupils with learning disabilities at risk of exclusion. Schools can actively engage pupils with dyslexia through personalised effective learning techniques by encouraging teachers to work alongside classmates to create a stimulating and progressive learning atmosphere to achieve holistic inclusion. This approach was recommended by the Warnock report (1978) followed by the Educational Act (1981), which established the significance of providing inclusive education for all children despite their ability or disability. There are a number of promising teaching strategies utilized to help pupils with dyslexia such as technology, phonics and scaffolding learning by appropriately altering their zone of proximal development (ZPD).

One particular issue pupils with dyslexia face in the school environment is trouble reading. Since, reading across the school curriculum is one of the main goals of education, the presence of reading difficulties can cause children to exhibit social and behavioural problems. Kirsten (2019) and Ulusoy and Dedeoglu (2011) outline reading as a key skill whilst learning in order to comprehend text in all subject areas, and thus it’s prevalent children receive regular one to one support in the early years of school. Additionally, pupils with dyslexia experience frustration for failing to meet expectations of teachers and as a result they endure a slow and strained progression to attain a similar level of academic achievement than their class peers. To overcome some of these issues, the implementation of computer based learning programmes has been suggested to improve pupils reading. Svensson et al., (2019), Herbert et al., (2018) and Hughes, Phillips and Reed (2013) research in school practice found reading programs were used to aid pupils with poor reading fluency and particularly those with more severe difficulties. Whilst this evidence supports the notion that computer programs help pupils advance in their reading abilities, these studies also identified lack of motivation from teachers as a major barrier in converting pupils in voracious readers, and this ultimately had a detrimental effect on pupils reading comprehension. In a similar vein, Glance (2015) emphasises how the integration of technology in primary schools is ineffective in improving outcomes for all pupils due to inconsistent teaching training and thus this intervention poses constraints as a effective method of ‘customized instruction’ for children’s development in the present day.

Another primary problem children with dyslexia encounter is difficulties with phonemic awareness, which hinders spelling and word reading efficiency. The tutoring of sound-symbol association (e.g phonics) targets difficulty in identifying sounds in spoken words and overall weaves literacy into the classroom. Moreover, a study found pupils with dyslexia have a higher propensity for creative thinking, than normal developing students. In consideration of this, teachers have embraced sensory activities such as flashcards to further develop pupils’ acquisition of vocabulary and spelling. In essence, the use of flash card learning sustained the attention of all pupils and in turn succesffully encouraged active recall of factual knowledge. However, despite this development educational critics argue there is insufficient evidence to suggest that such an approach is favorable for children with dyslexia transitioning into early adolescence, as a majority studies were deprived of repeated observations, whilst the learning disorder is classified as a long term condition.

Developmental psyhcologist Vygotsky (1978) proposes social interaction is vital in the development of children’s cognition. It’s through ‘social interaction’ children learn from each other. These notions form the basis of what Vygotsky has termed as the ‘zone of proximal development’ (ZPD) which illustrates children’s learning can be efficiently amplified with the assistance of classmates and adults. With regards to children with dsylexia, the role of support staff is vital in promoting and supporting an inclusive school environment. Educational researchers found the presence of learning mentors in mainstream classrooms allowed dyslexic pupils to enhance their learning experiences by extending their comprehension beyond classroom teaching and hence work towards the expected level of development of their age group. Even though this approach appears to show radical change in the inclusive education sector, pupils with dyslexia may obtain constant academic support from learning mentors than other pupils in the classroom,which can be recognised as school segregation and ultimately disrupt the educational progress of peers. Nevertheless, studies reveal collaborative learning is another educational strategy, that could improve classroom teaching and meet the needs of dsylexic pupils. Working collaboratively delivers learning opportunities that have specific advanatges for children with dyslexia, as it exposes them to the individual perceptions that others may have with a situation or problem. This reflects the different abilities of group members and the make for an ‘interactive exchange’ helps deepen and broaden all children’s understanding. Although, reserach indicates individual differences in groups may confound the effect of social learning and thus provoke the possibility of an unwilling participation by pupils in school affairs (Denscombe, 2014). In terms of children with dyslexia, they may detach themselves from interacting with other children and as a result develop mental health difficulties.

And lastly, educational practitioners propose secure attachments with parents promotes a child’s social development.

Dyslexia is a learning disorder that causes a difficulty reading, this is caused by problems identifying speech sounds and the way that they relate to letters and words. Dyslexia is also classified as a reading disability, as it affects the areas of the brain that are responsible for processing language. The cause of dyslexia is still not completely clear but anatomical and brain imagery thinks about appear differences within the way the brain of a dyslexic person develops and functions. Most people with dyslexia have been found to have issues with distinguishing the separate speech sounds inside a word and learning how letters represent those sounds this is a key figure in their reading troubles. Dyslexia isn’t due to the need for insights or want to learn with suitable teaching strategies dyslexia can learn effectively. Here is something to recognize if you or your son or daughter has dyslexia.

Kids before school. They start talking late, learning new words slowly, problems forming words correctly, such as reversing sounds in words or confusing words that sound alike, problems remembering or naming letters, numbers and colours, difficulty learning nursery rhymes or playing rhyming games.

School-age kids. Reading well below the expected level for age, problems processing and understanding what he or she hears, difficulty finding the right word or forming answers to questions, problems remembering the sequence of things, difficulty seeing, similarities and differences in letters and words, inability to sound out the pronunciation of an unfamiliar word, difficulty spelling, spending an unusually long time completing tasks that involve reading or writing and avoiding activities that involve reading out loud.

Teens/adults – dyslexia signs are similar in teens and adults the signs are. Difficulty reading, including reading aloud Slow and labour-intensive reading and writing, problems spelling, avoiding activities that involve reading, mispronouncing names or words, or problems retrieving words, trouble understanding jokes or expressions that have a meaning not easily understood from the specific words, such as ‘piece of cake’ meaning ‘easy’, spending an unusually long time completing tasks that involve reading or writing difficulty summarizing story trouble learning a foreign language, difficulty memorizing and difficulty doing math problems.

The cause of a thing is because dyslexia tends to run in families, it appears to be linked to certain genes that affect how the brain processes to read.

Dyslexia does not cause mental health problems is when children with dyslexia enter schools they enter a system where there strengths and abilities are different from those around them. They then recognize their difference and their letdowns stress begins. Dyslexic children are always under constant stress as it takes them so much longer to master basic skills. This would than increases fatigue making them more susceptible to a mental health issue. Main types of mental health dyslexia have been:

1. Anxiety. Anxiety is more than just feeling stressed or worried. Stress ns anxious feeling is common o the situation where you feel under pressure. They usually pass once the stressful situation has passed. Dyslexia becomes fearful because of their constant frustration and confusion in school. These feelings are exacerbated by the inconsistencies of dyslexia. Because they may affect a student’s attention to task, not getting much attention from the teacher, feeling like they are going to fail to enter a new situation that can become extremely anxiety-provoking.
2. Depression. Depression when we all feel sad, moody and low from time to time, some people experience these feelings strongly for long periods of times and sometimes without any reason. Depression is more than just a low mood it’s a serious condition that affects your physical and mental health. Depression is also a frequent complication of dyslexia. Research shows that 20 per cent of children with dyslexia suffer from depression. People with dyslexia are most likely to become more active or misbehave to cover-up the painful moods. Dyslexics tend to have negative thoughts about themselves like negative self-image, a trend to view the world negatively and have great trouble imaging anything positive about the future.
3. Self-image. Self-image is the mental picture, generally of a kind that is quite resistant to change by looking at research form Michael Ryan, M.D. and International Dyslexia Association. That the dyslexic’s self–image appears to be extremely weak to frustration and anxiety. According to Erik Erikson, during the first years of school, every child must have some type of conflicts between a positive self–image and feelings of inferiority. If children succeed in school, they will develop positive feelings about themselves and believe that they can do anything in life. But if they meet failure and frustration they will learn that they are different from others and that they will feel low and that the environment will control them. Researchers have learnt that when typical learner succeed they credit their effect for success when they fail they tell themselves to try harder but when dyslexics succeed they feel like it was luck but they fail they see them self’s as stupid.
4. Anger. Is a strong feeling that makes you want to hurt someone or be unpleasant because of something unfair or unkind that has happened. Of the dyslexics, problems are caused by dyslexia as they curry their frustration with schools and social situations social scientist has observed that frustration produces anger. The target of the dyslexia anger is school, teachers and parents. When a dyslexic is frustrated it is hard for the teacher and parents to help them especially when they get into their teens.
5. Family problems. Family problems are caused by negative reactions and emotions such as anxiety, sadness and anger. Family members may also feel isolated, confused, exhausted and stressed when they experience family problems especially with people with learning difficulties such as dyslexic one of the most common after would be sibling rivalry with non- dyslexic children as they will feel jealous that they are getting attention n, time and money. But the dyslexic does not want the attention as it will increase negatively against the children un the family.

Teacher intervention strategies

• Don’t ask someone to read aloud if they have dyslexia because the word is going to most like misread or skipped this can course embarrassment, anger and frustration within the student.
• Don’t yell at a student or use words that make them feel let down as people with dyslexia have to work harder to produce small amounts of work and they will have difficulty staying focus when working, reading, writing and listening.
• Don’t give the same amount of workload for the student with dyslexia as they will feel like they have been given too much work and it will give than anger, frustration, moodiness and depression as they will think they can’t do it.
• Don’t get a dyslexic person to take or copy notes off the board as their difficulty reading writing and spelling it would be easier for the teacher to get the student the notes that have been written already and for the teacher to go through it separately.

I agree with all of their strategy’s for a teacher that deals with a dyslexic student I have learnt the younger you are, the more struggles you have and you can identify as you get older as soon as diagnosed. Their strategies have to help me through primary and high school as I would feel frustrated and cry every time I got called out to read in front of the classes so my parents would have to go into school and talk to the teacher to help me with different things in classes. Once they have spoken to the teacher I felt more comfortable. I wouldn’t have to read copy notes and do the same amount of workload.

Strategies for parents

• Get your child to read a lot, listening to audiobooks and following along with them, make sure they spend time reading alone quietly and alone, read a favorite book, take turns in reading and ask a question while reading the book like “what do you think is going to happen next”.
• With school work try and work closely with you child’s school’s teachers as you may need to push to get extra help but that are schools and school teachers and therefore, use technology with tablets smartphones and computers as it will get more help when they get older and try to keep their school work organized as dyslexics get stressed easy and if they can’t find their work the will stress out.
• Parents need to give their child emotional support as this can push them to be better and take their mind of other things like schoolwork. You should celebrate success, don expects perfection, let them do actives they are good and keep reminding them they love you.

The strategies that have help parents are also very true as my mum and dad would do anything to help me thought my dyslexia. I felt like they did a very good job of parenting me as they would never give up on me they would read books to me and they would me make me read out loud, I got to choose what books I could read, they would go as see the teacher I had for updates on my learning how I would feel about the work, they would organize my work for me so I could find it and they would get my support from the school when I needed it expectably in high school they help me a lot as I feel comfortable to read, write and spell.

According to Psychology Today, “Research shows that 8 to 10% of American children under the age of 18 have some type of learning disability”. When a child tries their hardest and still struggles in an area of learning, a red flag will be waived for a learning disability. With a child having a learning disability does not categorize them as lazy or not intelligent however, their brains are simply wired differently than other kids.

With processing information it will be presented differently when receiving and translating. Academic performance for a child with a learning disability will be presented slower than a normal brain.

It will be tough with a challenge of having a learning disorder, no parents would want to see their child struggle. The question of, “What could it mean for your child’s future”? The answer to that question is that they will have a future and they will succeed in anything they want to do. With a brain that translates information slower just needs to be taught in differents ways that are custom fit to their unique learning styles. Children with learning disabilities are average or above average with having intelligence. There is a gap presented between their individual future and certain achievements. Help Guide mental health and wellness says, “Learning disabilities could be referred to as “ hidden disabilities”, a child could look perfectly normal but yet have a difficult demonstration in the skill expectation in education”. A life changing challenge the disability would be categorized not just as a learning disability but a learning difference.

A school psychologist is educated and trained in education and psychology, they diagnose a child by full evaluation to a classroom setting to a medical examination. When identifying a learning disability it will not be easy because of the wide variation, there is no single symptom presented in the child. A term for a learning disability is “umbrella”, meaning there are specific learning disabilities such as dyslexia, dysgraphia and dyscalculia.

Dyslexia is the most common learning disability, it is referred to as a deficiency in reading. Children with dyslexia have a hard time connecting letters when reading a page with words. The brain becomes slow when identify the sound of each letter and making the connection of each word to create a sentence. For example, a child breaking down the syllables and the recognition words that rhyme. The most common issue with having dyslexia is the difficulty with the accuracy of spelling, also writing letters backwards is categorized as having dyslexia. Adolescents and adults who have a learning disability categorized as dyslexia often try to avoid activities involving reading, especially reading in front of people.

According to Learning Disabilities Association of America, “Dysgraphia is a term used to describe difficulties with putting one’s thoughts on to paper”. The writing problems that associated with dysgraphia are spelling, grammar, punctuation and handwriting. For example, their writing can show inconsistencies such as; mixtures of print and curves, upper and lower case letters, irregular sizes and lastly shapes letters. The most common issue they ender is the difficulty of thinking and writing at the same time.

Whereas dyscalculia is described as a difficulty learning numbers related to symbols and the function to perform mathematics. For example, they have a poor comprehension of memorizing/organizing numbers, telling time and counting. The most common difficulty in understanding the concept of time which can relate to days, weeks, and months etc.

Each of the described types of learning disorders requires an appropriate approach to learning.

Is the world ready for you if you have a disability? Dyslexia is one of the learning challenges that are categorized within the disabilities. Learning challenges are not taken seriously the way it should be. In fact, it is a struggle for a dyslexic person to enroll in one of the schools. Furthermore, Diagnosing dyslexia in its early stages is quite challenging. There are enormous difficulties facing the dyslexic person and the people around him/her such as understanding the situation from the beginning, developing skills, and communicating socially.

People with and around dyslexia are challenged all the time. “The essence feature of dyslexia is a problem with word decoding, which in turn impacts spelling performance and the development of reading fluency.” (Snowling, 2012). Parents see a blurry picture before getting a better picture or knowledge about dyslexia in order to diagnose the status of their child. It could take years before the final identification to the problem. In an interview of a short documentary film about dyslexic, a young boy Charlie and how his family members are dealing with this situation at home. Mary, the mother of the young boy states that “The first clue was after watching an Indian film about a dyslexic boy, who had very similar symptoms to our son.” (Charlie, 2015). The family had a better comprehension only after observing up normal behavior in their son’s way of behaving. Only after comparing the behavior of the young boy’s character in the movie, they have come to a better conclusion. Furthermore, Mary continues “Charlie started school at the age of five, he showed the normal challenges. By the time he was six, he was definitely struggling and by the time he was seven he was falling behind.” (Charlie, 2015). This left Charlie’s family anxious, wondering about the future of their son. However, with the family’s support, the learning journey continues and develops all the way. These challenges started to make sense once they are solved or easen on the education level for the young boy. Meanwhile, their priority was to find a suitable school with specialized teachers. This showed a new level of challenges for the boy and his family.

The dyslexic person is facing many challenges in different forms; one that could show up is education. Not every school is ready and prepared to welcome students with ‘Specific Learning Difficulties’. “Research conducted in UK… interviews with tutors found that over a third of all participants said that they had not received the training they needed to support the students…” (Bell, 2001) This rests a great responsibility on the international education system to provide what is needed for a better education and also to raise awareness on the issue. On the other hand, individuals remain short-handed without education support at schools. Their duties at home toward their children remain incomplete. Furthermore, special learning methods cost more than regular education. For instance, the support which is needed in these situations requires trained teachers, utilities and special tools to present useful learning environments and assessments. Moreover, these tools also need to be done along with special practices and activities to enhance the skills level. “Music practices improved categorical perception, a cornerstone of speech perception that has been largely investigated in children with dyslexia.” (Chobert Julie et al, 2019). In other words, students with dyslexia should practice creative activities in order to develop their skills. As a result the bigger responsibility remains with the families in their continuous in support and development of their children’s learning skills. When asking Charlie’s family in this regard about the possible ways to continue providing the supportive activities to their child with a lower cost, they said: The least we can do is start from home “reading every night, visual clue’s around the house, to help him identify the words…” (Charlie, 2015). For Charlie’s family and perhaps for many others with disabled child; this remains nonstop responsibility with a lot of obstacles along the way.

Perspectives differ in how the dyslexic person sees himself and how others see him. “Self-concept is the complex image an individual holds of themselves which fulfils a number of significant functions: it grants the individuals to interpret and find meaning in life experiences, and to maintain a coherent image of themselves in relation to the external world…” (FRAZIER, 2016). On self-perspective, the dyslexic person could lack self-confidence; however this may differ from one person to another. Furthermore, when raising a disabled child, the way he or she is brought up plays a big role in shaping the child’s personality. On the other hand, how the disabled (dyslexic) child views himself within the disability and the world around him/her; all depend on coping and reacting to different situations. Secondly, the dyslexic person might face problems/challenges when socializing. Communicating with others at an early age, whether at home or at school is very important for children. Moreover, the dyslexic child is more highly to be bullied, isolated at school.

“Pupils with dyslexia and a control group of typically developing children. They found that students with ASD experienced more social rejection and fewer acceptances than both other groups. In addition, the students with ASD reported higher rates of bullying and lower levels of social support from classmates. Students with ASD tend to have more isolated environment connections to peers…” (Locke, Ishijima, Kasari, & London, 2010). (Whitney B. Griffin, 2019).

On the other hand, these obstacles could be reduced through bringing awareness via education on the matter in all education platforms. Media plays a vital role in raising awareness and engaging children in sports activities and is one key element in dealing with the matter. This will enhance the chance for a better understanding and tolerance on the case. This will also decrease isolation and perhaps prevent violence among children.

In conclusion, diagnosing the status and dealing with the case from the beginning, moving on with the long education journey and reflection of the self and society are all conflicts that could stand in face of the dyslexia as well as other disabilities. Continuing learning and developing the skills, along with greater comprehension will eventually the path of the these children.

Critical Thinking Thesis: Learning Disabilities, specifically dyslexia

This topic interests me because I am familiar with people who suffer from learning disabilities. This made me want to explore in detail, the learning disability called dyslexia. I have a younger sibling who has not yet been definitively diagnosed with a learning disability however, specialists say that he has a 25% delay. I also have a nephew that was diagnosed with autism. This is why studying about learning challenges and disabilities interests me. Dyslexia is a very known learning disability but not many people know how it is diagnosed, or the extent of the challenges that someone with dyslexia may face. In this paper, I will describe what dyslexia is, by providing a specified definition and I will be differentiating between the different forms to provide additional knowledge of the disability. I will also analyze the variety of tests that Psychologists use to diagnose dyslexia and I will explore dyslexia through the lens of another country to compare the norms and understanding of this learning disability to the U.S.

Dyslexia is a learning disability that affects skills such as language, reading, and comprehension. According to Hudson and colleagues, “Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neuro-biological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction.” (Hudson et al., 2007).

People with dyslexia often has differences in the way that their brains are structured. Which in turn may affect their reading skills, phonological skills, and overall language abilities. Some of the differences in brain structure include:

“people with dyslexia have less gray matter in the left parietotemporal area (Area A in Figure 2) than non-dyslexic individuals. Having less gray matter in this region of the brain could lead to problems processing the sound structure of language (phonological awareness). Many people with dyslexia also have less white matter in this same area than average readers, which is important because more white matter is correlated with increased reading skills (Deutsch, Dougherty, Bammer, Siok, Gabrieli, & Wandell, 2005). Having less white matter could lessen the ability or efficiency of the regions of the brain to communicate with one another. (Hudson et al., 2007)”

These differences in brain structure cause people with dyslexia to face difficulties, especially in areas that require reading.

Psychologists use an array of tests to help them definitively diagnose someone with a learning disability. In this case, for dyslexia, they examine areas such as oral and written language, reading, achievement, intelligence, articulation, social skills, and motor skills. Testing in all of these areas helps provide specialists with thorough knowledge of capacities where dyslexic people may be suffering in. Depending on the age of the person, specialists may use different tests to diagnose them. As given by the University of Michigan, separated by age groups, some examples of these tests are:

For ages 0-5 years old some of tests are:

• Assessing Linguistic Behaviors Communication Intentions Scale- known as ALB is a test that examines language development, cognitive, and social skills
• Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing- a test that examines the processing skills of a child and their phonological skills (Reading)
• Wechsler-Individual Achievement Test- a test that examines achievements in mathematics, oral & written language, and reading (Achievement)
• Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales- a test that is taken by a child’s caregiver to examine their skills used in day-to-day situations (Social)

For ages 6-8 years old some of the tests are:

• Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals- a test that examines difficulties in language (Oral and Written Language)
• Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing- a test that examines processing skills of a child and their phonological skills (Reading)
• Woodcock Johnson-III Tests of Achievement- a test that examines achievement in language, mathematics, and reading (Achievement)
• McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities- a test that examines a child’s intelligence in areas such as memory, cognitive abilities, verbal skills, etc. (Intelligence)

For ages 9-11 years old some tests are:

• Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test- measures vocabulary- a test that examines how a child’s vocabulary is developing by have having them analyze photographs (Oral and Written Language)
• Arizona Articulation Proficiency Scale- a test that examines how well children pronounce and articulate vowels and consonants (Articulation)
• Test of Problem Solving- a test that examines how a child goes through their reasoning process (Social)
• The Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration- is a test that examines how well a child’s motor and visual abilities correspond (Motor Skills)

For ages 12-14 years old some tests are:

• Receptive One-Word Vocabulary Test- is a test that examines how a child equates concepts and objects to a name (Oral and Written Language)
• Gray Oral Reading Tests- is a test that examines aspects of reading (comprehension & fluency) (Reading)
• Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation- a test that examines how well children pronounce and articulate vowels and consonants for each word position (Articulation)
• The Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration- is a test that examines how well a child’s motor and visual abilities correspond (Motor Skills)

For ages 14-18 years old some tests are:

• Test of Auditory Processing Skills- is a test that examines how a person reacts once they hear a sound (Oral and Written Language)
• Qualitative Reading Inventory- is a test that examines how well a person reads on a high school level (Reading)
• Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children- is a test that examines the cognitive skills and how a pprocessesrocess information (Intelligence)
• Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale- a test that is taken by a child’s caregiver to examine their social abilities used in day-to-day situations (Social)

For ages 18-25 years old some tests are:

• Oral and Written Language Scale: Written Expression- is a test that examines areas such as spelling, listening comprehension, handwriting, etc. (Written and Oral Language)
• Wechsler Individual Achievement Test- a test that examines achievements in mathematics, oral & written language, and reading, etc. (Achievement)
• Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities- is a test that examines achievements in areas such as cognitive skills, processing sk, and visual-spatial thinking, etc. (Intelligence)
• Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales- a test that is taken by a child’s caregiver to examine their social abilities used in day-to-day situations (Social)

These examples are not inclusive of all of the forms of tests that are available to help diagnose people with dyslexia and learning disabilities, these are only a select few. There are many more tests that professionals could use to diagnose someone depending on what the areas that they need to examine.

Many people assume that dyslexia is just a condition that is limited to seeing letters backward. However, many people are unaware that there are several forms of dyslexia. Depending on the type, dyslexic people may be affected in different and various ways. Some of the different forms of dyslexia include:

• Phonological Dyslexia- difficulties in forming single sounds from larger words
• Surface Dyslexia- requires people to take more time during the processing period.
• Visual Dyslexia- Difficulty connecting what image the brain receives compared to what the eyes see. Difficulty with visual processing, spelling, etc.
• Primary Dyslexia- dyslexia is the outcome of genetics receive from parents most likely
• Secondary/Developmental Dyslexia- brain development problems that can lead to neurological damage
• Trauma Dyslexia/Acquired Dyslexia- Trauma or disease that causes a brain injury that leads to difficulties in language processing

Dyslexia is a complex learning disability that not only involves difficulties with reading. There are so many factors as those listed above, that can make it challenging to learn with this disability.

With this background information explaining what dyslexia is, how it is diagnosed, and the different types of the disability. I will explore how this learning disability is observed by teachers in Kuwait. This will provide a point of comparison for how dyslexia is viewed in the United States versus other countries. There was a study conducted on teachers of primary school in Kuwait to assess their understanding of dyslexia. Researchers wanted to see if teachers in Kuwait could recognize the early signs and symptoms of the disability and to analyze how prepared they are to help students that have dyslexia. 75 primary school teachers were given a survey that included questions of their demographic such as gender, degree held, experience with teaching, and nationality. This survey also asked questions to analyze their knowledge of dyslexia, how much experience they’ve had with the disability, how equipped they are to handle students that have it, and if they can recognize some early signs and symptoms of the disability. Results of this investigation showed that of the primary school teachers in Kuwait that were surveyed, they were not equipped to teach a student with dyslexia, showing that teachers did very little research on dyslexia or they held very little knowledge of the disability and how it could affect their students. “13.3% of teachers never attended a workshop on dyslexia and 21.9% of them never only attended one workshop held by the Kuwaiti Dyslexia Society.” This means that teachers in Kuwait do not have much training on how to aid students with dyslexia. Kuwaiti primary school teachers also could not recognize the early signs and symptoms of the disability. “Only 6.9% of the teachers that were tested held a lot of know about dyslexia and only 14% held a satisfactory level of knowledge regarding the disability.” (Aladwani & Shaye, 2012) This study concluded that teachers were unable to diagnose, recognize, and to help treat students that have dyslexia in Kuwait. It is important to compare dyslexia within global areas because it shows how in America, learning disabilities have become a very well-known idea and children are frequently diagnosed with them, compared to Kuwait, where teachers are not even prepared to help students with the disability progress in school. From this study, one can gather that learning disabilities are not as usual and common in other areas as they are in America. While it may be a problem that students face, it is not relevant to the education of teachers.

From a philosophical perspective, people with learning disabilities are often enabled regarding academics and this causes them to face issues with thinking independently for themselves and critically. The philosophers of difference which is a group of French philosophers is comprised of Foucault, Derrida, Guattari, and Deleuze. They believe that people affected with learning disabilities should be using different ways of thinking and theories such as transgression and the rhizome to promote independence and individualized thinking for people that have learning disabilities. Transgression describes thinking that challenges limitations and constrictions. Foucault believed that transgression will encourage people with learning disabilities to “shape their own identities by subverting the norms that compel them to repeatedly perform as marginal.” (Allan, 2011) This will allow them to focus more on themselves and go through life guided by their own ways of thinking and avoid them from feeling enabled and controlled by others. Deleuze and Guattari explained a theory called the rhizome which describes how learning should not have a distinct foundation or connectivity to other ideas in order to master a topic. They describe how binarism causes people who has trouble memorizing information and repeating or regurgitating facts to fall behind in the education system. Breaking the idea of binarism in education allows people to create new practices of knowledge without the necessity of building upon an already existing knowledge. Deconstruction is the idea of how we can critically think about and interpret readings and texts. It states that we should not only focus on the main interpretation of a text, but we should find other discourses that are important to the reading outside of the obvious interpretation. Deconstruction will help people who have learning disabilities with undecidability and subjectivity. It will allow them to provide more information about this marginalized group of people. It lets people to understand learning disabilities from a different perspective.

While taking in the suggested theories from philosophers, some treatments of dyslexia include both physical and occupational therapy if they are having difficulties with motor skills and abilities. Speech therapist are a good tool to help them if they have language difficulties. According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, a good treatment plan for people suffering from dyslexia will include “The critical elements for effective intervention include individualization, feedback and guidance, ongoing assessment, and regular ongoing practice.” (Handler, 2011) One-on-one instruction by a professional trained to assist students with dyslexia is also a good treatment option. This allows students to practice and become more exposed to language and phonological difficulties that they may be facing and be able to work through them with someone who will work on their educational weaknesses with them.

In summation, dyslexia is a complex learning disability that entails many issues such as phonological disorders, reading, spelling, comprehension, information processing time, etc. Due to the numerous forms of tests that can be utilized by professionals and psychologists, I think that it is not as difficult to diagnose someone with learning disabilities and dyslexia in today’s time. I believe that it’s important to study issues such as learning disabilities because it can impact someone’s ability to learn and may make it challenging for them. Philosophers believe that educators may be supporting and enabling students with a learning disability in a way that does not encourage their individuality and freedom to think how and as they want to. By applying the recommended theories of the philosophers to educating people with learning disabilities, it could make learning more fulfilling for them and make them feel as if they are in control of their education. It could also allow them to practice and exercise skills and abilities that may be affected by the learning disability. From writing this paper, I learned that the United States is much more aware, familiar, and well informed about all the things concerning learning disabilities such as diagnosing, having, and treating them. Here, a disability such as dyslexia is not uncommon for a teacher to see in an education setting. There is no cure for this disability but there are some treatments that can help people progress and make reading and language less difficult.

Works Cited Page

1. Aladwani, Amel M., and Shaye S. Al Shaye. “Primary School Teachers’ Knowledge and Awareness of Dyslexia in Kuwaiti Students.” Education, vol. 132, no. 3, Jan. 2012, pp. 499-516. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ991102&site=eds-live.
2. Allan, Julie. “Complicating, Not Explicating: Taking up Philosophy in Learning Disability Research.” Learning Disability Quarterly, vol. 34, no. 2, Jan 2011, pp. 153-161. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ931426&site=eds-live.
3. Cicerchia, Meredith. “6 Different Types of Dyslexia and How to Help.” Touch-Type Read and Spell (TTRS), 7 Apr. 2019, www.readandspell.com/us/different-types-of-dyslexia.
4. Roxanne F. Hudson, et al. “Dyslexia and the Brain: What Does Current Research Tell Us?” The Reading Teacher, vol. 60, no. 6. 207, p. 506. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsjsr&AN=edsjsr.20204497&site=eds-live.
5. Sheryl M. Handler, Walter M. Fierson, the Section on Ophthalmology and Council on Children with Disabilities, American Academy of Ophthalmology, American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus, and American Association of Certified Orthoptists
6. Pediatrics Mar 2011, 127 (3) e818-e856; DOI: 10.1542/peds.2010-3670
7. “Tests for Dyslexia and Learning Disabilities.” Dyslexia Help at the University of Michigan, dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/dyslexics/learn-about-dyslexia/dyslexia-testing/tests#9.

Affecting between 5 to 10 percent of people, dyslexia is a common condition characterized by a learning disability in reading (Team, 2019). Those who are dyslexic often have trouble reading at a stable pace and they have a hard time reading without stumbling over words and making mistakes (Team, 2019). In addition, they struggle also with comprehension, writing, spelling and even math (Team, 2019). But beyond just the clinical definition, dyslexia has a deeper effect on the people who have it, specifically in their emotional and social lives. First we will need to fully understand the clinical aspects of dyslexia and debunk some common myths about this condition. By learning the clinical portion, a better understanding of dyslexia can develop and a stronger sense of how it affects the lives of those who are afflicted will be gained.

Clinical Aspects

Although some may assume dyslexia is caused by a problem with intelligence, people who are dyslexic actually have normal intelligence and normal vision (Dyslexia, 2017). What dyslexia does affect are the areas of the brain which process language (Dyslexia, 2017). This in turn, causes the difficulties in reading, comprehension and other areas. There are currently no cures for dyslexia but early assessment and intervention play a major role in bringing about the best results (Dyslexia, 2017).

Symptoms

In order to diagnose and help those with this condition, it must quickly be recognized and then addressed. The Mayo Clinic actually provides a very detailed list of symptoms that parents can use when trying to determine if their child may have dyslexia (Dyslexia, 2017). It also features symptoms that may be present in older age groups such as teens and adults (Dyslexia, 2017).

AGE GROUP SYMPTOMS

Before School

• Late talking
• Learning new words slowly
• Problems forming words correctly, such as reversing sounds in words or confusing words that sound alike
• Problems remembering or naming letters, numbers and colors
• Difficulty learning nursery rhymes or playing rhyming games

School Age

• Reading well below the expected level for age
• Problems processing and understanding what he or she hears
• Difficulty finding the right word or forming answers to questions
• Problems remembering the sequence of things
• Difficulty seeing (and occasionally hearing) similarities and differences in letters and words
• Inability to sound out the pronunciation of an unfamiliar word
• Difficulty spelling
• Spending an unusually long time completing tasks that involve reading or writing
• Avoiding activities that involve reading

Teens and Adults

• Difficulty reading, including reading aloud
• Slow and labor-intensive reading and writing
• Problems spelling
• Avoiding activities that involve reading
• Mispronouncing names or words, or problems retrieving words
• Trouble understanding jokes or expressions that have a meaning not easily understood from the specific words (idioms), such as ‘piece of cake’ meaning ‘easy’
• Spending an unusually long time completing tasks that involve reading or writing
• Difficulty summarizing a story
• Trouble learning a foreign language
• Difficulty memorizing
• Difficulty doing math problems

Causes

Although scientists have yet to pinpoint the exact cause of dyslexia, the condition has proven to be very hereditary (Dyslexia, 2017). It tends to run in families and appears to be related to certain genes which inhibit the brain’s ability to process language and reading (Dyslexia, 2017). Risk factors that may lead to dyslexia include:

• A family history of dyslexia or other learning disabilities (Dyslexia, 2017)
• Premature birth or low birth weight (Dyslexia, 2017)
• Exposure during pregnancy to nicotine, drugs, alcohol or infection that may alter brain development in the fetus (Dyslexia, 2017)
• Individual differences in the parts of the brain that enable reading (Dyslexia, 2017)

Complications

Problems caused by dyslexia can range from learning issues to social problems and various other complications (Dyslexia, 2017). One major impact is that dyslexia can impede on the person’s ability to learn and comprehend information. This is due to the fact that reading is one of the most important skills because it serves as the foundation for other school subjects (Dyslexia, 2017). In order to understand science material or comprehend equations in mathematics, a child needs to know how to read. So, in people with dyslexia, there are major complications to the way that they can process and intake information because there is an issue with their reading (Dyslexia, 2017). Other pressing issues caused by dyslexia are social problems. When left untreated, dyslexia can cause behavioral problems such as depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, aggression and withdrawal (Dyslexia, 2017). This can lead to rifts between the afflicted person and his/her family and friends. The last major impact is the effect dyslexia can have on a person’s ability to reach his/her fullest potential (Dyslexia, 2017). When this does not happen, children grow up with the inability to develop mentally and emotionally because of reading and comprehension complications (Dyslexia, 2017). These effects can have long-term consequences on a person’s educational, social and economic state.

Social and Emotional Aspects

As aforementioned, dyslexia can lead to a plethora of complications, mostly including social and developmental consequences. In fact, in order to fulfill their hopes and dreams, people with dyslexia must work extra hard to overcome the many barriers they are faced with. In order to give them a better chance at attaining that fulfillment, it is imperative that they are assessed at an early age (Sako, 2016). In fact, studies have shown that “people with dyslexia learn better once they are taught in their preferred learning style (Sako, 2016).” However, people should never assume that children with dyslexia can learn to read properly if they just ‘try harder’ (Morin, 2019). It has to be understood that in kids with dyslexia, the brain functions differently (Morin, 2019). Although continuing to read over a long period of time can stimulate brain activity and alter comprehension issues, it is a very moderate change. What really helps approaching them with the right type of instruction (Morin, 2019). With good instruction and more importantly and abundance of patience, dyslexic kids can and will improve in their quality of reading (Morin, 2019).

Major emotional problems that arise from living with dyslexia are constant feelings of frustration and discouragement. “The frustration of children with dyslexia often centers on their inability to meet expectations (Sako, 2016).” They have to live with the pain of feeling as though they will never be able to achieve other people’s expectations or standards. Additionally they may feel as though they can never surpass their inability to achieve goals. What are some emotions that may result from these feelings of frustration?

Well first, dyslexic people feel a lot of anxiety. Anxiety is a very common emotional symptom or manifestation of frustrated feelings (Sako, 2016). Dyslexic children become very dreadful of school because they experience constant frustration and confusion (Sako, 2016). As a result, when entering into adulthood, they avoid branching out or getting into new, unfamiliar situations because they feel it will lead to inevitable disappointment and failure (Sako, 2016).

Dyslexia can also lead to the manifestation of anger. According to Enkeleda Sako’s (2019) excerpt on The Emotional and Social Effects of Dyslexia:

Many of the emotional problems caused by dyslexia occur out of frustration with school or social situations. Social scientists have frequently observed that frustration produces anger. This can be clearly seen in many dyslexics. The obvious target of the dyslexic’s anger would be schools and teachers. However, it is also common for the dyslexic to vent his anger on his parents. Mothers are particularly likely to feel the dyslexic’s wrath. Often, the child sits on his anger during school to the point of being extremely passive. However, once he is in the safe environment of home, these very powerful feelings erupt and are often directed toward the mother. Ironically, it is the child’s trust of the mother that allows him to vent his anger.

Another major trigger for feelings of anger are the expectations of society for young dyslexic adolescents. As youngsters reach adolescence, society expects them to become independent. The tension between the expectation of independence and the child’s learned dependence causes great internal conflicts. The adolescent dyslexic uses his anger to break away from those people on which he feels so dependent. Because of these factors, it may be difficult for parents to help their teenage dyslexic. Instead, peer tutoring or a concerned young adult may be better able to intervene and help the child. (Sako, 2019)

These feelings of anger are definitely far from healthy because not only are they projected on to the wrong people, such as the parents, it also leads to further isolation and feelings of loneliness.

Other emotional struggles deal with self-image or the way the dyslexic person views him/herself (Sako, 2019). They will most likely fluctuate between feelings of vulnerability and feelings of inferiority because they genuinely do not believe they can succeed in life (Sako, 2019). According to Erik Erikson, issues concerning self image must be resolved during the first years of school because if they are not, it can a have a long-lasting effect well into adulthood (Sako, 2019).

Dyslexic people also struggle with feelings of depression, which is a frequent complication (Sako, 2019). They are more prone to having intense feelings of sorrow and pain because of their low self-esteems (Sako, 2019). They tend to have both negative thoughts as a well as a negative perspective of the world (Sako, 2019). They also suffer a loss of confidence and severe loss of zeal for learning (Sako, 2019). All of these complications can continue well into adulthood and can very much lead to family problems and a nonexistent social life (Sako, 2019). So now the biggest question is what can be done? Are there any forms of help for those who suffer the emotional and social effects of living with dyslexia? The simple answer is yes!

Overcoming the Odds

The biggest help to those who are living with dyslexia is just having someone who is extremely supportive and understanding (Sako, 2019). Just like anyone else, dyslexic children really need the presence of someone who is willing to remain patient and guide them while they figure out their emotions like pain, frustration, anger and confusion. Other helpful factors are:

1. Education: Parents of dyslexic children are not the only people who should understand the condition. Everyone needs to educate themselves because this allows for better communication and it will help to lessen tensions especially in schools. (Sako, 2019)
2. Testing: Assessing whether or not a child is dyslexic can have a huge impact on how they will group up to be. The faster it is detected, the faster they can receive the help they need. (Sako, 2019)
3. Self-Advocacy: this directly correlates with education because the dyslexic person themselves need to understand their condition and true capacities. “A dyslexic person who understands their diagnosis can be taught to advocate for themselves (Sako, 2019).”

When all of these factors are applied, it could mean a huge help for someone who has dyslexia. Dyslexia does not have to be a condition that defines who they are and what they can do. People who are dyslexic are more than capable of overcoming the obstacles they face. We can all have a part in aiding them with their journey by staying educated and knowing the facts, remaining patient and most importantly being understanding. If everyone is able to fulfill those aspects, then people living with dyslexia no longer have to suffer feelings of depression or frustration.

The conception of learning disabilities has been around since the twentieth century, individual learners with these difficulties are often unable to read, write or comprehend mathematical problems smoothly (The British Dyslexia Association 2007). There are several specific learning difficulties which include dyspraxia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, dyslexia and other learning difficulties. For the purpose of this essay, the specific learning disability focused on will be dyslexia. Dyslexia was first coined by Rudolf Berlin, using it as a term to help describe reading difficulties. Today the Dyslexia Association of Ireland (2019) defines dyslexia as a specific learning difficulty affecting the acquisition of fluent and accurate reading and spelling skills. It is broadly known that Dyslexia is the most common learning disability, that being said there is no consensus among experts on the definition of dyslexia nor is there agreement on its causes, hence there are many schools of thought, leading to different theories about dyslexia (Reid 2009). On the contrary dyslexia’s associated difficulties are unanimous and it is often characterised by poor spelling, word reversals, poor recall, poor organisation skills, avoiding reading aloud and written tasks, just to name a few. Thus, the aim of this paper is to critically evaluate evidenced based research regarding reading interventions for individuals with dyslexia. In particular ARROW, Repeated Reading and Units of Sound will be analysed, however before that this essay will briefly delve into the history of Dyslexia and the main theories of Dyslexia namely the Phonological theory, the Magnocellular theory, the Double Deficit theory and the Cerebellar theory.

The term dyslexia has been circulating for over one hundred years. Critchley (1970) as cited in J M Fletcher (2009, p26) states that ‘earlier definitions identified dyslexia as a disorder of reading in the presence of average intelligence, conventional instruction and socio-economic status’. Said definitions have been denounced as they are deemed none inclusive, most of these earlier definitions focused on a visual impairment. Past research on dyslexia also focused on brain dysfunction studies a prime example of this is Benton’s 1975 research where he assessed brain dysfunction to understand the causes of dyslexia and suitable treatment. Thankfully, due to research there is better knowledge of both the neurobiological, physical, cognitive and environmental elements leading to dyslexia. Recent research has now advanced and broadened to include phonological, environmental and cognitive aspects advocating “reading as primarily a linguistic skill, contrary to the once popular notion that it is primarily a visual skill” Vellutino et al (2004, p12). Additionally, it is currently believed that ‘the origins of dyslexia are neurobiological with strong evidence for heritability but environmental factors also shape and ameliorate risk for dyslexia’ Fletcher (2009, p 254). It is also noted that this shift in defining dyslexia is due to advances in scientific knowledge of reading difficulties, credited to the recent Fletcher (2009).

Theories of dyslexia are continuously evolving however, the four dominant theories include the Phonological theory, the Magnocellular theory, the Double Deficit theory and the Cerebellar theory. The Phonological theory purposes dyslexia as a difficulty in storing and recovery of speech sounds, affecting phonemes which are the smallest units of speech. It claims a person with dyslexia will find it difficult to break down words into their smallest units of sound and build them up again, ultimately affecting a person’s ability to remember, understand and reproduce speech sounds. Ramus (2003) explains how alphabetic systems involves learning the grapheme/phoneme correspondence and advises that if speech sounds are poorly represented, stored or retrieved the basics of learning to read will be affected. This theory does not however account for any sensory and motor aspects of dyslexia. Ramus (2003, p101) describes ‘the major weakness of the phonological theory is its in ability to explain the occurrence of sensory and motor disorder in dyslexic individuals.’ Nonetheless, though theorists have differing views on the nature of phonological issues, they agree on the central and causal role of phonology in dyslexia.

The Cerebellar theory delves into the functionality of the cerebellum and cognitive issues associated with this. The Cerebellum is a region in the back of the brain responsible for coordination of voluntary muscle movements, posture and balance. This theory relies on the fact that motor control, speech and phonological processing are learned. Support for this has come from evidence of poor performance in motor tasks, time estimation and non-motor cerebellar tasks in dyslexics. Brain imaging studies have also illustrated discrepancies in anatomical, metabolic and activation areas of the cerebellum of a person with dyslexia Leonard et al (2001). This intervention has been heavily critised as it is extremely difficult to determine the actual proportion of dyslexic individuals with motor control problems, it also does not take into account any sensory aspect.

The Magnocellular theory maintains that dyslexia is caused by an aural, visual and tactile breakdown. It suggests that the causation of dyslexia is rooted in problems with processing moving visual information, which is fundamentally intricacies in the magnocellular pathway of the brain. Such difficulties attempt to explain a dyslexic person’s letter reversal and text tracking struggles. This theory was shaped by Stein and Walsh (1997) and it too has been critised, this is due to conflicting data on visual and auditory disorders and it is not certain that auditory deficits do not yield dyslexia. ‘Criticism of the visual side of the Magnocellular theory also focuses on failures to replicate findings of a visual deficit’ Ramus (2003 p854).

Lastly the double deficit theory suggests that people with dyslexia may have difficulties with phonology, which is our awareness of the sounds in words and processing speed which can lead to reading problems ranging from mild to severe. In particular word recall can be very challenging according to this theory. Ultimately a person that has both a processing speed and phonological concern will inevitably have greater reading complications to that say of a person with one of the above impairments. However, ‘despite extensive behavioural research, the brain basis of poor reading with a double- deficit has never been investigated’ (Norton 2014, p278), in fact some studies argue that rapid automatized naming and phonological awareness are too similar to separate into two entities, nonetheless this theory maintains that both are separate deficits. In conclusion, it is possible that the causation of dyslexia is a combination of all of the above theories or ‘of course it is possible that these theories are true of different individuals’ Ramus (2003, p844) but ultimately the cause of dyslexia is open to debate.

Reading interventions for people with dyslexia ‘should entail training in phoneme awareness, letter knowledge, explicit and systematic instruction in phonics, and the application of these skills to the tasks of reading and writing’ (Duff and Clarke 2011 p5). Not all reading interventions will be successful and may result in the person not making progress. However, it has become evident that the earlier the intervention is implemented corresponds with the likelihood of the intervention being a success. Griffith and Stuart (2013) stress that 15-60% of people with dyslexia will struggle to achieve significant progress if the intervention is implemented at a later stage. This may be in part due to lack of motivation. Units of Sound is a ‘structured cumulative and multi-sensory computer-based programme that has been developed to teach reading and spelling’ Brooks et al (2006 p227). Units of sound are presented individually then built into words and then into sentences. It has been developed to enhance sentence writing, reading accuracy, automaticity and decoding. It was created in 2006 by Dyslexia Action and is designed for students to work and learn independently on the computer in a secure context. It is aimed at both primary and secondary schools. This intervention states that a 1:1 tutor-student ratio is rarely necessary and is not recommended for mainstream students. This is due to the fact that most of the work in this intervention is individual work on the computer. Units of Sound is designed so the student works and learns independently but may be in a group setting where there is a computer for each student. However, Griffiths and Stuart (2013) and Hawkins et al (2011), contradict this outlook and maintain that some students may need 1:1 intensive teaching to make progress particularly in cases where the Dyslexia is very severe. This intervention has reached over two thousand students; however, it is not limited to children and can in fact be implement from the age of eight into adulthood. It has obtained positive results including progression in both spelling and reading ‘the surveys indicated that the teachers, students and teaching assistants who experienced the programme had mostly positive perceptions of the programme and believed that it had improved learning’ (Sheard et al 2015 p25). Hatcher, Hulme, and Snowling (2004) describe how the results of studies on especially Units of Sound and Sound Linkage demonstrate that it is possible in primary school settings to improve basic reading skills by training phoneme awareness and letter knowledge. On the contrary, this theory has also received some critique, Sheard et al (2015) claims the intervention was not implemented for the recommended time, teachers did not complete training as well as organisational and technical complications. Sheard evaluated this intervention using almost eight hundred year seven pupils across forty-five school. Schools that partook in this intervention were from socio economically deprived areas. All students that participated in this study scored below level four in English by year seven. Those that administrated the intervention obtained ten hours of initial online training, in addition to this schools received face to face training but only thirty-one out of the forty-five schools partook in this specific training. The study lasted eighteen weeks and students had sixty minutes participation time and a further thirty minutes independent work per week of the intervention. Although initially this intervention appeared favourably with positive feedback recorded, taking into consideration Sheard et al (2015) randomised control test it would appear difficult to depict a definitive conclusion. Many participants noted that improved ICT support in schools to implement such programmes would be of huge benefit to participants. The study was also compromised due to the high number of schools leaving the intervention also not all students completed necessary testing to determine if improvement was achieved, ultimately resulting in the findings being deemed weak. Furthermore, Golightly (2000) suggests that there is a large number of studies that use this balanced approach in interventions with young readers who still struggle to attain expected progress after their interventions.

Repeated reading requires reading a text numerous times, familiarising oneself with the content. This intervention can be applied in school or at home by reading with another pupil or a parent or guardian. The aim of the intervention is to develop automaticity and reduce the length of time someone with dyslexia would spend focusing on decoding the text. Ehri (1995) states that if attention is consumed by decoding the ‘little or no capacity is available for comprehension’ ultimately affecting academic success. According to Jefferson et al (2017) two thousand students participated in this intervention over a nine-month period. Following the study improvement in reading was evident. This theory is also supported by Griffith and Stuart (2013) beliefs that some students need 1:1 intensive teaching to make progress particularly when a person’s dyslexia is severe. However, there is possibility that results could have been predisposed due to students and teacher’s awareness of the study. In addition to this, Chad and Baker (2009) cited in O’ Keefe (2012) propose that results from Repeated Reading interventions were not supported by binding research and did not meet the research-based criteria, deeming findings unreliable. They claim that the seven methodological categories developed by Gersten et al. (2005), (which range from description of participants and setting to impact of variables) are usually not all tested, as certain areas lack sufficient detail to satisfy criteria. Chad and Baker (2009) did acknowledge that it was very difficult and time consuming to satisfy all criteria to the standard required. They also praised Gersten et al (2005) and stated that they should be applauded for their founding of meticulous standards of assessment in their attempts to improve the assessment and diagnosis process.

ARROW stands for Auditory, Read, Respond, Oral and Write, it was founded by Dr Colin Lane. This intervention is ICT based using a method of recording a student’s voice, known as a self-voice approach. After an initial test to establish the persons level, the intervention targets speech, spelling, reading, listening and is applicable for primary, secondary and adult settings. It is ‘centred upon a very simple but far reaching idea, that most of us think in the sound of our own voices’ Arrowtution (Arrowtution, 2019, p1). It is multi-sensory in that the person listens to speech, reads text of spoken information, responds, repeats verbal content then writes using their self-voice before self-assessing. It can be completed in groups or individually as long as each person has access to their own computer. The Department of children as cited in Arrowtution (Arrowtution, 2019, p1) describes the ARROW intervention as achieving noteworthy results. It is renowned for aiding memory recall, speech and language improvement and reading and spelling skills. Furthermore Brook (2016, p34) states ‘the Bristol study showed remarkable benefit for spelling and spectacular progress in both reading accuracy and comprehension’. This study included eighty-five year six students and spelling ages increased from 8.45 years to 9.03 years. Nugent (2011) as cited in Nugent et al (2019, p3) ‘indicates that ARROW can be an effective intervention with gains of more than a year recorded in both word reading and reading comprehension’. Brooks (2016) states the most effective interventions included highly structured schemes for improved spelling, phonological skills embedded with the broad approach for improved reading, directly targeted practise for comprehension skills and targeted use of technology such as the ARROW intervention. However, on the contrary, there is some criticism of the study such as admin bias, various tutors and timeframe of implementation of the intervention. There is also a limited amount of research on self-voice interventions entirely. Brooks et al. further addresses this issue by stating that there are still a limited number of reading interventions for students with dyslexia or specific learning difficulties.

In summary, dyslexia is lifelong will not be outgrown and plausibly present from birth. The effects of dyslexia can be moderated by individual and specific interventions. Early identification of children with dyslexia is 80% accurate, Grizzle (2007) Solity (200) emphasises the importance of regular assessment and continuous monitoring of progress, stating it is vital in determining the success of an intervention. All of the deliberated reading interventions (Units of Sound, Repeated Reading, and ARROW) recorded an improvement in students’ abilities. For interventions to be deemed successful it is imperative that they are intensive, structured, cumulative, involving phonological training, phonics and followed up with reading and writing practise of skills learned (Hatcher, Hume and Snowling 2004). However, ultimately there is evidence to suggest that even with the best practices, interventions are not always effective for persons with dyslexia Duff and Clark (2011). Crucially further research is required to fully appreciate such non responders. With conflicting research, it is difficult to evaluate these interventions in their entirety however what is undoubtedly extremely evident is that early intervention is key in persons with dyslexia making significant progress. J M Fletcher (2009) even goes so far as to claim it is even possible to prevent dyslexia in many children with early intervention.

Every teacher or educator should work hard to help all their students learn most effectively. Dyslexia Association recommends a structured literacy approach for teachers and educators when teaching children with dyslexia. Literacy approach ensure that all teaching is systematic and cumulative where dyslexic children can depends on the materials being presented in a logical orders. The teacher must continually interact and make sure all educational concepts are delivered clearly and attainably to meet the needs of every child.

Very helpful for teaching dyslexic children are multisensory lessons. On Visual Learners use pictures and multi-media material, use different colour on words, spell words anywhere in view, used different resources On Auditory Learners use software which has good auditory input, make sure that instructions are clear, talk about the book to be read or the information to be learned, use lined paper, use word bank.

On Kinesthetic learners they learn when letters are race in the air or sand or they hold the number or letters as object. Children needs to process information with adequate time and resources with their own pace. A lack of time for processing informations make consistently left work incomplete. The individual support allow a child to finish a task before moving on. Children with dyslexia can’t be forced to read aloud as this may be critical moment, as they may be self-conscious about their ability to successfully read in front of a class, it can cause unnecessary stress for dyslexic children, it is helpful to practice reading in pair.

Good organisation needs to be encouraged as they often jump to the answer. Instructions must be simple not many at once, break large tasks into smaller one to keep children on task. Children may feel anger or frustrated teacher need to look for cause of the behaviour and show the empathy and patience. Communication can be done verbal or non-verbal method for example with the cards, avoid using sarcasm. It is important to encourage the child with dyslexia to spend time what they enjoy and feel good about.

Most people who have dyslexia are the world’s great thinkers, celebrities also a billionaires. With right approach a dyslexic child can turn his/her challenge into blessing. Dyslexic people may have excellent puzzle solving skills, brilliant spatial reasoning, strong memory for stories, abstract thinkers, critical thinkers, artist, actors and many more.

Resources

1. British Dyslexia Association www.bdadyslexia.org.uk
2. http://www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/
3. Teaching strategies for dyslexic children www.dyslexiasw.com
4. How to teach a dyslexic child www.wikihow.com
5. http://www.wikihow.com/
6. http://www.dyslexiasw.com/

Dyslexia can lead to possible affect on social, emotional and behaviour problems. Person with dyslexia may have lack of confidence and low self-esteem. Children may become frustrated when they need to read loudly front of other children they feel they are unable perform the same level as their peers. This make for them an awkward social situation.

People with dyslexia may struggle to exposed themself with many words or quickly as others understands idioms or jokes. They have difficult to remember specific words or details. Children can have difficulty to read body language, facial expression and social cues. This lead to confusion about what others saying. The extremely common behaviour issue dyslexic children is avoidance. Children experience verbal and physical abuse from their peers, that make them to avoid situations in which they may be ridiculed. Often those children are afraid to take a risks and lose all beliefs in themselves and their abilities.

There are some other disorders that may appear with dyslexia:

• Dyspraxia DCD – co-ordination disorder affect fine and/or gross motor skills in children or adult.
• Dyscalculia – a presence of difficulties in mathematics, children are below expectation for individual’s opportunities.
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder ADHD – symptoms appear in many cases, there are some share common traits. Behaviour problems inattentiveness, hyperactivity
• Attention Deficit Disorder ADD – difficulties to focus on schoolwork, difficulty attending to instruction, following instructions, completing tasks and social interaction.
• Auditory Processing Disorder APD – problem where the brain is unable to process sounds in the normal way.

Children who are left untreated from dyslexia may led to behaviour problems, anxiety and aggression.

The key difficulties with learning

Dyslexia is not a learning disability-it’s a learning difference (the brain works differently). The key difficulties can be spot in early childhood with delayed of speech and lack of phonological awareness.

In early years children with dyslexia can show the signs by difficulty learning nursery rhymes, paying attention sitting still or listening the stories. Children are not able to pronounce long words properly example such as ” hecilocopte” instead of helicopter or instead of teddy bear saying “beddy bear”. There may be problems processing and understanding what child hear or difficulty seeing similarities and differences in letters and words.

Children have difficulty to read aloud even in the teenage age or adult, they try to avoid activities where is involve reading. They spend unusual time to complete the tasks that involve reading and writing. Teacher might require to provide effective learning opportunities for young learners to avoid dyslexia as dis-ability. Children have difficult understanding a jokes or expression that have meaning. There is a fear of dyslexic person to say something wrong, boring the same story or completely misunderstanding what’s being said. Their find difficult to find a new friends, they are very quiet around new people or group of people.

Children can struggle with the memory and finding hard to express themselves, finding right words to deliver. A working memory leads to difficulty with spelling and writing, remember what they have just read or not able to adapt their learning to suit the tasks they are doing. Their physical skills can be affect too such as skipping, jumping, kicking or throwing the ball, they have difficulty to do shoelaces and buttons, or cut the paper with scissors like their peer group do. All children needs to be respected how their needs and how their seeing the world.

The coping strategies

There are numerous strategies for teaching dyslexic children. Every child is different so is very important know the child and his/her interests, let them know you as the educator that this is key to build the trust and confidence to support the child. Children with dyslexia can’t hold information as efficiently as non-dyslexics, their learning is slow, difficult and sometimes impossible process. With good strategies from caring educator dyslexic child can be capable of learning and become high-achiever.

Multi sensory teaching

Multi sensory method is very effective approach for teaching children with dyslexia by using touch, sight and hearing senses. Teachers can teach through game, using mobile, tablet or using every day situations cooking, baking. Explaining mathematical process clearly maybe more then ones, when they make mistakes show them how to correct them. Very helpful are multiplication squares to use for counting. Music is relaxing and soothing on reading time or could be use for spelling words or maths facts to sing.

Learning to read and write dyslexic children have to be under one systematic theme. Letting a child to choose books help them to enjoy the books. It is important to pay attention to the irregular spelling words, sounds or plural words. Children get distracted by any sounds when they doing their homework it is always important to thing what to avoid like not to sit near window, traffic noise, television or mobile phone.

All children with dyslexia are unique by observing a child/adult we can tell what their dominant side of learning:

• Visual learners – they learn best by seeing pictures, looking at the pictures in books before they read, draw a maps, using different colours in words or using visual software program, play game in pair that improve memory.
• Kinesthetic learners – children learn most when the letters are trace the air or sand or they handle the numbers or letters as objects or when they memorise facts while moving about.
• Auditory learners – children learn best from listening it can be recorded so they can listen it again and again, they understand when you talk about the book to be read or information to be learned, very helpful is to use software with good auditory input.

Educator or teacher need to be direct and explicit when teaching a dyslexic child. Explicit means describing and providing examples clearly reasoning behind the skills until the child get the skills they need. Providing informations with clear instructions like example learning letter ‘B’ teacher demonstrate the sound and child need to repeat it back and you as a teacher giving the feedback throughout the process.

Repeating helps dyslexic children to remember. They may struggle with short term memory and it is challenging for them to remember long enough to write it down. Repeating and incorporate previous and new informations create connection between concepts to help children.

Individual Education Plan IEP identifies the special educational needs of the child where support need to be done providing specific recommendations strengths and weaknesses of a child, and defines specific curriculum adjustments.