Each country seems to have a period in its history that is referred to as the golden age. The golden age is the time of prosperity, stability, and harmony, during which great tasks are accomplished and development takes place. The eras of Han (206 BCE – 220 CE) and Tang (618 – 907 CE) Dynasties are certainly the periods that can be considered golden ages for China. The same can be said about the Gupta Empire of India, which functioned from around 320 to 550 CE. A lot of similarities among the processes that occurred in the golden ages of both China and India indicate that prosperity is often conditioned by the same factors.
The Han Dynasty – the second dynasty of Imperial China – was founded in the 3rd century BCE. The main accomplishments of the early Han dynasty are associated with the name of its first Emperor, Wu Ti (Benjamin 57). His westward expansion resulted in the widespread use of the Silk Road trade route. Moreover, Wu Ti restored the construction of the Great Wall of China, which initially began during the Ch’in Dynasty’s reign. Additionally, according to Sayre, the blossoming of Chinese literary arts began precisely under Emperor Wu (107). Having lasted for more than 400 years, the Han Dynasty collapsed due to the corruption in the government and political struggles.
When it comes to comparing the Han Dynasty in China to the Gupta Empire in India, some parallels can be drawn in terms of the political control methods. For instance, both empires had social hierarchy notions embedded in their policies. However, in Han China, inequality between social classes was almost impossible to overcome. In Gupta India, the caste system allowed people to move up in the ranks (Sayre 113). Moreover, the two empires fell in almost the same way: their leaders failed to communicate successfully, which led to domestic conflicts (Benjamin 58). Additionally, in both empires, there was one main religion: Confucianism in China and Hinduism in India. In Han China, however, religion was used to dictate the future of people in the social hierarchy (Sayre 107). By contrast, Hinduism influenced India’s policies, but it was not as heavily imposed by the government.
The fall of the Han generated chaos, which lasted for the following 400 years. Then, in the 7th century CE, came the rise of the Tang Dynasty. Tai-tsung, the son of the dynasty’s first emperor, managed to eliminate all the Tang’s political rivals and establish firm control over reunited China (Eberhard 168). According to Eberhard, art and literature continued to flourish, with poetry being the period’s greatest glory (172). The dynasty’s borders were expanding into Central Asia and Korea, and the Chinese regularly interacted with other lands, exchanging goods and ideas with the help of the Silk Road (Eberhard 174). The Tang’s decline occurred in the 9th century when factions in the central government started to feud, and around 907 CE, the dynasty collapsed.
The main parallel to draw between Tang China and the Gupta Empire is the general prosperity, which was the key reason why both these periods were considered the golden ages of their countries. Math and Math note that the times of the Gupta Empire, as well as the Tang Dynasty, were a period of overall cultural progress (927). Just like Tang China, Gupta India attracted visitors from other countries and became a melting pot for many cultures (Math and Math, 927). Additionally, external trade and commerce were on the rise in both empires.
In conclusion, the golden ages of China and India had a lot in common. That includes the presence of strong rulers and their adherence to their policies, the influence of religion on society’s life, the flourishing of art and literature, and the interaction with other cultures. Granted, there were differences in how certain practices were regulated and processes implemented, but it is only reasonable since India and China are two separate countries with their own unique characteristics.
Works Cited
Benjamin, Craig. Empires of Ancient Eurasia: The First Silk Roads Era, 100 BCE – 250 CE. Cambridge UP, 2018.
Eberhard, Wolfram. A History of China. Library of Alexandria, 2020.
Math, B. G., and Math, Praveen. “A Study on Gupta Dynasty.” International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, vol. 2, no. 12, 2021, pp. 927-932.
Sayre, Henry M. Discovering the Humanities. 3rd ed., Pearson, 2015.
The Qin dynasty had its origins from a group of people who were known as Qin. These people lived in a small land west of the Wei River. They expanded and strengthened their territory during a time that is commonly known as the Warring States Period. The people in this period took up legalism and there was no other philosophy writing accepted. Legalism in this case meant that laws that were used mostly in cases would govern people. These cases had heavy penalties and thus they turned out to be exploitative and cruel. The Qin dynasty had many challenges during legalism. However, the system of governance was well defined and hence it led to growth in the economy and the empire was productive. This brought about victory over the warring states and it was at this time that the king declared himself the emperor of China. (Morton)
Main Part
During the period of the Qin dynasty, the practice of central rule came into place. This principle permitted Qin who was the leader to govern from a centralized power form of government. In this way, he obtained the name First Emperor that was previously set aside for divine beings like the gods. In the centralized form of government, the emperor was the main decision maker and everyone including his officials followed his word. (Paludan 150) He relied on legalist intellectual counselors and though there were many challenges this method of governing became a success. This policy was associated with Han Feizi advice who stated that the leader should take all the credit for all achievements but hold the government officials responsible for their mistakes. The ruler was supposed to be immensely powerful and any effort by the officials to oppose his will was supposed to be banished. He stated that the officials should work hard and practice good judgment, but the leader must maintain a clean reputation. He also insisted that no one person was to yearn for the power that the leader held in his dictatorial government. The emperor was not supposed to be influenced by his officials and that is the reason why Han recommended that the emperor should not disclose his will to anybody. (Lewis)
The centralized government did not permit any opposition from anyone. Anyone who criticized the government and the policies that had been put in place was put to death. This led to the people being afraid and most of them followed the laws in place without any questions. Han Feizi writings criticized any person who left their work to go and work with any other regime as well as anyone who challenged the law with their own principles. He did not approve that people should leave their work nor should they disapprove of what their superiors say and nobody should make any close relations with other states or condemn their regime. He wrote that the laws should be strictly followed so that the superiors are respected and the rights of everyone are protected. He also emphasized that death penalties should be carried out and nobody who has broken any law should by any means go unpunished. (Israel)
The Qin dynasty had a very large and strong military base which had well trained and competent generals. The military made use of the latest war machines and weapons as well as the transportation systems in place were very efficient, something that their enemies did not possess. This high growth in the transport sector led to easy mobility in different territories. The Qin dynasty hence had a military base that was superior and efficient for protection of his kingdom. This policy can be seen in Han Feizi philosophies where he warned that the military’s brave men should not be rewarded generously and those who solved their disputes with the weapons provided in the military should not be forgiven. He also emphasized that a government official should by no means be allowed to have personal soldiers and any requests they make would only be given to them if they obey the laws. (Cotterell 180)
The Qin dynasty also brought the rule of having groups of people watch each other and was supposed to report any one who broke the law. If they refused to report a wrong doer they would all be punished. The person who refused to name an offender would be sliced into two and those that brought culprits forward were rewarded the same way as a hero who had murdered an enemy of the kingdom. This was a very hard and calculated way of controlling people and managing unlawful deeds. In Han Feizi’s writings, he suggested that giving rewards and punishments was a very efficient method of observing one another and taking responsibility for forwarding wrong doers in the community. He reasoned that if the ones that forward criminals are rewarded and those who refuse to forward the criminals are punished, then this would be a sure way of ensuring that all the criminals are caught. The laws that were also used in the Qin dynasty included the fact that the law should not be broken in order to favor one’s relatives or family as well as to praise the leaders in high places. This meant that one could not refuse to forward their family if they broke the law. (China Philosophy)
Legalism during the Qin dynasty consisted of an authoritarian system of government in which the ruler was the head of the kingdom and had the final say. The people were not supposed to oppose anything and they were required to follow the rule without any questions. Any one who disagreed with the laid down laws of the government was termed to have committed a capital crime and the punishment was death. This led to a lot of oppression and even the government officials were not allowed to make any decisions even for the good of the state; instead, they were supposed to exercise the policies put in place by the emperor. The people began to rebel from the cruel laws that were put for them. The government officials did not alert the emperor about the rebellion because they were afraid that it would be taken as criticizing the government and lead to their execution. The emperor learnt about the rebellion when it was too late and they were overthrown by the Han dynasty. (Breslin)
The citizens were subjected to hard labor on state projects that included the building of the Great Wall of China, the building of a splendid residence for the ruler in the capital, Xiangyang as well as the irrigation projects that the government had put in place. The buildings were build for the leader and no government officials were allowed to use them to carry out their official duties. The government also imposed heavy taxes and levies to all the citizens and anyone who was unable to pay was imprisoned. (Breslin)
Many people sank to poverty and misery with the number of people accused of crimes increasing. Strict laws and severe punishment was among the policies of the Qin dynasty. People who obeyed the laws and performed deeds that were benefiting the people and the state were immensely rewarded and those who broke the laws in ways that were harmful to the people or the state were severely punished. The leaders were very cautious when it came to issuing the rewards and the punishments as well. This provoked the citizens to violence and rebellion leading to the fall of the Qin dynasty. (Behnke & Grant)
The Qin dynasty did not allow any alternative ways of thinking which led to the persecution of people who believed in Confucianism. All the books and materials that were written by the Confucianism intellectuals were all burnt and strict warnings were issued that insisted that anybody who said or wrote anything that was against the government would be executed. This led to a lot of fear among the people, making them adhere to his legalist ideas, and hence Confucianism was forgotten. These oppressive laws are the ones that led to the downfall of the Qin dynasty. (Bedini)
Conclusion
The Qin dynasty came to power and brought about a new system of government that to some extent was fulfilling but on the other hand was oppressive to the people. The dynasty carried out reforms in many sectors of the economy including politics, military and agriculture as well as the economy. The executive institutes in the central and local areas were restructured and other centers of power were created. The centralized form of government gave all the powers to the emperor to control the kingdom by himself. The people were not allowed to voice their concerns and this was what led to their rebellion hence the fall of the Qin dynasty.
Works cited
Bedini, Silvio. The Trail of Time: Shih-chien Ti Tsu-chi: Time Measurement with Incense in East Asia Cambridge University Press, 1994.Print.
Behnke, Anne & Grant, Hardy. The Establishment of the Han Empire and Imperial China. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood press, 2005. Print.
Breslin, Thomas A. Beyond Pain: The Role of Pleasure and Culture in the Making of Foreign Affairs. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001. Print.
China Philosophy. Web.
Cotterell, Arthur. The Imperial Capitals of China – An Inside View of the Celestial Empire. London: Pimlico 1.1(2007):158- 304.
Israel, Jared. Maoist economics and politics. Web.
Lewis, Mark Edward. The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han. Belknap Press. 2007. Print
Morton, W. Scott. China: Its History and Culture (3rd Ed.).McGrraw-Hill.1995. Print.
Paludan, Ann. Chronicle of the China Emperors. London: Thames & Hudson 23.1(1998): 125- 224.
Terrill, Ross. Transnational China project sponsored commentary: “The new Chinese empire: And what it means for the United States”. 2003. Web.
The Song Dynasty was an empire that ruled China for more than three centuries. The dynasty that ruled between 960 and 1279 was characterized by a period of economic prosperity for the whole of China. The dynasty came into authority immediately after the reign of the Five Dynasties. Once the Song Dynasty fell from power, the Yuan Dynasty took over the reins of power. The Song Dynasty is famed to be the first world government to use paper money as a medium of trade.
This was also the first government in the history of the world to form a fully pledged army based in the sea. The Song Dynasty is also famed to be the first kingdom to invent the use of gunpowder during the war. This invention made the dynasty produce one of the most formidable armies that have ever existed in the history of the world. This was also the first dynasty to use a compass that could show real directions. (Brook 15)
The reign of the Song Dynasty was divided into two periods. These were the Northern and Southern Song dynasties. The capital city of the Northern Song dynasty was based in Bianjing. This was a northern city, which had a lot of influence on the community. During the reign of the Northern Song, the dynasty wielded a lot of influence in the whole of China. The Northern Song Dynasty lasted between 970-1127. This was almost half the period that the Song Dynasty was in reign.
For all those who were living in the kingdom during this time, it was a period characterized by economic prosperity. On the other hand, the Southern Song Dynasty refers to the reign of the Song Dynasty after they had lost control of the Northern side of their territory to their foes. This happened after the Jin Dynasty attacked and chased the Song from their inhabitance in the Northern side of China. On its part, the Northern Song lasted from 1127-1279. This period marked the last half of the Song Dynasty’s reign. During this period, the Song council of elders shifted their operations from Bianjing to the Southern city of Lin’an. This, later on, became modern-day Hangzhou. (Brook 16)
Although the Song Dynasty had lost control of one part of its territory, it remained a force to reckon with in China. The Southern part that they had been forced to retreat to carried the largest part of the Chinese population. In total, this area carried almost 60 percent of the country’s population. Most of the Southern land was also aberrantly fertile and therefore the dynasty was able to carry on with agriculture. Since the Southern side was bordered by the sea, the dynasty was able to strengthen its naval base. This enabled the dynasty to defend itself from outside attacks. (Kruger 236)
To defend itself from further attacks from the Jin Dynasty, the Song Dynasty that was by now based on the southern side formed a strong military army to defend its borders. By 1234, the Mongol Empire had managed to rout Jin from the Northern side that they had earlier on managed to wrestle from the Song Dynasty. Relation between the Song and Mongol Empires remained sour with each seeking to displace the other. This came true in 1279 when the Mongol Empire under Kublai Khan managed to defeat the Song Dynasty. This defeat brought to an end the reign of the Song Dynasty that had managed to last for more than three decades. This was also something that saw the unification of China for the first time in many years. (Bai 100)
Comparison between Northern Song and Southern Song
Although the Northern and Southern Song was ruled by the same leaders, many differences emerged during this period. One of these differences was in the area of agriculture. After the Jurchen had forced the Song dynasty to flee to the Southern side of China, many people decided to go along with their former administration. Most of these were the ordinary people who had mastered the art of agriculture in the Northern side. One thing that the Song Dynasty was committed to being the agricultural sector. The Song administration had come up with modern farming methods something that had greatly improved agriculture in the region. (Kruger 237)
Upon crossing to the Southern side of China, these peasant farmers picked up their old trade of farming. Naturally, the southern side of China was more fertile than the Northern side and therefore these farmers were able to take their farming to a higher level. Since more than half of the population had crossed over to the Southern side, there arose a shortage of farming land. This forced the government to let the farmers till all the land that was available for farming.
The Northern Song dynasty had not managed to attain this level of farming before. During this period, farmers learned how to use irrigation in farming. This greatly improved their crop output since they could now practice farming throughout the year. To make things easier for the farmers, the government provided them with irrigation water. This was something that had not been possible in the Northern Song period. During this period, the use of agrarian tools was also invented. The agricultural tools that had previously been used were now made using new technology. This made work easier hence increasing production. (Bai 102)
Still, on the issue of agriculture, some crops could not be planted in the united empire. An example of this was rice. In Northern Song, it was possible to plant rice since the land was flat, which is a requirement for planting rice. This was not possible in Southern Song since the land is usually comprised of mountains. After the sour relations between the Song and the Jurchen in the Northern side, it became important to introduce a new kind of rice in Southern Song. This led to the introduction of a type of rice called “unpretending” that came from Vietnam. This breed of rice became very popular in the Southern Song. This was something that was not present in the Northern part. (Bai 103)
During the period of Northern Song, mining and smelting of metals were a common feature. The Northern part was full of mining ores that produced iron, steel, and gold. Upon smelting, government officials taxed the finished goods something that enabled them to get money for running the dynasty. The Jurchen occupied these areas when they attacked the song Dynasty in 1129. Gold was especially used by the Song Dynasty for trade with other countries. From the sale of gold products, the government was able to get money to expand the territory. All these minerals were lacking in Southern Song and the government had to look for an alternative source of revenue. (Kruger 240)
Due to an increase in agriculture in Southern Song, there was increased production of cotton. Since the government was not getting any tax from minerals that were present in Northern Song, they had to begin taxing agricultural products to get revenue. To encourage farmers to participate more in farming, the government manufactured spinning wheels to enable the production of large amounts of fabric. Since silk was desired by the rich and favored foreign trade, the government took over this business. The government employed people to work in the production plants that it had to build across the land. The large production of a large number of fabrics called for the need to come up with sophisticated spinning machines. This invention was also something that had hitherto not been practiced in Northern Song. (Bai 104)
Comparing the Northern Song and Southern Song, one would also find a big difference in how the people were living. While the people in Northern Song lived peacefully, the same was not true during Southern Song. After the Jurchen Dynasty had displaced the Song dynasty from the Northern side of China, both sides remained in constant enmity. The Liao, Jin, and Western Xia were constantly attacking the Southern Song. This was in contrast to the peace they had experienced in Northern Song.
Although this was the case, the area continued to experience economic growth due to the fertility of the southern side of China. Although there were areas that were still economically underdeveloped in Southern Song, these areas were still fertile and therefore were not in abject poverty. The opposite was true in Northern Song where the people had to rely on employment from the government. This self-dependence made the people in Southern Song experience a period of unprecedented economic growth. (Bai 105)
During the period of Northern Song, China was known for the art of shipbuilding. These ships were used to transport agricultural products from the Southern part of China to the Northern part. The ships were also used as a link between the Northern and Southern parts using the Imperial Canal. Once the Song Dynasty was defeated in the Northern frontier, there was no need to continue with the art of ship making in the Southern frontier.
This saw the art of ship making gradually disappearing from the Song Dynasty. Instead, the dynasty concentrated on the manufacture of warships during the period of Southern Song. This was a break from the dynasty’s tradition of manufacturing transport ships. During the Southern Song, there was also new technology applied in the manufacture of these ships. (Brook 30)
Another thing that differentiated the Northern Song from other dynasties existing back then was the unification of the land. During its reign, China was more united than at any other time in history. This was after Emperor Taizu conquered and brought to an end the reign of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms, which had reigned before it. This had a well-built government that was able to withstand its enemies. Perhaps the biggest achievement of the dynasty was its policy to elect government officials based on merit. In this form of governance, one was not elected to a post owing to their allegiance to the party but rather by their achievements.
This made the government prosper since it had able people leading its operations. This criterion saw the invention of the first-ever known use of maps in the history of the world. Those charged with the creation of maps were able to draw a detailed map showing the Chinese boundaries. Due to this specialization, it was possible to come up with many inventions in different fields. This included fields like communication, astronomy, and science. Much literature was written on these subjects during this period. These came to be used by students in the respective fields in the later years. This was made possible after the art of typing had been invented. (Bai 111)
Although the criterion used in selecting government officials had its merits in Northern Song, the practice also had its shortcomings. At the start of the 11th century, a dispute arose that was threatening to rip the dynasty apart. This came about after some members of the cabinet disagreed with their fellow ministers on how the society was supposed to be handled. Some ministers felt that the power had to be placed in the hands of the people.
These were mainly those who did not pay allegiance to the Emperor but were only interested in their career. The other school of thought belonged to those who even though chosen by merit were bent on remaining in power forever. This group rejected proposals by ministers who wanted the process of recruiting public officials to be free and fair something that would ensure that only competent people joined the public service. Those who felt that they should be given the chance to carry out this selection highly opposed the proposal. Such kind of cabinet wrangling was rarely witnessed during the Southern Song period. (Brook 40)
After Chancellor Fan Zhongyan was sacked for advocating the establishment of a people-oriented government, there arose other leaders who introduced legislation that was meant to muzzle the people further. Led by Wang Anshi, the leaders felt that the educational system was not right for the country. This saw the abolition of the education system something that saw the declining of educational standards in the country.
The government also came with legislation to tax the land owned by individuals something that incensed many people especially those with large tracts of land. The running of some businesses was also left as a prerogative of the government creating a monopoly that saw many people fall out of business. The worst mistake that the Northern Song government committed was supporting militias instead of strengthening the regular army. This weakened the country’s defense and made it susceptible to foreign attacks. These reforms brought wider cracks in the once strong dynasty and later on caused its downfall. This wrangling between cabinet members was unheard of in the period of Southern Song. (Brook 50)
Another thing that was characteristic of Northern Song was the diplomatic relations it maintained with its neighbors. The emperor elected envoys in almost all countries of the world. This increased trade between the dynasty and other countries of the world. The good relations between the country and its neighbors also ensured that the dynasty had peace within its borders. Instead of using war to settle disputes with his neighbors, Taizu used diplomacy as an alternative.
This was especially effective with the Liao Dynasty that was Song’s greatest enemy. In an event where diplomacy failed, the Northern Song reverted to the use of its military prowess to quell any rebellion. This created not only peace but also gained them respect from its neighbors. (Brook 70)
After the defeat of Northern Song by the Jin Dynasty, the remaining part fled to the South. With the help of the remaining army, they were able to regroup and bring life back to normal. Since the Southern Song knew that they had to defend their territory from any outside attacks, they decided to put much emphasis on their army. This army was able to defeat troops from the Jin Dynasty that were outnumbering it by far. The government also came up with massive projects meant to strengthen their harbor from outside interference. This kind of military awareness from the navy was not present in Northern Song. (Kruger 355)
Though there were many differences between the Northern and Southern Song periods, there are things that stood out between the two communities. One of these was its social organization. The dynasty enjoyed one of the most sophisticated administrative and multifaceted social organizations. In addition, this period saw the largest population growth ever witnessed in China’s history. During this period, China became famed for having one of the largest cities in the world. During the Northern and Southern Song Dynasty, the government had put in place schemes that were meant to take care of the poor in the society.
This included the building of retirement homes for the old, the establishment of public clinics, and set aside places where the poor could be buried upon their death. Throughout both periods, there was widespread communication that had been made possible by the establishment of the post office service. (Kruger 358)
During both the Northern and Southern periods, women were held in lower esteem than men were. This was following Confucius’s beliefs that were the main form of a religion embraced by the dynasty. Although this was the case, women were left to have a say in their homes and at their workplace for those who owned businesses. As time went by, the dynasty accepted the right of women to own and inherit property. (Kruger 358)
Another thing that was widely spread during both the Northern and Southern Song periods was the practice of religion. Religion was the main feature in people’s lives and many people were guided by it. There was also lots of literature written on the subject of religion. In both periods, Daoism, Buddhism, and the worship of spirits were widespread. During this period, there was a widespread migration of Buddhist Monks from India to China than any other period in history. There was also sprouting of other small religious groups in the country. In short, both the Northern and Southern Songs created room for the expansion of religion in China. During both periods, the rule of law and order was also widely practiced. This was also the period when forensic science was first used. (Kruger 370)
Conclusion
The Song Dynasty marked a period of great economic growth in China. During this period that lasted for more than three centuries, china was more united than ever. After the emperor was defeated on the Northern frontier by the Jin Dynasty, they regrouped and formed the Southern Song. These two periods had some great differences that were evident to anyone. The Southern Song especially was more successful due to the fertile agricultural land that was put to use. Despite the differences, some things remained the same in the two periods. These included things like agriculture, the freedom of worship among other many things.
Works Cited
Bai, Shouyi. An Outline History of China. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press. 2002. 100-140. Print.
Brook, Timothy. The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China Berkeley: University of California Press. 1999. 15-85. Print.
Kruger, Rayne. All Under Heaven: A Complete History of China. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. 2003. 236-375. Print.
Shang Dynasty when preceded by the Zhou dynasty in 2000 B.C. had many similarities. Among the major similarities was the title both the dynasties carried as “Bronze age of China”. The reason was simple; many ritual artefacts came into existence in this age. However the main reason for calling the era bronze was the fashionable and the then latest weapons which were prepared using only bronze, as it was the need of the imperial and materialistic culture of that era. (2007a) In both the dynasties, ‘bronze’ usage was common as bronze was used for making small objects, including ornaments, tools, and weapons. The bronze earring with a fan-shaped end is a notable characteristic of Shang culture later adopted by Zhou. Though the people of Zhou (Western and Eastern Zhou) defeated Shang dynasty, they remained unable to defeat the historical pages which today tells us about Shang dynasty.
Main Body
The evidence started with the discovery of Oracle bones’ fragments. Found accidentally by the Yin villagers, these fragments were followed by strange markings which later were identified as ancient Chinese language. These bones were sold as ‘dragon bones’, which is a traditional ingredient of Chinese medicine. These ‘dragon bones’ or ‘oracle bones’, were ox scapulae and turtle shells-primarily the under shells or plastrons which had been used in divination by the kings of the late Shang dynasty. This refers to the fact that oracle bones were particularly the identity of the Shang dynasty, which was later carried out by Zhou people.
According to Allan, (1991) “These oracle bones had been carefully cleaned, trimmed and been hollowed on one side. While predicting upon these discoveries, when a hot poker to these hollows were applied, crack started appearing on the reverse side. Conventional shapes started appearing and Chinese characters like bu evolved. It is still a mystery how those cracks were translated, however after they were made, the topic of divination was sometimes engraved beside the crack or, occasionally across it”. (Allan, 1991, p. 1).
Though at least the Shang ruler was fully literate, the oracle bone inscriptions does not show any relevance to the texts transmitted from Zhou times. (Allan, 1991, p. 16) Archaeologists are still doubtful about the how writing was used in the Shang since there is always the possibility of undiscovered texts. Many bamboo slips tied with strings have been found on which the entire ancient Chinese books were written. Bamboo slips have also been evidenced to record ritual promises and oaths, later which sink in rivers. Military officials were also appointed using these bamboo slips but still archaeologists are doubtful on the usage of writing in Shang dynasty other than ritual purposes.
Most of the Shang artefacts included vessels and potteries. Potteries are ordinary but somewhat different from the daily pottery of the Yellow River region whereas the vessel differs according to shapes like steamers, baggy-legged tripods, solid-legged tripods, and jars. Potteries used in ceremonies includes ‘gui’ tripod pitchers and ‘jue’ tripod spouted wine vessels, found in matching sets in burials.
The ‘taotie’ also known as ‘monster mask’ is considered as the identity of Shang dynasty and is common among various Shang design masks which appear among the painted patterns. Occasional patterns in Shang bronzes include cloud, thunder, turtles, and dragons. Dwelling sites and burials are filled up with umpteen pig bones, cattle, and sheep and deer bones. (Nelson, 1995, p. 147) Shang dynasty on the basis of taoties does not represent any deity and it is not representational since it is continually changing, but, a meaningful image which is characterized by two staring eyes and made up of various animals used in the sacrificial rites. Zhou has transformed Shang images and symbols into meaningful transcriptions.
This clearly means that Zhou people were literate enough in transforming symbols and images into their own language. According to Chinese archaeologists Western Zhou was more literate. This is evident from the varied body of literature found during the Shang dynasty. Zhou dynasty records early texts such as ‘Book of changes’ and ‘book of songs’. Neither of these texts represents the continuation of a Shang literary tradition but it is the only literary evidence which differentiates Zhou Dynasty from that of Shang.
The Yijing is associated with the Zhou people and represents another divination tradition. This ‘Book of Changes’ is all about the mantic tradition of ancient China which is followed by the tradition of Zhou people using milfoil or stalks. When their tradition was manipulated, archaeologists came to know that these stalks produced a numerical result which was either expressed as a solid line or a broken line. These lines when grouped together produced a set of different graphs or hexagrams, interpreted accordingly. It was by the end of the Western Zhou dynasty, that texts and meaningful symbols were associated with each of these hexagrams. These hexagrams were used to interpret the future of human or natural world (Shaugnesy, 1997, p. 27).
Similarly, the dragons which may be part of the ‘taotie’ or independent of them are neither real nor mythological creatures and in a constant state of transformation. Shang is also followed by many other dragons in the form of strange masks which bears strange and unusual meanings like water snake depicts the watery underworld of the dead, beaked dragon head reminds us of the sun birds which return through the underworld springs. Similarly, other taoties like owls and cicadas suggest death and rebirth.
Shang dynasty is well known for its artistic jade carvings worn by the then kings in various occasions and battles, like jade tablets, jade axes and armrests. Jade was also used by the kings as different types of awards. (Shaugnessy, 1997, p. 158) Slender bronze chopsticks averaging 20 cms were used in Shang dynasty. (Chopsticks, 2006).
Excavator research revealed that the Shang were a great and powerful dynasty capable of marshalling and maintaining a large labour force over long periods of time, but their rulers were not that benevolent kings as perceived by many of late philosophers. Shang was ruled by harsh kings who used to present large-scale human as well as animal sacrifices in the name of religion. This is evident from the research done on oracle bone divinations and further confirmed by the discovery of thousands of human skulls accompanying the large tombs, buried in building foundations, and in special cemeteries for sacrificial victims.
Though archaeologists have been able to discover only a few cemeteries, but even these few are the rich ones. A dwelling site ‘Dadianzi’ in the north east is important as it reveals the fact that burials are quite close together. Burials are followed by graves which are earth-pits, with wooden coffins. Heads of the graves are oriented towards northwest, but males and females are buried in different directions. The depth of the graves is nearly 8.9 metre with earthen niches at the foot filled with grave goods, such as painted pottery in sets, pig and dog bones, and lacquer ware. (Nelson, 1995, p. 148).
The Zhou dynasty believed in traditionally oral singing which is evident from the ‘Shijing’. These songs as recorded in the Zhou dynasty depicts that writing gradually expanded in its uses at the beginning of the Zhou Dynasty or, at the very end of the Shang. With the development of a corpus of documents and different types of texts, came changes in patterns of thought. (Allan, 1991, p. 17).
Zhou bronze inscriptions depict vessels like ‘Defang’, ‘Dake’, ‘You’ bronze ritual vessel, and ‘Square Ding’ vessel. The problem which was confronted by Zhou dynasty after conquering Shang was that the Shang did not begin with a catalogue of real or mythological creatures which they chose to represent. Each vessel was a new creation, deriving from the forms which preceded it, but transforming them to make a new form and image. However a structural identity remains which allows us to recognize that vessels were used by both the dynasties. (Allan, 1991, p. 138).
Western Zhou vessels included sheer numbers of bells whose surfaces were no longer decorated with minute detail. Bells became a source of discovering a new element i.e., the addition of bronze to make music. (Rawson, 1989).
As significant as the record of the captures is in the text, it is clear that for the Zhou composer of the narrative, the sacrifices, particularly the human offerings, that followed the captures held much greater symbolic significance. For instance, Zhou is identified by the parallel between the ‘liao’ burnt-offering sacrifice and the ‘Xiao Yu ding’ inscription.
Conclusion
Zhou dynasty is differentiated from Shang due to the development of a literary corpus at the beginning of the Zhou, in other words Zhou was able to transform the Shang ‘literacy’. Zhou is followed by variant traditions which were recorded and each record assumed a validity of its own. That text then remained, to be read not only by contemporaries, but also by later generations, and to coexist with other variants of the same tradition and its own descendants. Although the relationships were sometimes observed by commentators, they were more usually forgotten.
The myths and cosmogonist events of the Zhou texts, such as the great flood and the butting of the north-western mountain which caused the earth and sky to tilt toward one another, are normally placed in ‘the time of Yao’ –that historical period which had come to represent the mythical ‘time long ago’ of the high ancestors. Therefore Zhou dynasty is the one in Chinese history which is held responsible for transformation. An example of such transformation is the ‘Xia’ who used to be mythological opposites of the Shang, a watery people associated with death and the underworld. They were transformed into a political dynasty by the Zhou.
References
Allan Sarah, The Shape of the Turtle: Myth, Art, and Cosmos in Early China: State University of New York Press: Albany, NY. (1991).
Chopsticks. Magazine Title: World Watch. Volume: 19. Issue: 1. Publication Date: January- February 2006. COPYRIGHT 2006 Worldwatch Institute Nelson Milledge Sarah, The Archaeology of Northeast China: Beyond the Great Wall: Routledge: New York. (1995).
Rawson Jessica, “Statesmen or Barbarians? The Western Zhou as Seen through their Bronzes,” Proceedings of the British Academy 75 (1989): 89, 91.
Shaugnesy, L. Edward, Before Confucius: Studies in the Creation of the Chinese Classics: State University of New York Press: Albany, NY. (1997).
One of the most famous eras in the Chinese history, the epoch of Han Dynasty rule definitely deserves being considered closer, for it was a true cultural breakthrough in the development of the Chinese nation.
Not only did the Chinese people achieve impressive results in developing their agriculture and expanding further into the Asian territory, but also introduced completely new idea of afterlife into their realm, therefore, shaping people’s vision of the world greatly. Naturally, such fields as science, economy, and art were taken to a new level where new means of cultural and economical analysis could be sought.
As a result, a number of unique artworks was created on the given time slot. To embrace every single discovery that was made in the Han era and analyze the artifacts that allow considering the value of the given discovery is practically impossible; however, by choosing some of the most outstanding artifacts, one can possibly dive into the history of China.
Though seemingly minor artifacts, the burial models known as the Farm shed with grain mill (n. d.) and the Animal pen with figures (n. d.) an be used to evaluate the progress that the Han Dynasty contributed to, as well as define the tracks of the principles that will become the pillars of the modern Chinese culture later on.
The Exhibit and Artifacts
Before going any further, a few words must be said about the place that allows for analyzing the artifacts in question. A courtesy of the Art Institute of Chicago, the given artifact, unfortunately, is not featured in any exhibition at present and can only be viewed in the Gallery 133, which is devoted to the Ancient Chinese art and culture.
The same can be said about the second artwork that is going to be analyzed in the given paper as an element of the Han Dynasty culture. It is not represented in a specific exhibition yet, and is only available in a corresponding gallery (Gallery 207). The collection in which the given artifact is located is also titled as Asian Art.
The fact that the given art objects are not featured in any exhibition at present is a real shame, since each of them represents the principles of the new burial rituals.
While the given artifacts might not seem an object that can be valued as a work of art, it still should be, since it not only conveys the key ideas of what the Chinese traditions and rituals at the time were, but also represents an attempt at interpreting the life and culture of the era, which, in fact, qualifies as an artistic endeavor.
Although the two objects in question both, in fact, represent the Han Dynasty era and, therefore, are supposed to share similar features, they still are quite different. Whether these were the artists’ individual styles, or the differences in the actual purpose of the objects that were modeled by unknown artists, but the two models share few similarities. To start with, both of the artifacts are of a relatively similar color pitch.
Combining the elements of greenish and yellowish, the two artifacts are immediately associated with earth, settlements and quiet peasant life, which, perhaps, was the exact intention of the people who created these objects. When it comes to shape, however, the differences appear, which is quite expected, since the objects have completely different purposes.
The model of a farm shed has a clearly rectangular shape; even though the edged are rounded quite a bit and most of the straight lines have been curved in a rather unpredictable way, the given work of art still has a rectangular shape. The earthenware, on the contrary, is shaped in a very unusual way, with one side being rounded, while the other one is absolutely straight.
According to the description offered in the gallery, the Farm shed with grain mill (n. d.) In its turn, the Animal pen with figures (n. d.) was traditionally used as a “mingqi, or ‘spirit utensils’ that accompanied the deceased in burials of the Easter Han Dynasty” (Animal pen with figures, n. d., para. 1).
It is quite peculiar that, according to the descriptions provided by the creators of the gallery, such artifacts as the Animal pen with figures were first used only as a part of a burial ceremony for wealthy people.
However, as the views that were more liberal started spreading across the state, such objects were used as a traditional element of any burial ritual. As for the second object the Farm shed with grain mill was also an attribute of a burial ritual and was supposed to glorify the agricultural achievements of the era.
The two artifacts are built of the same materials, i.e., earthenware with green lead glaze (Animal pen with figures, n. d., para. 1; Farm shed with grain mill, n. d., para. 1). As it has been stressed above, both objects show the increase in the significance of the cultural and economical breakthrough that China was witnessing at that moment.
The two artifacts have a number of features in common; however, by far the most evident similarity concerns the way in which they are used. Indeed, while the given objects are the models of completely different things, they, in fact, share such a similarity as their purpose, both being a part of a burial ritual.
Another detail that brings the given artifacts closer is the concept of a quiet and dignified life that they share, as well as the transience of life.
Interpretation and Analysis
The artifacts mentioned above are more than merely the reminders of the existence of another great civilization. On the contrary, these remains of an ancient culture can be seen as a time machine that allows for being transported into the time period when the Han Dynasty reigned China.
These artifacts help picture the world in which they were created and understand the way in which the new philosophy glorifying steady life and agriculture started affecting the lives of people who lived at the time of the Han Dynasty reign.
In a way, the given artifacts represent the way in which the history of social relationships changed in the Chinese empire, as well as reflect the changes that philosophy and religion in general can make to the society.
When taking a closer look at the elements of the exhibits, one will be able to spot the fact that the given artifacts, in fact, allow to draw increasingly clearer line between the representatives of different social backgrounds.
For instance, the animals that are depicted at the foreground of the Farm shed with grain mill (n. d.) show clearly that a stricter stratification of society took place at the given point in history, seeing how the necessity to support agricultural development of the country appeared.
It is quite impressive that the authors of given artifacts managed to capture time in a bottle by creating the works that represent not the casual relationship, but the changes that took place to the social relationships at the time.
However, the aforementioned conclusions are primarily the result of the observation combined with the background research on the issue that was previously carried out.
When considered outside of context, the given artifacts can hardly tell one anything except an obvious fixation on the agricultural issues in the Chinese society at the time of the Han Dynasty rule. While the place that is portrayed in the artifacts can hardly be defined, seeing how the aforementioned elements can be attributed to a number of cultures (Adams et al., 2000).
Compared to the artifact mentioned previously, Earthenware with green lead glaze (n. d.) seems to have just as much value. Even though it does not put just as strong an emphasis on the social stratification of the Chinese population at the era of the Han Dynasty rule, it still conveys a very clear message concerning the shift towards a more clear distribution of social roles in the imperial China.
Even though the artifacts in question might not tell as much to an average person as they can to the one who is aware of the changes that occurred to China in the Han Dynasty epoch, they still leave an impression and help one sink into the atmosphere of Imperial China.
Reference List
Adams, P. V. et al. (2000). Experiencing world history. New York, NY: New York University Press.
The bronze vessels, including the You, as they are on display together, represent simultaneously art objects, objects of ritual significance, and a medium of social exchange. Created during the Western Zhou dynasty (1046 – 771 BCE), they were used for funerary and other ceremonies involving wine and possibly food.
As such, they reveal something about the craft and artistic sensibilities of their makers, but they also may show relationships between individuals, families, and the living and the dead. In their display in the Metropolitan, they share with other objects of religious value on exhibit there an ambiguous position. This is because the museum itself functions as a surrogate temple to the aesthetic and intellectual deities of modern life (Duncan 1995, 478).
The assemblage of funerary vessels, container, and altar table are arranged in what appears to modern western eyes as a tea or coffee set, either set out for a reception, or offered for sale. All the pieces are together, none are in use, and everything is placed to show at optimum advantage.
It seems, however, that this may not have been the way these objects would have been seen by the Bronze Age folk who crafted, commissioned, traded, presented, and buried them. The archeological evidence is still murky regarding the specific uses of all these items although it is known that they figured prominently in funerary, commemorative, diplomatic, and kingly ceremonial activities (Yan 2011).
These bronzes are the product of a casting method quite different from that of other Bronze Age peoples. They are cast in pieces, and then assembled. This allows for more elaborate and detailed decoration on the interior of the mold (Metropolitan Museum of Art 2011). In addition, since these are very heavy items, easily reaching 50 pounds, this technique sounds like it might have made the casting process easier on the arms of the craftsperson.
The piece under specific discussion here is the You, or wine container. It apparently functioned as a individual serving piece for wine.
The wine would have been heated up, perhaps on the small ritual altar table. There is room underneath for a brazier or dish of hot coals and it looks somewhat like more modern Asian bed warmers. Wine, when heated up, gives off fumes that alter consciousness.
It is tempting to speculate that there was some mental connection between the evanescent fumes of the wine, and the persistent but non-corporeal aspects of the human spirit. The use of wine in all sorts of ceremonial activities was not new, and had been present in the previous Shang dynasty. The Zhou, however, apparently tried to reduce the amount of drunkenness by changing the shape and size (Travel China Guide 2011)(and presumably therefore, the capacity) of the containers.
The wine container has a decorated heavy strap handle, which terminates in a mask-like face of some sort of creature. This mask is typical of such bronze pieces, and such masks were termed taotie. The exact significance of such figures is not fully understood (Metropolitan Museum of Art 2011).
However, it is tempting to draw a comparison with the presence of totemic animals throughout native American spiritual beliefs and practices. The totemic animal represents the characteristics of the person or family, e.g., cleverness, bravery, persistence, etc.
This one has some of the look of a fox or other member of the family canidae, although it is highly stylized to the point that it is not recognizable to modern eyes. It also has some resemblance to certain modern dragon faces. The eyebrows are raised, and prominent, as are the eyes. The mouth is open and the ears are up and alert. The possible animals shown in taotie masks might include tiger, dragon, deer, sheep, ox, bird, human beings, phoenix, or cicada (GG Art 2011).
There are repeating designs all around the lowest register, and the top one. These may have been stamped into the interior of the mold before casting, representing an advance in mass-production (Metropolitan Museum of Art 2011).
It is possible these designs had symbolic significance, perhaps as invocations or messages to the dead (GG Art 2011), or were actually characters in early Chinese pictographs, Certainly, some similar pieces can be ‘read’ this way, revealing how these pieces were presented, or captured, or left as legacies from one person to another (Yan 2011).
However, whether the repeated symbols around the middle of the piece constitute symbolic images or writing, the ability to reproduce them accurately and clearly over and over again would have offered obvious advantages. The symbols, repeated precisely and in volume, might well have seemed more ritually or magically effective to those who cast these pieces and those who used them.
Both this piece and the larger wine vessel have protruding ‘horns’ which are very reminiscent of the shape of more modern pagodas. This shape, as used in house and temple design, has been popularly believed to duplicate the shape of mountains. The protrusions also look as though they could help in lifting these objects to move them around. They also add to the conspicuous complexity of the overall design, which was doubtless a marker of status and prestige for whoever commissioned this piece, presented it, or received it.
As noted earlier, the museum display may not reflect at all what their use would have been like in real life. They are known to have been buried with prominent individuals, and presented as gifts and to seal treaties. They were also used in banquets to honor the dead, termed sacrifices (Rawson 1967).
Where did these take place? Did they occur in the ancestral hall? How many people would have been involved? Did they involve a seated meal together? None of such applications would necessarily have involved the arrangement shown in the glass case.
The altar table, for example, is of a size to allow it to be carried to a gravesite in order to carry out commemorative or appeasement rituals to the ancestors and the recently deceased[1]. On the other hand, these items were passed from one family member to another (Yan 2011) , and presumably, before they were interred with the deceased, they were on display, but how, and in what setting?
The piece termed You is for individual service, although it seems not significantly different in mass from the largest piece in the display. All these pieces must have been examples of conspicuous consumption, given the immense amount of fuel and raw material that needed to create these objects.
In the Metropolitan Museum, the You and its companions are presented as a ritual assemblage imprisoned in a glass case inside a building that thousands come to with greater regularity than their church, synagogue. There is a great deal of layering of meaning in this. The original meaning of the vessels as funeral furniture is long lost.
However, the beauty of the artisanship allows viewers to appreciate them as sculpture rather than as either utilitarian (which they are) or ritual (which they also are). The museum functions as a frame (Duncan 1995, 476) that permits viewers to place their own meaning on these fascinating examples of ancient Asian craft, art, and spiritual observance.
Works Cited
Duncan, Carol. “The Art Museum as Ritual.” In Civilizing Ritual, by Carol Duncan, 473-485. London: Routledge, 1995.
GG Art. “Copper.” GG Art. 2011. Web.
Metropolitan Museum of Art. “East Asia.” Metmuseum.org. 2011. Web.
Rawson, Jessica. “Ancient Chinese Ritual Bronzes: The evidence from tombs and hoards of the Shang (c. 1500-1050 BC) and WesternZhou (c. 1050-771 BC) periods.” Antiquities. August 1967. Web.
Yan, Sun. “Inscribed Bronzes in Early Western Zhou Tombs: Funerary Gifts, Gifting and Social Network.” University of Chicago. 2011. Web.
Footnotes
The weight of all these items, however, suggests that some help was needed to haul them around. Since human sacrifice was apparently a feature of funeral practices, perhaps the unlucky individual who was left in the grave with the deceased could help to carry the items.
It is a fact that art existed even before the beginning of civilization. Civilization led to the development of various tools that helped in improving art. Anthropologists use paintings to get insights into the activities of various ancient cultures. Various ancient cultures had different styles of paintings.
Scholars have undertaken extensive studies on ancient Greek and Egyptian art. Most paintings in these cultures depicted different cultural activities. In addition, there were various paintings of the deities of people in these ancient cultures. In Egypt, there were various paintings Isis or other deities of people in the ancient culture. Due to the vicinity of both cultures, the paintings of these ancient cultures influenced each other.
One of the common similarities of the paintings of these ancient cultures was the painting of composite beasts. The composite beasts were part human and part animal or part human and part bird. However, Chinese painting developed with little interference from the ancient Egyptian and Greek paintings.
Therefore, China has a distinct form of ancient painting. One of the most common features of most Chinese paintings is their simplicity, transcendence, and elegance. Most artists were distinguished scholars who had the respect of the society. The input of these scholars helped in the cultural enrichment of the society. There were significant differences in the ancient paintings of various dynasties.
Thesis statement: The study of Chinese paintings would help in providing insights into the social life of people in the different ancient Chinese dynasties.
Agenda
This essay will explore different paintings that existed in the various ancient Chinese dynasties. The essay will show different paintings may help in determining the personal life of the painter. In addition, the essay will also strive to use different paintings to provide insights into the political and cultural environment that existed during the life of the painters.
Courtesy Road Map
This essay will explore the development of various types of ancient Chinese paintings in different dynasties. The development of different types of painting would provide insights into various social developments in the dynasties.
In addition, the essay will look at the different changes that occurred in the different forms of painting. This essay would strive to determine how attention to detail of the paintings developed over time. The essay will also look at the paintings of various scholars. This would help in determining the relationship between painting and society.
Background Information
Chinese paintings are significantly different from other paintings due to their focus on change, motion, and dynamic life. In addition, Chinese paintings give special emphasis on simplicity, transcendence, and elegance. Very few Chinese paintings have a religious orientation.
Most paintings focus on royalty, nature, and various social activities. In ancient Chinese paintings, masters showed their apprentices how to paint. The apprentices had to follow the instructions of their masters to the letter.
This enabled the apprentices to improve their skills until they could draw various shapes that conformed to the shapes of the masters instinctively. This form of teaching limited creativity of artists. However, after painting for many years the apprentices devised their own style of painting. This helps in distinguishing the works of various painters.
The earliest Chinese paintings did not have much social meaning. The paintings were just ornamental. The paintings depicted zigzags, animals, or dots. Amateurs were the main artists during this period. However, artists started using paintings to depict their surroundings during the Warring States Period (475-221BC).
This helped in increasing interest towards painting. Ancient Chinese artists used a brush made from animal hair and black ink made using pine soot and glue. Artists presented their paintings on silk. However, the invention of paper necessitated the artists to discard silk. Paintings from the early artists depicted majestic human figures. In addition, artists used the paintings to illustrate the teachings of Confucius.
Therefore, realism was the dominant form of painting during this period. People started appreciating paintings during the Six Dynasties (220-259). The paintings from this period show the norms of the society according to Confucianism. The paintings showed how the society expected people to relate with each other. The paintings depicted how wives were supposed to act around their husbands (Huang and Zürcher 239). Therefore, the study of these paintings may provide invaluable insights into the social life of people during this period.
Different styles of paintings flourished in various dynasties. During the Sui and Tang dynasties (501-907), various artists used paintings to portray royalty. Painters showed the splendor of court life and imperial horses. In addition, painters used their paintings to portray the beauty of palace women.
During this period, emperors started appreciating paintings. Therefore, they commissioned various paintings in their palaces. During the Song and Yuan dynasties (960-1368), there were further developments in the sophistication of paintings. Landscape painting is one of the paintings that developed greatly during this period.
Artists used blurred lines to convey immeasurable distances. During this period, people valued paintings that depicted nature. During the Northern Song period (960-1127), artists started using paintings to express their political ideals. The paintings in this period portrayed huge landscapes. This conformed to the political ideals of people this period.
The rulers of the Northern Song period strived to ensure order in the world and tackling the larger issues that affected the society. On the other hand, paintings during the Southern Song period (1127-1279) depicted small and closer objects. This conformed to the political ideals of rulers during the period. The rulers strived to reform the society by tackling issues on a smaller scale. Therefore, the Song and Yuan dynasties marked the beginning of the use of painting to portray political ideals (Ebrey 163).
During the early Song period, scholars created most of the paintings. They did not rely on the paintings for their livelihoods. They usually did the paintings during their free time. Scholars used paintings to express their feelings and beliefs. Therefore, these scholars helped in enriching the society.
However, later in the Song period, a new type of artists developed. These artists depended on painting to earn their living. These painters did not have the skills of the common painters. Scholars usually criticized this group of artists and did not consider them as real artists. The scholars considered these painters as other traders who exhibited their wares in the marketplace.
Most scholars were skilled in calligraphy. During the Song Dynasty, artists who had exemplary artistic skills and a good command of history joined the civil service. This formed new kind of elite painters, the scholar-officials. Scholar-officials used their command of history and artistic skills to maintain the moral and aesthetic standards in the society.
The past political and cultural paragons helped in shaping the moral and aesthetic standards of the community. These scholars helped in providing interpretations that that helped in judging various emperors during the dynasty.
During the Yuan dynasty, painters merged painting, calligraphy, and poems to express their feelings. These forms of art helped in expressing the feelings of the artists more clearly than any single artwork. Various popular painters existed during this period. Chien Shuan (1235-1307), Huang Gong-Wang (1269-1354), Ni Zan (1301-1374), and Zhao Meng-Fu (1254-1322) are some of the popular artists that existed during this period.
Various scholars refer to these painters as the ‘Four Great Masters of the Ming.’ They used their paintings to express their feelings. All these artists used painting, calligraphy, and poems to express their feelings more clearly. Therefore, this made the four artists become prominent personalities in the society (Elkins 79).
Artists who existed during the Yuan dynasty started shifting from realism. During this period, artists painted objects that did conform to the traditional principles of realism. However, these paintings maintained the simplicity that was inherent in other paintings.
Simplicity enabled the artists to express their thoughts clearly. A study of the paintings of various artists would help in portraying various phases of their lives. When these artists were sad, they used paintings to express their sorrow. In addition, various artists may portray the happiness in the paintings. Use of poems was in paintings was one of the most important developments during the Yuan Dynasty.
During the later stages of imperial China (1368-1895), artists used paintings that had a wider range of colors. In addition, these paintings were more exquisite than the paintings in previous periods. During this period, emperors used paintings to depict the kind of rule they desired. Emperors used paintings to portray the effectiveness of their rule.
In addition, emperors used paintings to show their support of various activities that helped in social advancement. Learning was one of the major activities that led to the social advancement of the society. In addition, emperors used paintings to show how they subdued their enemies. This was a show of power of the emperors.
Various paintings during this period also depicted various festivals. Spring Festival was one of the major festivals portrayed in various paintings. Therefore, a study of these paintings would help in showing various cultural differences that existed between this period and former dynasties.
Research Methods
This paper uses literature on Chinese painting from various sources. The paper makes a comparison between the various literatures to determine their authenticity. In addition, the paper uses the existing literature of various popular Chinese painters who lived during various ancient dynasties to determine the way of life that existed during the life of the painters.
The paintings provide primary data for analyzing the ancient Chinese cultures. Chinese scholarly painters used their works to express their ideas. Therefore, these literatures would be vital in providing the beliefs of the scholars with regard to various social issues. In addition, the paintings would also provide insights into the political life that existed during the life of various artists. To achieve this, the essay will compare the paintings in during the reign of various dynasties.
Expected Results
Ancient cultures used paintings to portray their culture. Therefore, using the above research methods would help in providing insights into Chinese culture. Literature shows that Chinese scholars used their paintings to portray their feelings. The research methods would help in showing the relationship between various people in ancient Chinese culture. Confucianism is one the major beliefs that affected the relationship between two parties.
Therefore, the research would show various ideals of Confucianism that existed in the ancient society. In addition, emperors used various paintings to show their leadership style. Therefore, analysis of the paintings that different emperors commissioned would help in providing insights into the leadership styles of the emperors.
In addition, it would show differences and similarities in the leadership styles of various ancient Chinese emperors. Scholar-officials used paintings to shape the views of the society. Therefore, paintings would help in showing the views of the scholar-officials. In addition, the paintings would help in showing the beliefs of various painters. It would help in showing the how the painters responded to various factors that affected their lives.
Since scholars were distinguished people in the society, people considered them to have ideal behaviors. Therefore, study of the behaviors of scholars would help in determining the norms of the ancient Chinese society. This paper will also show various changes in Chinese cultures.
Works Cited
Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge UP, 2010.
Elkins, James. Chinese Landscape Painting as Western Art History. Hong Kong UP, 2010.
Huang, Junjie and Erik Zürcher. Time and Space in Chinese Culture. BRILL, 1995.
The film of Esther Shub Fall of the Romanov Dynasty (1927) is one of the exemplary compilation films where archival footage is used in a specific manner. The film dwells upon the last years of the reign of the Romanovs. It is necessary to add that the film is very propagandist as it shows the dynasty and the entire society as totally evil. It is clear that the film was to promote ideas of communism and the Soviet party.
The film consists of archival footage that comes from different sources. There is the part that represents official materials used for news or archives. There are also private home movies that show the everyday life of the royal family and nobility. These pieces are different from the official sources as they have a different mood and different quality. The library shots used are of different length. Each library shot is proceeded by a note where the events are explained or rather where the director shows the way to think about the events shown.
As has been mentioned above, the length of the shots is different and it often serves a particular purpose. For instance, when showing the military people the director uses longer shots. This conveys the ideas that there were lots of soldiers and guards to support the czar’s regime.
Another interesting usage of a lengthy shot is a depiction of the celebration of the 300th anniversary of the dynasty. The royal family, as well as numerous noble guests, go through a kind of the live corridor. It becomes clear that there were quite a lot of rich people who oppressed the poor. Shorter shots provide an idea of certain events (preparations to the war, technological advances, and economic issues) or introduce certain historical personalities (for instance, rulers of other countries and so on).
It is necessary to add that the film has a coherent structure and the director creates sequences that convey a primary idea. First, the director shows different classes of people existing in the society at that time (for example, the royal family, nobility, priests, soldiers, working people, peasants and so on).
Then, different episodes from these groups’ lives are shown. For instance, a very suggestive part of the documentary is a set of shots that start with dancing on a boat where rich people dance for a while and perspire. The next sequence of shots shows the hard work of poor people. This contraposition serves to convey a particular idea.
The shots are used to stress the idle life of privileged classes and harsh conditions the people had to live in. The same technique is used when the war is shown. On the one hand, the rich are shown as those who are totally responsible for the war as they have plants and factories producing weapons. On the other hand, horrors of war and sufferings of the poor are shown to stress the price of the war.
On balance, it is possible to note that the film Fall of the Romanov Dynasty (1927) is a compilation of archival footage. The director uses certain notes to ‘help’ people understand the value of the events. One of the major techniques used was contraposition as the director tried to show the wrongs of the society prior to the revolution. The length and content of the shots help convey this idea and create a special atmosphere in the documentary.
