The Qin dynasty had its origins from a group of people who were known as Qin. These people lived in a small land west of the Wei River. They expanded and strengthened their territory during a time that is commonly known as the Warring States Period. The people in this period took up legalism and there was no other philosophy writing accepted. Legalism in this case meant that laws that were used mostly in cases would govern people. These cases had heavy penalties and thus they turned out to be exploitative and cruel. The Qin dynasty had many challenges during legalism. However, the system of governance was well defined and hence it led to growth in the economy and the empire was productive. This brought about victory over the warring states and it was at this time that the king declared himself the emperor of China. (Morton)
Main Part
During the period of the Qin dynasty, the practice of central rule came into place. This principle permitted Qin who was the leader to govern from a centralized power form of government. In this way, he obtained the name First Emperor that was previously set aside for divine beings like the gods. In the centralized form of government, the emperor was the main decision maker and everyone including his officials followed his word. (Paludan 150) He relied on legalist intellectual counselors and though there were many challenges this method of governing became a success. This policy was associated with Han Feizi advice who stated that the leader should take all the credit for all achievements but hold the government officials responsible for their mistakes. The ruler was supposed to be immensely powerful and any effort by the officials to oppose his will was supposed to be banished. He stated that the officials should work hard and practice good judgment, but the leader must maintain a clean reputation. He also insisted that no one person was to yearn for the power that the leader held in his dictatorial government. The emperor was not supposed to be influenced by his officials and that is the reason why Han recommended that the emperor should not disclose his will to anybody. (Lewis)
The centralized government did not permit any opposition from anyone. Anyone who criticized the government and the policies that had been put in place was put to death. This led to the people being afraid and most of them followed the laws in place without any questions. Han Feizi writings criticized any person who left their work to go and work with any other regime as well as anyone who challenged the law with their own principles. He did not approve that people should leave their work nor should they disapprove of what their superiors say and nobody should make any close relations with other states or condemn their regime. He wrote that the laws should be strictly followed so that the superiors are respected and the rights of everyone are protected. He also emphasized that death penalties should be carried out and nobody who has broken any law should by any means go unpunished. (Israel)
The Qin dynasty had a very large and strong military base which had well trained and competent generals. The military made use of the latest war machines and weapons as well as the transportation systems in place were very efficient, something that their enemies did not possess. This high growth in the transport sector led to easy mobility in different territories. The Qin dynasty hence had a military base that was superior and efficient for protection of his kingdom. This policy can be seen in Han Feizi philosophies where he warned that the militarys brave men should not be rewarded generously and those who solved their disputes with the weapons provided in the military should not be forgiven. He also emphasized that a government official should by no means be allowed to have personal soldiers and any requests they make would only be given to them if they obey the laws. (Cotterell 180)
The Qin dynasty also brought the rule of having groups of people watch each other and was supposed to report any one who broke the law. If they refused to report a wrong doer they would all be punished. The person who refused to name an offender would be sliced into two and those that brought culprits forward were rewarded the same way as a hero who had murdered an enemy of the kingdom. This was a very hard and calculated way of controlling people and managing unlawful deeds. In Han Feizis writings, he suggested that giving rewards and punishments was a very efficient method of observing one another and taking responsibility for forwarding wrong doers in the community. He reasoned that if the ones that forward criminals are rewarded and those who refuse to forward the criminals are punished, then this would be a sure way of ensuring that all the criminals are caught. The laws that were also used in the Qin dynasty included the fact that the law should not be broken in order to favor ones relatives or family as well as to praise the leaders in high places. This meant that one could not refuse to forward their family if they broke the law. (China Philosophy)
Legalism during the Qin dynasty consisted of an authoritarian system of government in which the ruler was the head of the kingdom and had the final say. The people were not supposed to oppose anything and they were required to follow the rule without any questions. Any one who disagreed with the laid down laws of the government was termed to have committed a capital crime and the punishment was death. This led to a lot of oppression and even the government officials were not allowed to make any decisions even for the good of the state; instead, they were supposed to exercise the policies put in place by the emperor. The people began to rebel from the cruel laws that were put for them. The government officials did not alert the emperor about the rebellion because they were afraid that it would be taken as criticizing the government and lead to their execution. The emperor learnt about the rebellion when it was too late and they were overthrown by the Han dynasty. (Breslin)
The citizens were subjected to hard labor on state projects that included the building of the Great Wall of China, the building of a splendid residence for the ruler in the capital, Xiangyang as well as the irrigation projects that the government had put in place. The buildings were build for the leader and no government officials were allowed to use them to carry out their official duties. The government also imposed heavy taxes and levies to all the citizens and anyone who was unable to pay was imprisoned. (Breslin)
Many people sank to poverty and misery with the number of people accused of crimes increasing. Strict laws and severe punishment was among the policies of the Qin dynasty. People who obeyed the laws and performed deeds that were benefiting the people and the state were immensely rewarded and those who broke the laws in ways that were harmful to the people or the state were severely punished. The leaders were very cautious when it came to issuing the rewards and the punishments as well. This provoked the citizens to violence and rebellion leading to the fall of the Qin dynasty. (Behnke & Grant)
The Qin dynasty did not allow any alternative ways of thinking which led to the persecution of people who believed in Confucianism. All the books and materials that were written by the Confucianism intellectuals were all burnt and strict warnings were issued that insisted that anybody who said or wrote anything that was against the government would be executed. This led to a lot of fear among the people, making them adhere to his legalist ideas, and hence Confucianism was forgotten. These oppressive laws are the ones that led to the downfall of the Qin dynasty. (Bedini)
Conclusion
The Qin dynasty came to power and brought about a new system of government that to some extent was fulfilling but on the other hand was oppressive to the people. The dynasty carried out reforms in many sectors of the economy including politics, military and agriculture as well as the economy. The executive institutes in the central and local areas were restructured and other centers of power were created. The centralized form of government gave all the powers to the emperor to control the kingdom by himself. The people were not allowed to voice their concerns and this was what led to their rebellion hence the fall of the Qin dynasty.
Works cited
Bedini, Silvio. The Trail of Time: Shih-chien Ti Tsu-chi: Time Measurement with Incense in East Asia Cambridge University Press, 1994.Print.
Behnke, Anne & Grant, Hardy. The Establishment of the Han Empire and Imperial China. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood press, 2005. Print.
Breslin, Thomas A. Beyond Pain: The Role of Pleasure and Culture in the Making of Foreign Affairs. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001. Print.
China Philosophy. Web.
Cotterell, Arthur. The Imperial Capitals of China An Inside View of the Celestial Empire. London: Pimlico 1.1(2007):158- 304.
Israel, Jared. Maoist economics and politics. Web.
Lewis, Mark Edward. The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han. Belknap Press. 2007. Print
Morton, W. Scott. China: Its History and Culture (3rd Ed.).McGrraw-Hill.1995. Print.
Paludan, Ann. Chronicle of the China Emperors. London: Thames & Hudson 23.1(1998): 125- 224.
Terrill, Ross. Transnational China project sponsored commentary: The new Chinese empire: And what it means for the United States . 2003. Web.
Each country seems to have a period in its history that is referred to as the golden age. The golden age is the time of prosperity, stability, and harmony, during which great tasks are accomplished and development takes place. The eras of Han (206 BCE 220 CE) and Tang (618 907 CE) Dynasties are certainly the periods that can be considered golden ages for China. The same can be said about the Gupta Empire of India, which functioned from around 320 to 550 CE. A lot of similarities among the processes that occurred in the golden ages of both China and India indicate that prosperity is often conditioned by the same factors.
The Han Dynasty the second dynasty of Imperial China was founded in the 3rd century BCE. The main accomplishments of the early Han dynasty are associated with the name of its first Emperor, Wu Ti (Benjamin 57). His westward expansion resulted in the widespread use of the Silk Road trade route. Moreover, Wu Ti restored the construction of the Great Wall of China, which initially began during the Chin Dynastys reign. Additionally, according to Sayre, the blossoming of Chinese literary arts began precisely under Emperor Wu (107). Having lasted for more than 400 years, the Han Dynasty collapsed due to the corruption in the government and political struggles.
When it comes to comparing the Han Dynasty in China to the Gupta Empire in India, some parallels can be drawn in terms of the political control methods. For instance, both empires had social hierarchy notions embedded in their policies. However, in Han China, inequality between social classes was almost impossible to overcome. In Gupta India, the caste system allowed people to move up in the ranks (Sayre 113). Moreover, the two empires fell in almost the same way: their leaders failed to communicate successfully, which led to domestic conflicts (Benjamin 58). Additionally, in both empires, there was one main religion: Confucianism in China and Hinduism in India. In Han China, however, religion was used to dictate the future of people in the social hierarchy (Sayre 107). By contrast, Hinduism influenced Indias policies, but it was not as heavily imposed by the government.
The fall of the Han generated chaos, which lasted for the following 400 years. Then, in the 7th century CE, came the rise of the Tang Dynasty. Tai-tsung, the son of the dynastys first emperor, managed to eliminate all the Tangs political rivals and establish firm control over reunited China (Eberhard 168). According to Eberhard, art and literature continued to flourish, with poetry being the periods greatest glory (172). The dynastys borders were expanding into Central Asia and Korea, and the Chinese regularly interacted with other lands, exchanging goods and ideas with the help of the Silk Road (Eberhard 174). The Tangs decline occurred in the 9th century when factions in the central government started to feud, and around 907 CE, the dynasty collapsed.
The main parallel to draw between Tang China and the Gupta Empire is the general prosperity, which was the key reason why both these periods were considered the golden ages of their countries. Math and Math note that the times of the Gupta Empire, as well as the Tang Dynasty, were a period of overall cultural progress (927). Just like Tang China, Gupta India attracted visitors from other countries and became a melting pot for many cultures (Math and Math, 927). Additionally, external trade and commerce were on the rise in both empires.
In conclusion, the golden ages of China and India had a lot in common. That includes the presence of strong rulers and their adherence to their policies, the influence of religion on societys life, the flourishing of art and literature, and the interaction with other cultures. Granted, there were differences in how certain practices were regulated and processes implemented, but it is only reasonable since India and China are two separate countries with their own unique characteristics.
Works Cited
Benjamin, Craig. Empires of Ancient Eurasia: The First Silk Roads Era, 100 BCE 250 CE. Cambridge UP, 2018.
Eberhard, Wolfram. A History of China. Library of Alexandria, 2020.
Math, B. G., and Math, Praveen. A Study on Gupta Dynasty. International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, vol. 2, no. 12, 2021, pp. 927-932.
Sayre, Henry M. Discovering the Humanities. 3rd ed., Pearson, 2015.
Every society has certain inclination towards a higher super natural power. This inclination forms the basis for a religion. Religion can be termed as man in an attempt to reach out to God. Similar to other dynasties, the people of tang believed and practiced different religions.
History is not silent about unveiling the various religious practices present in the land of the Tang. History sets clear records about the Tang dynasty been Chinese second greatest dynasty (Ning 123). Its influence and impact spread not just across its immediate borders but also reaching far lands.
One conspicuous element about this dynasty was its ability to unify the large territory. Another interesting fact about the tang dynasty was that a great part of it was made up non-Chinese. The main occupants of the land were merchants from inner Asia, and persons with Turkish background. To add. also the Persians and the Sogdhians lived at some areas of the Tang territory. This paper presents a detailed discussion of how religion affected the Tang Dynasty.
Discussion
To begin this discussion, we have to outline some key questions. One of these questions is how significantly religion affected livelihood in the Tang Dynasty. To take us off, let us have a brief glimpse at the background of the Tang Dynasty. A major aspect of the Tang Dynasty was its religion. The dynasty was known for its geographical expansion, its cultural values and its deep roots in religion.
This solidifies the point that religion was one of the strongest pillars of this Dynasty. Several religious groups were found here. They included the Buddhism. The religion of Buddhism was one of the large religious groupings, spreading from Korea to Japan (David 456). Apart from these big and well known religions, the presence of Islam and Christianity was also evident.
For the longest time, known the rulers of the Tang dynasty exercised religious tolerance. Apart from Buddhists, other religions present here include the Daoism (Lewis 23). For example, during the time in power of Taizong, the Emperor, proverbial Buddhist cleric Xuan Zang, travelled to look for the Buddhist Sutra in India.
When he arrived, he was able to get 657 sutras that included the large untamed Goose Pagoda, which was built for conservation. In the path of interpreting the sutras, the Buddhist monks developed a well established approach of philosophy which had different faction of Buddhism.
Religion and Politics
The influence and impact of religion in the affairs of the Tang Dynasty cannot be understated. If we have a keen look right from start, the religion took critical positions in the politics of the land. For example, in his power search, Li Yuan drew majority followers by asserting that he was a kin to the respected Daoist Sage Laozi who existed in the 6th century BC. This trend was used regularly all along history.
Politicians took advantage of their relationships and interactions with the key personnel in society to have their way into power. The Tang dynasty was not an exception in this sense (Ning 156). Therefore, as we wake up to the reflection of similar trends, there is no wonder to history. Witnessed severally persons with vested interest on public office would have Buddhist cleric pray for them in public congregation. If the leaders made it power, they would reward the participating partners.
Holistically, the interaction of religion and politics leaves very interesting concerns. These include looking at how various leaders in power used religion to their advantage. There by separating the two elements becomes practically impossible. They work hand in hand, whether for good or for bad.
It is a matter of case by case interpretation. For instance in the Tang dynasty, while religion took vital part in politics, the reverse was also a reality (David 345). Politics played vital part in religion. At one time, Emperor Xuanzong prohibited merchants in the capital from trading with Buddhist sutras.
Religion and Commerce
Religion had its influence on commerce and trade. The facts that some selected people were allowed to trade while others were prohibited, echoes religious intrusion into the way of doing business. In a different case, the same Emperor had gone ahead to liquidate the highly profitable inexhaustible Treasury, which was operated by a well known Buddhist monastery in the Tangan capital, Changan (Lewis 90).
The monastery took the opportunity to amass huge sums of money, wealth, and silk. The Emperor issued out a decree to abolish the treasury because of manipulative businesses. It was believed that they collected the riches, and spread it to various monasteries.
Religion and cohesion and integration
Another way in which religion affected the Tang Dynasty was national cohesion and integration. Essentially how people lived with each other. Key to note, before the great persecution of Buddhists in the 9th century, the key religions embraced each other. For example, the Emperor Xuanzong of Tang invited clerics and monks from both camps to his palace.
Around the same time, Xuanzong lifted the ancient Laozi by giving him splendid titles, and even went ahead to writing commentary on the Daoist Laozi, and setting up a school that was to serve the purpose of preparing candidates for Daiost scriptures, and then went ahead to call the Indian monk by the name Vajrabodhi to do Tantric rites to prevent a drought in the year 726 (Ning 189). This incident paints a picture of favoritism towards a selected group of people. This weakens the principle of balanced bill of rights.
Conclusion
From the above discussion, it is crystal clear how the religion played major role in the livelihood of the Tang Dynasty. History is open about the size and impact of Tang dynasty. It is recorded that it was Chinese second greatest dynasty. Its influence and impact spread not just across its immediate borders but into far lands.
Religion was conspicuous aspect of the dynasty. This solidifies the point that religion was one of the strongest pillars of this Dynasty. Different rulers especially used the religion card to play their game. The religion of Buddhism was one of the large religious groupings, spreading from Korea to Japan. If we have a keen look right from start, the religion took critical positions in the politics of the land.
As the debate progresses, it is clear that religion affected not just the politics of the land but also commerce and trade (Lewis 78). Another way in which religion affected the Tang Dynasty was national cohesion and integration. Essentially, how people lived with each other. The role of religion to a society remains a point to ponder especially as we look at our case study, the Tang Dynasty. The same can be said even of the present society.
Works Cited
David, Tien. Discursive Resources and Collapsing Ploaries. New York: The Free Press, 2009. Print.
Lewis, Mark. China Cosmopolitan Empire. New York: W.W.Norton & Company Ltd, 2010. Print.
Ning, Quin. Art, Religion, and Politics in Medieval China. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2008. Print.
A number of factors are attributed to the growth of Daoism in during late Qing dynasty to the early republican era. One of the factors that contributed to the growth of Daoism was institutional renewal, the emergence of writings, and the spread of Chinese culture across the region. As the Chinese culture spread to other parts of the world, Daoist ideas, skills, and influences were spread through books and scriptures.
Other people noticed that Daoism was a productive religion that contained valuable teachings to the youth and the family1. A number of cultures developed interest in Daoism. Through the leadership of charismatic leaders, such as Wang Changzhue, Daoism gained a wide acceptance among the locals even beyond China.
The religion was adopted by the Qing dynasty as an official state religion2. In some provinces, such as Gansu and Yunnan under Ming, Daoism controlled political, artistic and spiritual aspects of society. The advocates of Daoism worked closely with local communities to expand its influence.
Scholars subscribing to the cultural beliefs of Daoism produced various pieces of writings, which were very influential to the lives of the majority in society. Daoism became popular to an extent that people internalized its teachings and became part of their cultural beliefs. Local scholars could easily express their ideas regarding Daoism in their literal woks, plays, and games3.
It is therefore concluded that Daoism was able to develop during the late Qing dynasty to the early republican era through the works of art and writings of various scholars. Local leadership was in support of the religion hence it could not fade out easily. In other parts of the country, it was made a state religion meaning that everybody was supposed to be a member4.
Some famous reformers such as Zheng supported Daoism because they questioned the credibility of scientific knowledge, as suggested by the western powers. Modern scientists were simply concerned with mechanical determinism whereby cultural beliefs were not considered. Scientific research results to modernity meaning that life is determine by the mode of production.
This alienates the human soul and spirit. Machines and technologies are even valued more than the human soul since they are able to produce wealth. To such reformers, the human soul is the most important because it cannot be accessed scientifically. In this regard, these reformers suggested that scientific knowledge have some limits5.
Ethical, spiritual insight, astuteness and other forms of what the reformers referred to as metaphysics or life stance are exclusively independent system of knowledge, which is self-sufficient. This form of familiarity is pure because it was acquired through instinct and other non-scientific means6.
The tragic events of the Great War confirmed that western discoveries are very dangerous. Many people resorted to traditional discoveries that were mostly based on Daoism because they were safe. The emergence of capitalism was attributed to scientific discoveries whereby people engaged in production of goods and services without caring about the welfare of the poor in society.
Many people confirmed that science was simply concerned with material accumulation, but not promoting the welfare of the majority on society. Science was highly disputed since it could not serve as the basis for ethical or religious knowledge. The Chinese could not rely on the western culture for civilization since it was inconsistent with the local beliefs.
Bibliography
Liu, Xun. Daoist Modern: Innovation, Lay Practice, and the Community of Inner Alchemy in Republican Shanghai. Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Centre, 2009.
Footnotes
1 Xun Liu, Daoist Modern: Innovation, Lay Practice, and the Community of Inner Alchemy in Republican Shanghai (Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Centre, 2009), 35.
2Xun Liu, Daoist Modern: Innovation, Lay Practice, and the Community of Inner Alchemy in Republican Shanghai (Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Centre, 2009), 35.
3 Xun Liu, Daoist Modern: Innovation, Lay Practice, and the Community of Inner Alchemy in Republican Shanghai (Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Centre, 2009), 35.
4Xun Liu, Daoist Modern: Innovation, Lay Practice, and the Community of Inner Alchemy in Republican Shanghai (Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Centre, 2009), 35.
5 Xun Liu, Daoist Modern: Innovation, Lay Practice, and the Community of Inner Alchemy in Republican Shanghai (Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Centre, 2009), 34.
6Xun Liu, Daoist Modern: Innovation, Lay Practice, and the Community of Inner Alchemy in Republican Shanghai (Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Centre, 2009), 34.
Calligraphy or the art of beautiful writing in traditional China came along as the visual art of a highly cherished handwork of the time. Calligraphy passed out in high esteem and was experienced by many as a fine art-way before painting became a commonplace ideology across China. The elevated status of calligraphy as a fine art often reflects the status of the word in China (Juliano, Lerner, and Alram, 32). From a humble beginning, emperors asserted their influence from generation to generation by engaging their own affirmations in these ancient forms of art and these were superimposed on the mountain tops and on stone carvings erected on various strategic points such as in the parks and on the outdoor spots. Through these informal art practices, the Chinese culture became much devoted to the supremacy of its language.
In ancient China, scholars of calligraphy were highly respected, and most indeed came to position themselves in highly respected ranks in the government and society. Apart from the traditional role played by art in ancient China, what made Calligraphy so distinctive from other informal art was its visual lustre (McCausland 21). According to Wang (250), individual Chinese words are represented by their own unique symbols, which are essentially abstract symbols known as characters. Essentially, learning the Chinese language requires the mastery of these distinct words through a rigorous process that involves writing and continuous rewriting of a particular character until a concept is taken. Arguably, the limitation of learning the Chinese calligraphy is its vigour, rather than its rigour. In traditional China, ancient writing suggests that calligraphy played multiple roles ranging from basic education to the concept of governance (Period of Disunity—Tang dynasty 220–907 par. 7).
In the ancient calligraphy, characters did signify not only definite connotations but also revealed ethical motif in their unique forms, explored the vigour of the demonstration of the human energy and the liveliness of nature that it sought to reveal (Period of Disunity—Tang dynasty 220–907 par. 11).
Chinese calligraphy as a concept of culture
Ancient Chinese society enjoyed the patronage of rich cultural expression that had never been witnessed in various parts of the world. At the time of Emperor Taizong reins art was held in high esteem, and this was further developed when his son, the heir apparent, Emperor Xuanzong took the mantle of leadership. As a consequent, the indigenous Chinese people enjoyed a rich period of cultural expression seen in the eyes of historians and researchers as the embryonic taste of modern-day Chinese calligraphy (McCausland 22). Traditionally, the Chinese people saw these developments as expressions of ethical government twinned with religious tolerance.
Calligraphy has consequently become synonymous with people appreciation of their culture experienced by way of trade and realized as a concept of Chinese people’s way of writing, painters, poets, philosophers and potters have consequently emerged from these developments. The exceptional appeal of the Tang dynasty has often been seen as having passed through an open, yet broad-minded caste system that provided quintessence through which calligraphy evolved. According to Wang (253), this spirit is widely believed to have contributed to the culturally diverse and superb generations in the history of Chinese calligraphy.
The rise of Tang dynasty as a world-class Calligraphy power
After many years of internal power wrangles following the collapse of the Han dynasty during the 220 AD, China experienced a short stint of unification with the coming to power by the Siu dynasty in the years that followed (McCausland 25). For this reason, Juliano, Lerner, and Alram (32) add that foreign languages became a daily life venture making business to boom in China while calligraphic artistry was developed to meet the tastes of various markets, both locally and abroad.
Tang calligraphy is seen in the eyes of ancient trade, social change and education
In the years of rule under the Tang dynasty, China especially during the reigns Emperor Taizong subdued its traditional enemies from the north subsequently making its people secure peace and safety for the pioneering trade reaching out to Syria, Rome and other parts of Europe (McCausland 26). Historical records hold that the Tang dynasty evolved through a series of social change that capacitated calligraphy into an official ideology that enabled people with a various outstanding understanding of the text to serve in various positions of leadership in the society (Soper 50). The eighth-century was remarked as a herald to the second vital epoch within the Tang history.
Most of the calligraphic design evolved and grew substantially during reigns of Emperor Xuanzong and whose state of the art presented at the helm of leadership was highly ranked in the history of Chinese dynasty having been earmarked as the brilliant monarch called Minghuang. Under the stewardship of Emperor Xuanzong, literature became a noble cause in the lives of the ancient Chinese people with performing and martial arts contributing largely to the concept of Chinese artistry. According to Soper (50), the period set the platform for which later sculptures, poets, painters and other artists could expand their abilities.
The expressions, language, and images that are inscribed in the poems of the time are a reflection of the flamboyant lives that dictated the systems of the time. The enthusiastic brushwork on some of the early paintings such as that of the court painting and the naturalistic dialect of most of the painters of the time resulted in artistic paradigms for the generations that followed afterwards (Juliano, Lerner, and Alram 33). Endowed with stupendous energy and vitality, the Chinese people took the situation of the opportunity to grow and develop their medieval calligraphy, which was at the time was becoming widespread in other regions.
Calligraphy in Ancient Tang
In China, calligraphy reached its peak in Tang ahead of most other dynasties of the time, and naturally, whenever people talk of about Chinese calligraphy, the Tang dynasty suffice as a point of reference (Soper 53). During this time, Wang (253) argues that the Chinese people praised and attributed calligraphy as one of the crowning achievements of men. According to Wang (254), the government of the day set up academies where calligraphy was studied in remarkably. In the Tang dynasty, calligraphy as art was highly cherished and viewed as a concept that would later be used to rate various individuals in the society, especially with regard to leadership acumen.
As Wang (254) notes, there were several subjects in the academic calendar and calligraphy featured above board. The society and all its members treated calligraphy with the respect it deserved. Essentially, it was the preserve of the emperors and the ordinary people. During the ancient Tang Dynasty, Emperor Xuanzong cherished Wang His-Chich’s calligraphy, for example, spending a lot of money to buy out his artistry making calligraphy to be respected in the eyes of the population of his time. Because of his love for aesthetic merit, most calligraphers of the time were aided to study Wang Hsi-Chih’s style type calligraphy.
Most of the popular scripts in the Tang dynasty were inscribed to embrace the popular art and literature of the time. These scripts were used to test the latent of various upcoming calligraphers in the informal training sessions. From all corners of ancient China, all calligraphic calligraphy styles were widely seen in the light of great adventure for a so consumed in people the search for perfection (Juliano, Lerner, and Alram 33). Most of the calligraphy styles of the time were widely seen in the context of great societal achievement and calligraphers that specialized in various forms of art were highly regarded. This was so because they were seen as individuals who were capable of multitasking in various aspects of communal chores. It is believed that monk Huai Su was instructed by Zhang Shui to help the people attain higher levels of calligraphic training in the vast dynastic protectorate. Accordingly, the indigenous people looked upon their achievements and even wanted to perfect on the art of calligraphy, this was done particularly because the individual contribution to the world of the calligraphy of the time was most welcome (Juliano, Lerner, and Alram 34).
Chinese calligraphy and philosophy
As calligraphy continues to be more popular within the Tang dynasty, a lot of calligraphy theorists sprouted with several of their works of art being published at the time (Soper 55). Tang Tai Zong, a widely proclaimed philosopher of the time, for example, pointed out categorically that the spirit and essence of calligraphy ought to resemble a drawing with owl toes on the sand, and which many views as the core of all Chinese calligraphy for the duration that after such pronouncements. Another philosopher, Hsu Hao, revealed that calligraphy and literature share a common bond of both ethics art and literature (Juliano, Lerner, and Alram 34).
Zhang Huai-Guan, in his book Shu Duan, alluded to the fact that Chinese culture was deeply rooted in calligraphy and that essence of Chinese is the calligraphy was the ethics of purpose. Perhaps another remarkable contributor in the philosophy of calligraphy was Sun Guo-Ting who theorized the concept of modern Chinese calligraphy in his book Shu Pu that was written in Taso Shu. Accordingly, the philosopher, in his pronouncements about ancient calligraphy explores various issues as well as theories that try to explain the nature of the ancient Chinese calligraphy (Juliano, Lerner, and Alram 34). The philosopher categorically documented the concept of inheriting the existing Chinese technologies, categorically giving direction on creating the new ones while emphasizing the importance of studying and conceptualizing the ancient calligraphy masterpieces as well as the modes that govern it. Of particular concern regarding this contribution was his particular advisory-counsel regarding modern tutelage in conceptualizing ancient calligraphy.
The concept of the Tang calligraphy
The Tang dynasty artistry underwent one metamorphosis after the other with a strong orientation to moral virtues, and political correctness that inspired the would-be calligraphers to look upon their roles as respectable, law-abiding members of the society (Juliano, Lerner, and Alram 35). One of the highly cherished calligraphers of the new monumental script had been Yan Zhenqing whose artistry was closely seen in the lenses of spiritual fulfilment. Nonetheless, he was so devoted to his works of art that he died a loyalist martyr under the ancient throne, becoming a heroic figure of virtue among the Chinese religious groupings (Brown and Hutton 27).
Under the religious banner, these ancient calligraphers set the phase for the modern-day sets of religion in various parts of China. Yan particularly created a bold type styled calligraphy, which provoked the state of the government, an art that communicated to and rallied the people to shun autocratic tendencies. Together with the like-minded calligraphers of the time, Yan used his calligraphy to draw the people towards the Supreme Being and make religion their point of reference (Brown and Hutton 28). The structural cohesiveness of the calligraphy of this nature became the symbolic beauty of uprightness and moral rectitude in the society a virtue that is still a commonplace venture in the modern-day Peoples Republic of China.
The value of calligraphy to the Chinese people
Calligraphy to the Chinese people explores a genuine reflection of the true spirit of the people. For this reason, to the Chinese intellectual, the calligraphy, and its history still plays a major role in their studies as well as a source of high prestige to the people. Most often, in order to enhance the beauty and decorate houses, a pair of calligraphic scrolls would be seen hanging at the major entrance of most Chinese houses (Brown and Hutton 29). To the majority, the calligraphic scrolls at the entrances of their houses portray a deeper meaning and thus symbolize their true reflection and value to their community. However, to some of the Chinese, the calligraphy may only portray their names so that visitors would easily identify the house owners’ right at the entrances. This, according to the experts, enables the visitors to distinguish the right house before delivering any information (Brown and Hutton 31).
Similarly, most of the Chinese calligraphy was undoubtedly aesthetically sparkling. This is because the Chinese were good with the brushwork, thereby creatively produced large volumes of scrolls of calligraphy, which to the experts were evidence of good artisanship of the ancient Chinese. Surprisingly, as (Soper 56) notes, with the large volume of arts of calligraphy the Chinese did, analysis indicates that with the similarities, not even a single work was typically a copy of another. For this reason, it was easy for one to get a variety of aboriginal artwork that represented fashions of the day, such as necklaces that had different calligraphic symbols. As a result, the entire world population had an opportunity to appreciate the Chinese calligraphic works of art.
In addition, the Chinese calligraphy symbols that were developed long ago as (Brown and Hutton 35) points out has to date gained more popularity due to their aesthetic appeal to the entire world. This by itself shows that, even though the calligraphy is an olden day’s art, the symbols entails an undying worth to both the people who comprehend and those unfamiliar with the language. Besides, in order to understand and appreciate the Chinese calligraphy, it is noted that one needs to focus fully on the symbol since they are precise. This makes the Chinese symbols look appealingly beautiful and at the same time, communicates to those who understand them (Wang 254).
Sculpture
During the Tang dynasty, Chinese sculpture thrived more than any other time in Chinese history (Period of Disunity—Tang dynasty 220–907 par. 6). Much of the early works embodied religious sites like temples, burial sites, and caves (Wang 255). At the time, calligraphy and sculpture used the same materials. The painting also used the same materials. For example, the ink-stone, carved stone slab and storage for crunching ink and mixing with paper, ink and water-brush was common during the Tang dynasty. As opposed to Europe, where sculpture and calligraphy do not use the same materials, the Chinese considered sculpture and calligraphy as high art.
As Brown and Hutton (47) note, ceramic sculptures and woodcarvings were buried together with individuals which the society held in high esteem as part of the respect they deserved even in death. Today, many fine pre-historic sculptures have been found in the ancient burial sites in the capital Chang’an and Luoyang district. Several Buddhist sculptures that were later exhumed in the area attest to the fact that there had been significant artistic innovations in exploring the spatial structure of the ancient Chinese artistry (Wang 256).
Ceramics
The embryonic Tang epitaphic artworks are perhaps still known today as an adventure that was widely cherished across the region for their representational of images. Under these considerations, different personages, domestic and wild animals as well as those of places or physical landmarks with various significance to the Chinese people were embedded at eyesight to offer their representational value (Period of Disunity—Tang dynasty 220–907 par. 8). According to Period of Disunity—Tang dynasty 220–907 (par. 9), these images of calligraphic artwork were made out by the use of technologies of the time which gave various finished products their impressive lustre.
A typical technology of beautification was fondly known as sancia; the three colouring skill was a technology that combined several nozzles, which were made to produce different pigments that would systematically give an item its distinctive glean. Cobalt blue, brown, yellow, and black completed the decorating motif of these impressive yet ancient technologies (Period of Disunity—Tang dynasty 220–907 par. 10). Calligraphy and ceramics were believed to be representing a man’s status. The two artworks have a long history; they were signs of national wisdom and performance levels.
Conclusion
Calligraphy, as has been seen from the ongoing analysis, is an art of writing expressed in the Chinese characters by use of brush and ink. With the age-old tradition in vast continental Asia, Chinese calligraphy is believed to have taken its earlier roots in the Shang dynasty and spread across dynasties having been developed during the Eastern Zhou period (Period of Disunity—Tang dynasty 220–907 par. 4). It is not lost; however, the Tang dynasty was a remarkable epoch that saw the Chinese calligraphy evolving through a rigorous experience that embraced all the confluences of the ancient Chinese public life. Through these developments, the Chang dynasty evolved as a robust protectorate for the people of the time with the ancient art having been embraced and felt in all the echelons of ancient life including education, politics, and religion among other areas.
These embryonic Chinese artistries evolved into the modern-day Chinese calligraphic writing styles and languages. Much of the work that the modern-day Chinese calligraphers do is a mere perfection of what began many centuries ago. It is expected, however, that with the Chinese people’s thirst for greater achievement, as seen in their quest for perfection in various fields, calligraphy will no doubt be much perfected.
Works Cited
Brown, Rebecca, and Deborah Hutton. A companion to Asian art and architecture. Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011. Print.
Juliano, Annette, Judith Lerner, and Michael Alram. Monks and merchants: Silk Road treasures from Northwest China Gansu and Ningxia 4th-7th century. New York: Harry N. Abrams with the Asia Society, 2001. Print.
McCausland, Shane. Gu Kaizhi and the Admonitions scroll. London: British Museum Press, 2003. Print.
Period of Disunity—Tang dynasty 220–907. N.p. 2007. Web.
Soper, Alexander Coburn. South Chinese influence on the Buddhist art of the Six Dynasties Period,. Asia Society: Beijing, 1960. Print.
Wang, Eugene Yuejin. Shaping the Lotus Sutra: Buddhist visual culture in medieval China. Seattle, Washington: University of Washington Press, 2005. Print.
The epoch of the Tang Dynasty is traditionally considered as the period of the uttermost might of the country. It was the time when China kept ahead all other contemporary states in their development. “Measured by any standard, Tang China surpassed the rest of Eurasia” (Lockard 9).
The Tang Empire was founded by Li Yuan who was a large landowner originally hailed from the northern regions of China. Together with his son Li Shimin, Li Yuan achieved the victory in the civil war caused by the cruel and audacious policy of the last emperor of the Sui Dynasty Dou Jiande. Soon after the death of Dou Jiande in 618, Li Yuan came to the throne under the name of Gaozu. Later on, he was overthrown by Li Shimin, but the dynasty, which had been founded by him, was in power till 907 with the short interval from 690 till 705.
From the very beginning of its existence, the Tan Dynasty made a bid for the merging of China with prairie regions. The founder of the dynasty Li Yuan was familiar with the nations of the prairie, with their cultures and traditions. The early periods of the Tan dynastys rule were characterized by the intensive cultural interchange between the two regions. The prairie gave China a highly developed army with the heavily armored horse cavalry. In its turn, the descendants of the nomad tribes were fascinated by the Chinese wealth and by its ancient and sophisticated culture.
The idea of the association of China and the nomads under the rule of the Tang emperor was the factor that during several centuries had been determining the focal point of the foreign and domestic policy. Peace and reconciliation in the country allowed concentrating all human resources for the benefit of China. It was the period of the economic exuberance, the development of crafts, agriculture, and trade. There were made numerous improvements in the spheres of weaving, dyeing, pottery industry, metallurgy, and shipbuilding. The whole country were covered with the net of highly developed roads and water communication lines. At this period, China created cultural and economic relationship with Japan, India, Persia, and Arabia.
Apart from expanding of the boundaries of the country, there were annexed western regions and Korea. In the south China exercised authority over Amman. In such a way, the territory of the country in size was approximately equal to the territory of the empire of the period of the Han Dynastys prosperity. At that time China was no only the most powerful, but the most hospitable country in the world. Many religious figures and philosophers, who had to leave their motherland, sought shelter and protection in China.
The era of the Tang Dynasty was the period of the development and the flowering of the Chinese art and literature. The majority of the Tang emperors patronized poets and artists.
Moreover, the economic and administrative innovations of the Sui Dynasty were developed. There was elaborated the new land legislation, in accordance with which the formation of large-scale land holdings was reduced and peasants obtained the opportunity to sustain the appropriate living conditions. There was also formulated the obligatory set of social traditions and rules of conduct.
At the same time, the first Tang emperors did not manage to get the army under complete control. Strong emperors made use of the loyalty of commanders. At the same time, the weakening of the centralized power permitted satraps to extend military power on the local civil administration. In 775, one of the commanders practically destroyed the imperial dynasty. It was An Lushan who abolished Emperor Xuanzong from power and whose rebellion gave birth to the long civil war.
The change on the political climate took place simultaneously with changes in the administrative system. Cities, which had been always administrative centers, became the area of the activity of the new growing class of bourgeoisie. The attempts of the governors to retain control over the external trade by means of the creation of inspectorial agencies failed. Private trades taught how to skirt various legislative bans or even to lay hands on these establishments.
The positions of the emperors were weakening, while the power of the local military leaders was strengthening. As the result of this process, various rebellions and revolts took place. Ultimately, they put an end to the Tang Empire. One of such rebellions under the leadership of Huang Chao, who declared himself emperor, dealt the deathblow to the Tang Empire. Huang Chao dethroned the last Tang emperor and killed all his family.
Charlemagne is the most distinguished figure of the Carolingian Dynasty. His name gave the title to the whole dynasty. At the age of sixteen, he became a king and his reign lasted 46 years. Charlemagne was an outstanding government leader and military commander. During his life, he took part in 50 military campaigns in the result of which he became a leader of the big state, which had no analogues in Western Europe since the times of the Roman Empire.
In the 70th of the VIII century, after the victory over the Langobardic king Desiderius, Charlemagne joined this land to his kingdom. Soon he began the war against the Arabs, who had conquered by that time the Visigothic kingdom on the Iberian Peninsula. This military campaign was unsuccessful for Charlemagne. He did not manage to conquer Saragossa. On their way home, their troops were attacked by the Basques. This episode of this campaign is usually associated with the famous example of the French epos The Song of Roland.
By the end of the eighth century, Charlemagne undertook new war expeditions against the Arabs. These campaigns were more successful. The Franks managed to conquer the area on the territory of the contemporary Spain, where they laid the foundation to the Spanish March. Later on, on this territory Barcelona will appear.
The major part of his conquests Charlemagne conducted in the central Europe. The war against the Saxons was particularly long and murderous. The joining of Saxony was especially important for the empire of Charlemagne. It meant the acquisition of new lands and peasants, the access to the Baltic sea, and the development of the trade. In 777, the chiefs of the Saxon tribes took the oath to Charlemagne. Since then, there were built many churches all over Saxony. The Saxons were imposed new taxes and the free Saxon peasantry was enslaved.
Beginning from the 70th of the eighth century, there was a great number of rebellions against the Franks. Charlemagne put down these revolts with a heavy hand. Thousands of the Saxons were executed. However, the rebellions continued. After that, Charlemagne chose another way. He generously bribed the Saxon nobility. In such a way, many of the Saxons went over to the enemy and their last rebellion failed. At this time, Charlemagne laid under the tribute the Avarian realm and conquered the Bavarian kingdom.
As the result of his conquests, the borders of his empire began from the Pyrenees and the Atlantic Ocean in the West up to the Danube and the Adriatic Sea in the East.
In 800 during the mass on the Christmas day, Charlemagne was crowned by the Pope as the Emperor of the Romans. The fact that neither the Roman Empire nor the Romans did not exist at that time witnessed how strong the idea of the Roman tradition was.
Such huge empire demanded a complete reorganization of the administrative structure. Charlemagne was eager to create a strong centralized government ruled by the developed machinery of clerks. The center of the system was the capital in Aachen.
The administrative structure of the Charlemagnes Empire, as well as the administrative system in the Tang Dynasty, had some similar peculiarities. The emperors of China and Charlemagne realized that for the effective government of the state the highly developed administrative apparatus was needed. In the early stages of its existence, the bureaucratic apparatus was rather effective in the Tang Empire. It was based on the strict hierarchy of ranks. Every rank corresponded to a definite allotment of the land, provided by the government to a bureaucrat. The bureaucratic apparatus consisted on three chambers, six departments, and a great deal of bureaus. The special chamber exercised oversight of every administrative establishment. The country was divided into ten big regions, which were further subdivided on districts. Later on, the development of technologies and the enforcement of large landowners caused the decentralization of power that led to the disruption of the empire. However, it must be admitted that at the initial stages this system was rather effective.
As distinct from the Tang Empire, Charlemagne did not manage to create the centralized state. There were major deficiencies in the Frankish administrative system. There were absent financial authorities, judicial establishments, and a regular taxation system. The Charlemagnes Empire was heterogeneous by its ethnic composition. The nations did not have one whole economy, culture, and language. Every tribe, which was a part of the empire spoke its own language and kept in with its own laws. As distinguished from the Tang Dynasty, the Charlemagne’s Empire existed not so long. Soon after his death, there was a struggle between feudal lords, which was characterized by civil discords. In 843, the empire was divided into three parts. The emperorship lost its meaning and obtained the symbolic function.
At the same time, the role of these empires for the world history can hardly be overestimated. In spite of its quick rise and fall, the Frankish Empire was the basis for the creation of the Holy Roman Empire. “Charlemagne was also responsible for spreading Christianity throughout large portions of Western and Central Europe» (“The Fall of the Carolingian Empire” p.2).
Speaking about the Tang Dynasty it is possible to mention that at this period the highest cultural explosion took place. Moreover, at this epoch the gunpowder and the movable type were invented. This period is also characterized by such inventions as “porcelain, the mechanical clock, paper money, and magnetic compass» (“Tang and Song China” p.326).
Works Cited
Lockard, Craig. Tang Civilization and the Chinese Centuries. 2000. PDF file. Web.
Tang and Song China. n.d. PDF file. Web.
The Fall of the Carolingian Empire. n.d. PDF file. Web.
The Song Dynasty was an ancient Chinese empire famed for making much political and economic advancement that has been carried over to the modern-day. The Song Dynasty was split into two separate regions of the Northern Song and Southern Song. This Dynasty controlled almost sixty percent of China’s population. The empire had the most dynamic agricultural land that the Song used to empower the people of China. The Southern Song region had a large naval military in order to protect their region and waters from outside invasion. The empire had very advanced technology more than any other regime in China had managed to achieve. The Song Dynasty fell in 1279 and China became one nation under the Yuan Dynasty. (Benn, 236)
Neo Confucianism in the Song Dynasty
Neo Confucianism was established in China during the Song Dynasty. This religion was founded on Confucian beliefs during the period of the Qing Dynasty. The religion brought together fundamental concepts of Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism. The Confucians incorporated Buddhist ideas in their faith on the nature of the human spirit. The Neo-Confucians explored the relationship of human beings to the universe something that the Confucians had not practiced before. The major advocate of Neo-Confucianism was Zhu Xi, a creative writer who believed that human beings should sponsor social unity and good personal behavior. Neo-Confucians believed in the importance of maintaining high ethical values. They believed that for this to happen individuals were supposed to pursue both academic and philosophical practices in order to achieve the required standards. (Tu1, 190)
Neo Confucians believed that heaven was a holy and wonderful place, which was enclosed. They argued that even though human beings were born well, they were not pure and therefore measures were supposed to be put in place to purify them. This in other words meant that people’s heaven required purification. Unlike Buddhists and Taoists, Neo-Confucians felt that there was no outer world that was separate from the world we live in. They, therefore, condemned the concept of rebirth and the related concept of destiny. They argued that heaven was in the world and that it existed inside the heart of a person. They, therefore, argued that meditation was important for one to be in touch with the inner being. They said that human beings were born with the knowledge of what was good and what was bad. In this way, they felt that one did not have to be taught or learn to know the difference. (Tu2, 198)
Growth of the commercial economy in the Song dynasty
The Song Dynasty experienced remarkable commercial expansion, financial growth, advanced trade as well as development in agriculture. Agriculture expanded in the Song Dynasty where large tracts of land were ploughed. The government advised the people to open new lands for farming. The government in a gesture of gratitude offered the land to the people permanently. Irrigation schemes were developed and new farming tools, seeds and fertilizers were developed. These produced many crops for the people that they sold within and outside China. It was during the Song dynasty that trade with outside communities began to expand. Merchants would take their goods overseas for trade. These merchants went as far as East Africa in their trade. The Song government supported the merchants by establishing Trade Supervisors. In this way, the merchants were able to increase their profits. (Global openness)
The Song Dynasty began the world’s first paper money that took place on a large scale. The paper industry employed many people thus improving their economic status. The development of paper money also led to an increase in foreign markets thus boosting the level of commerce. The textile industries came up further advancing the rate of porcelain making in the Song Dynasty. Commerce boomed in the region with many industries coming up because of the impacts the money brought to the region. With the development of paper money, inventions of new printing techniques were established thus leading to a high level of civilization and technology. The use of the abacus became a common calculating device, which came to be adopted by many scientists. (Veeck, etal, 368)
After the massive paper money invention, there was a large scale of steel and the iron industries in the Song Dynasty. They initially used charcoal in the production process, which led to great deforestation in the northern part of China. Later on, bituminous coke was discovered to do similar work thus saving the forests from the steel industries. Iron and steel allowed things like hammers, hammers, pins, and Buddhist statues to be produced. Salt and copper were also made from iron and they were used for trade with other communities. Mining also came to be done in China where sulfur was extracted and used in making gunpowder. Weapons were advanced for the military from the creation of gunpowder that was used in the war. Manufacturing industries for these weapons came up and thousands of people got employment. The Song Dynasty witnessed massive growth in towns and cities. Many people carried out various economic activities in the urban areas than had happened in the earlier regimes. (Wagner, 178)
Society
The Song Dynasty also had many accomplishments in literature. Poetry and prose were some forms of literature that prospered during the Song Dynasty. The main poetry styles that they used included Shi poetry Ci poetry. Ci poetry is composed of long verses, which could contain five to seven syllables. Shi poetry was much shorter with about four to eight lines that are about two stanzas. The Ci was the most common fictional and imaginative material being common in the poems. Ci poetry became popular displaying feelings of love, calmness and meditation. The growth of urban centers and population increase in the Song Dynasty led to the establishment of printed materials and oral fiction. People in cities spent money on novels as well as finding time to listen to oral fiction. The Chinese in Song Dynasty wrote and told theories of strange happenings. Ghost stories, amusement novels, and other entertainment materials became very popular. (Shen, 102)
The other major achievement in the Song Dynasty society was their art. Court painting and literati painting that incorporated beautiful landscapes were very popular. Court painting portrayed an element of the upper class while literati’s painting was more about human personality. In Song Dynasty, painters stressed the value of individual spirituality. Imaginary painting of sharp characters like birds, flowers, and landscapes was very popular. Painters emphasized mobile imaginary images and many people admired such details. Real and original imaginary paintings were well structured to capture the moments bringing out real images. Paintings would be made with bronze and ceramics capturing realistic landscapes. They painted many different things with detail being portrayed in the painting. (Gascoigne, 105)
Conclusion
The Song Dynasty contributed a lot to making China a productive and developed nation. There was tremendous growth in many sectors during the Song era that formed the foundation for today’s China. The population growth during the Song dynasty doubled from what it was in the Qing dynasty. The empire is well known for being the first to create paper money in the world. The dynasty was also able to establish a strong naval base to protect their region and waters from invasion. During this dynasty, all the sectors made advanced growth and had the Chinese nation become very powerful. Their tremendous efforts and structures created a good environment for growth to be felt in every region.
Works Cited
Benn, Charles. China’s Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2002. 234-314. Print.
Gascoigne, Bamber.The Dynasties of China: A History, New York: Carroll & Graf, 2003. 100-110. Print.
Global openness. Emperor Huizong Song Dynasty. Web.
Shen, Fuwei. Cultural flow between China and the outside world, Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1996. 98-102. Print.
Tu Weiming. Confucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative Transformation. New York: State University of New York Press, 1985. 178-202. Print.
Tu Weiming. Neo-Confucian Thought in Action: Wang Yang-ming’s Youth (1472-1509). Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1976. 189-222. Print.
Veeck, Gregory; Pannell, Clifton W.; Smith, Christopher J.; Huang, Youqin.China’s Geography: Globalization and the Dynamics of Political, Economic, and Social Change. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. 2007. 361-381. Print.
Wagner, Donald B. “The Administration of the Iron Industry in Eleventh-Century China”, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 44(2001): 175–197.
Constants and transformations from Qin through Tang
Cultural
The use of bone inscriptions to make prophecies was common in the early Qin period. Some of the outcomes appeared to be true, and others failed to give actual results that would match the diviners’ interpretation. In the prediction of rainfall, the bone inscriptions showed that it rained in that month several times as predicted (Mair, Steinhardt, and Goldin 9). In predicting Lady Hao’s giving birth to a son, the diviners did not predict correctly (Mair, Steinhardt, and Goldin 10). The misinterpretations and inaccuracies of predictions led to the sage of sages. The sages believed in reasoning, planning, and human action to determine outcomes.
The “Confucian Teachings” became popular during the Qin period. They criticized rituals as man-made patterns and spirits as human delusions (“Confucian Teachings” 18). Xunzi argued that divination did not present heavenly desires and prophecies did not become a reality (“Confucian Teachings” 18). The Confucian disciples focused on teaching about humanity, which dictated to be truthful, generous, and kind. (“Confucian Teachings” 19).
One of the main themes that emerged in the Confucian principles was filial piety. People were expected to take care of their parents in their old age and when they were in need. One was expected to be kind to his brothers and sisters, as well as to everyone else in the world (“Confucian Teachings” 21). The honoring of rulers was one of the requirements of filial piety. According to Confucius’s reply to Fan Zhi (“Confucian Teachings” 18), the teachings of filial piety encouraged the honoring of the dead and following in their path. Filial piety was one of the principles considered necessary for political and cultural orderliness. Xunzi claimed that “blessings result when you respond to Heaven by creating order” (“Confucian Teachings” 24). When people fail to plan or to respond in a timely manner, it leads to misfortune and suffering.
The culture of poems is strengthened during the Tang period as it was in the Daoism period. It is seen in the story of Zhang-Wu when he speaks with the spirit of Wang’s daughter-in-law (Owen 530). It is also visible in Wang Wei’s poem of the Tang period (Mair 340).
One of the changes in writing books occurred when authors moved from philosophical works during the Qin period and autobiographies during the Han dynasty to dominate in fairy tales of the Tang period. In the Tang period, the two stories in the “Two Tales of Keeping Faith” ( 522 and 531) show that being faithful in love was a valued virtue in that period. In Zhang-Wu’s and Ren’s story, faithfulness and love were rewarded. In the Han Dynasty, there are more autobiographies written than in the previous periods (Dien 495). The political turmoil that emerged in the Tang period also led to writing autobiographies, such as the one by Mr. Yan (Dien 531). The early Qin period was mainly characterized by philosophical works. Another culture that was maintained in the period was borrowing books and reading for leisure.
In the Han dynasty (141-87 B.C), filial piety was prescribed in detail for every group of people that dwelt in the empire (“The Classic of Filial Piety” 65-66). Filial piety remained in the Han Dynasty till the end of the Qin period. It was almost changed by Buddhism, which required people to neglect their worldly duties in search of divination. Han Yu rejected the corruption of filial piety that was brought about by Buddhism (Foster 360). He wanted people to revert to the way described by the sages, which positioned filial piety at the top of all humane principles.
During the early Qin Dynasty and the Han Dynasty, the Chinese never worshipped any key figure. However, there were human sacrifices, animal sacrifices, and the honoring of ancestors during the period of diviners (Mair, Steinhardt, and Goldin 11). The period that followed was influenced by Confucians, and rituals were only maintained to honor the dead and harmless cultures. Human and animal sacrifices were not mentioned after Confucianism in the Qin period. In Confucianism, people recognized the sages as models of how heaven wanted people to behave. In the Tang period, the king was criticized by Han Yu for worshipping the Buddha’s relics (Xiong 357). It was against the culture of the Qin and Han dynasties. The bodies of the dead were supposed to be chastised by shamans before a king could come into contact with them (Xiong 357). The kings during the Tang period acted against their tradition by honoring Buddhism.
Political
In the Qin dynasty, the Daoist Teachings overtook divination in influencing politics and those in authority. In the early Qin and the Han Dynasty, the Confucians were despised for having no proper method of leading a good life because most of them were poor. The general secretary who had gained power after the death of Emperor Wu refused to accept Daoist Teachings as presented by the opposition (“State Control of Commerce and Industry” 363). Emperor Wu also advocated for Confucianism, despite practicing the Legalists system of governance (“State Control of Commerce and Industry” 359). The Confucians struggled without success to alter the practices after his death.
The Ebrey derived from Xunzi’s teaching on human nature. Xunzi argued that human nature is to love profit and to act kindly only when people are watching (“Confucian Teachings” 25). The advisors believed that bad conduct is the nature of human beings. It had to be restrained by harsh laws. The matter of using advisors started in the Qin Dynasty and remained unchanged in the other dynasties. The Confucius teachings expected the king to listen and consider other people’s views. Confucius ridiculed that “I get no pleasure from being a ruler, other than no one contradicts what I say” (“Confucian Teachings” 22). Mencius told King Xuan of Qin that he had to expect honest guidance from advisors if he strayed from what was right (“Confucian Teachings” 23). Diviners were used in the Shang Dynasty, Confucians in early Qin and early Han dynasties, and Legalists in Han and Tang.
The rejection of Qin’s harsh laws led Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty (r. 141-87 B.C.) to strongly advocate for Confucians to hold government offices. The emperor purported to have followed Confucius’s teachings (“Heaven, Earth, and Man” 57). He claimed that only Confucians should become public officials because of their high moral character.
His intention to start state Universities failed to yield expected results when his government brought corruption into the Han Dynasty. He sold government positions to raise funds to maintain his extensive empire at the expense of the Chinese people (“State Control of Commerce and Industry” 359). He created monopolies that made the government behave like a private businessman characterized by the love for profit. Emperor Wu’s actions were different from his ideals of practicing Daoist Teachings. People in authority became corrupt, and the masses became poor.
The happenings of the Han Dynasty during Emperor Wu’s reign led people to reconsider the Daoist Teachings. Wang Mang tried to bring reforms to stop corruption and public outcry in the high levels of poverty. One of his reforms was the equal-land redistribution policy (“State Control of Commerce and Industry” 363). The early Qin period began with equal land allocation for all families. Later, there were the Qin and Han that brought great inequality in the distribution of land and wealth. Wang Mang implemented reforms that transformed the empire back to equal land and equal tax policies.
Economical
The rulers in Shang Dynasty used diviners to prophesy about rainfall, which is an indication that agriculture was the main economic activity (Mair, Steinhardt and Goldin 9). Agriculture remained the main economic activity in the Qin Dynasty. In the Han Dynasty, people were criticized for abandoning primary production and focusing on trade. The government engaged in the trade of iron, salt, and liquor (“State Control of Commerce and Industry” 359). Starvation was a likely outcome in case there was a slight change in the rainy seasons.
The laws regarding debt and stealing were very severe towards the end of the Qin Dynasty, which may be an indication that crimes were common during the Qin period (“Penal Servitude in Qin Law” 51). The laws developed in the Legalist period showed a concern that trade had started developing in the Qin Dynasty. In the Han Dynasty, trade became the focus of the government and the people. Laws were necessary to regulate business. There were government monopolies developed in the Han Dynasty, which were protected by-laws (“State Control of Commerce and Industry” 359). The teachings of the Han period advocated for an equal opportunity for all to engage in trade. It was the norm of the kingdoms that preceded them (“State Control of Commerce and Industry” 362).
Ebrey described that state has high chances of becoming poorer, despite having served in the government (“Ge Hong’s Autobiography” 91). He claimed that “my clothes do not protect me from the cold; my roof does not keep me from the rain” (“Ge Hong’s Autobiography” 92). He also indicated that China had already had trends in fashion and clothing. He claimed that “styles change quickly and frequently” (“Ge Hong’s Autobiography” 92). It shows that there was a group of those who were well-off and those who were poor. They were those who did not care about new fashions in clothing, such as himself. He was also raised in a poor family that made him unable to search for teachers (“Ge Hong’s Autobiography” 92). The autobiography shows that the political turmoil, which had started in the Han period, had made poverty a major concern. The same concerns for economic mobility across generations were raised by Mr. Yan, who lived during the Tang Dynasty (Dien 495). Old men were getting concerned that it had become very easy to be raised among nobles and to end up as a commoner.
Conclusion
I would emphasize the dynamic nature of the Chinese transformation. Culturally, they were less dynamic as they retained filial piety from Qin to Tang. It was corrupted during the worship of the Buddha. Politically, they have been very dynamic in tax laws, land laws, trade, and extending borders. Economically, they had also been dynamic, moving from dependence on agriculture to rely on non-agricultural products for business profit.
The extent to which China was a unified country
Political
China showed the intent of unity in the early Qin period. According to Ebrey (“Penal Servitude in Qin Law” 51), China became united as a dynasty under the reign of Qin emperors. In the early period of the Qin Dynasty, there was political disunity and threats from non-Chinese communities that resided close to its borders. The discontentment that resulted from the Qin’s harsh laws led to disunity in the Han Dynasty after the death of Emperor Wu. In the Tang period, there was political disunity within its own ranks. Rebellion increased, similar to the period that saw the fall of the Qin Dynasty.
At the beginning of the Qin Dynasty and the end of the Han Dynasty, filial piety was considered a cornerstone of orderliness and contentment. People were expected to honor those with authority, as children would honor their parents (“Confucian Teachings” 21). Those in leadership positions were expected to rule with love, as parents to children. (“Confucian Teachings” 22). The teachings of the sages were always partially practiced. Early leaders of Qin ruled strictly by harsh laws. They expected subjects to fear them, as opposed to being loved by them (“Legalist Teachings” 34).
The Confucian Teachings (18) tried to encourage people to engage in business with integrity. It is similar to the ethical concerns of commerce in modern times. In the Qin Dynasty, Confucianism expected people to remain poor if the only viable way to riches is through corruption (“Confucian Teachings” 20). It is different from the occurrences that followed the Qin period. In the Han Dynasty, corruption was considered an easy way to acquire wealth and public office (“State Control of Commerce and Industry” 359). In the Tang Dynasty, the order was restored after the death of Emperor Wu. However, successful people were still discontent with intergenerational class mobility. People could easily move from nobles to commoners.
Confucianism influenced most of the dynasties from Qin to Tang. They started towards the end of the Qin period and were perfected in the Han dynasty (“Legalist Teachings” 32). The advisors to the king realized that neither Confucianism nor Daoism was effective in making everyone comply with what was right. Laws were needed to make everyone behave as if he were a gentleman (“Legalist Teachings” 36). Duke Xiao’s advisors held that criminals had to be restrained by-laws (“Legalist Teachings” 36). The period paved the way for the harsh laws towards the end of the Qin Dynasty. People were expected to work for several years for failing to pay small debts (“Penal Servitude in Qin Law” 53). Later, the masses rebelled against the harsh laws of the Qin Dynasty.
Intergenerational class mobility increased during the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty. Rich people’s property was at risk. Rich people were worried that their children would not be able to inherit their wealth. It led to a period of writing autobiographies, most of which warned children to avoid a lofty position in the government (“Ge Hong’s Autobiography” 92). A high position in the government increased the chances of losing one’s property.
De Bary mentioned another factor that changed the political scene in China. Monks were exempted from bowing before the emperor (“The Coming of Buddhism to China” 426). Han Yu was banished from the Northern Kingdom as a result of speaking against Buddhism and the worshipping of relics (Foster 359). Buddhism met resistance from political leaders when it entered China. In the later periods of the Tang Dynasty, Buddhism had a strong influence on the authorities.
Economical
Economic unity was strong during the Qin period when they consulted diviners, and when they used Legalist Teachings. A few people became wealthier, and the majority became poorer towards the end of the Qin period. In the Han period, corruption caused disunity. Corruption led to increased intergenerational class mobility and discontent. The autobiographies in the Han and Tang dynasties were written in response to the concern of poverty. Rebellion increased as poverty and corruption intensified.
The Daoist period of the Qin Dynasty shows that people had a concern about equity. The passages from the “Laozi” stated that a sage governs by preventing the arousal of strong passions for profit. It stated in the poetic lines that “do not display what others won’t, and the people will not have their hearts confused, a sage governs this way” (“Daoist Teachings” 28). Daoism called for equity, and those who had more than the others from engaging in extravagant activities were encouraged by the excessive desire for profit. The same teaching appeared on the principles that guided the feudal lords. Confucius stated that the feudal lords should “exercise restraint and caution, they can have plenty without going overboard” (“The Classic of Filial Piety” 65). It was considered as the way to maintain high positions.
During the reign of Emperor Wu, in the Han Dynasty, government officials and merchants came to occupy large pieces of land at the expense of the majority (“State Control of Commerce and Industry” 363). It was altered by Wang Mang when he gained power in the ninth century C.E. Equal land ownership became the new policy to encourage equity during the period of the Yin Dynasty, which was before the Qin Dynasty (“State Control of Commerce and Industry” 363). His reforms were an effort to increase support from the masses and stop the continuous rebellion.
The issue of poverty also occurred in Ren’s story written during the Tang period. Zheng was a poor man, despite having wealthy relatives, such as Wei Yin (Owen 521). The same concern was raised by those who wrote autobiographies. They worried that children born among noble families were increasingly becoming commoners. Ren used her intelligence to help Zheng become a successful person (Owen, 524).
The reforms to restore equality were implemented by the northern states in the Tang Dynasty. They made an equal field allocation a government policy. Taxation was also equalized through individual taxation systems (“The Tang Legal Code” 116). There were strict laws to restrain people from cultivating more land than allocated to them by the government. It helped prevent corruption, discontent, and disunity.
In the Tang period, Buddhism was considered to slow down the economic activities in the dynasty. There were many people who had neglected their natural duties in search of divine intervention (Xiong 356). Buddhism was linked to possible scarcity and starvation in the future because it discouraged economic activities. Han Yu prescribed that the dynasty had to revert to the Way of the sages to restore life longevity, order, respect, and other moral values (Foster 362).
Cultural
In the Qin period, about the 12th-century B.C.E, the people relied on oracles translated by diviners. They used bone inscriptions and smoke to make predictions. It was a common practice (Mair, Steinhardt, and Goldin 8). However, the people were cautious to ensure that the interpretations were not an occurrence of chance. They had to repeat the same procedure several times to ensure that the outcome of the interpretation remained the same. The king’s dream about his ancestors was repeated several times (Mair, Steinhardt, and Goldin 10). The inaccuracies associated with the method led to the age of the sages, which was led by Confucius and his disciples. The bone inscriptions and divination were a unifying factor in the early Qin period.
The culture of creating philosophical works had already set its root in the early Qin period. Philosophy was expressed in written and spoken words. During the period of Daoism that merged with Confucianism, poetry emerged as one of the popular arts. The “Laozi” expressed how to practice the Way through writing, which means seeking knowledge and understanding (“Daoist Teachings” 28). In the poem, as a result of writing, it is described that people will “find their food sweet, their clothes beautiful, their houses comfortable” (“Daoist Teachings” 29). This part of the “Laozi” is teaching on contentment. Poetry, philosophy, and autobiographies were some of the unifying factors through different periods from Qin to Tang.
The teachings on contentment remained constant despite changes in dynasties and external forces. It only became less popular during the Legalists’ period, who believed that people could not be expected to act humanely and decently. They [people] were to be prohibited by law from acting indecently and inhumanely. According to “Legalist Teaching,” expecting rulers to act “through mutual love is expecting rulers to go further than parents” ( 35). Some showed that they prioritized their desires above those of their family. The teachings on contentment were never changed by Buddhism that had affected some of the earlier teachings on filial piety.
Buddhists were considered to have gone against the culture of filial piety by neglecting their bodies and shaving their hair. It was a dishonor to parents if one shaved his hair or neglected his body, according to the requirements of filial piety (“The Coming of Buddhism to China” 423). Buddhist reduced the influence of filial piety on people. Han Yu blamed the influence of Buddhism on the disorder and short-lived kings (Xiong 355).
In considering the dead, the early Qin period embraced spirits, as they used diviners. The Confucian period of Qin wanted people to stay away from spirits, even if they honored the dead. The Han period also shunned the spirits. In the Tang period, the Buddhists brought the Chinese closer to spirits again.
The Han period was also characterized by increased government demand to raise taxes to implement government projects. High taxes and penalties for offenses were one of the ways the emperor intended to raise funds to build roads and dykes in the extended empire (“State Control of Commerce and Industry” 359). Emperor Wu’s colonization of non-Chinese communities seemed to be a bad business for the Chinese. The government neglected its own people to maintain its reign on new boundaries. Dykes and roads on the Chinese side were neglected for a long period leading to floods and discontentment (“State Control of Commerce and Industry” 359).
Conclusion
Some of the internal forces that integrated China include the teachings of sages, the advisors to the kings, the rulers, government planning, laws, filial piety as a culture, and literature, among other things. Some of the internal factors that caused disunity included the corruption of government officials, laws considered harsh by the masses, poverty, crime, increased intergenerational class mobility, and unequal land. The external factors that brought disunity include Buddhism and invasion by non-Chinese communities. The external threat of invasion also united their war forces.
I would emphasize the unity of Chinese people in a period of political, cultural, and economic changes. They always changed together as a unified force. When they embraced an ideology, they put it into practice and assessed the outcome. They made shifts as a whole, not as separated groups.
Works Cited
de Bary, Wm. Theodore and Irene Bloom. “State Control of Commerce and Industry”. Sources of Chinese Tradition. 1993: 358-363. Print.
“The Coming of Buddhism to China”. Sources of Chinese Tradition. 1993: 420-432. Print.
Dien, Albert. “Custom and Society: The Family Instructions of Mr. Yan”. Early Medieval China: A Sourcebook. 2014: 494-510. Print.
Ebrey, Patricia Buckley “Confucian Teachings”. Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook. 1993: 17-26. Print.
“Daoist Teachings”. Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook. 1993: 27-31. Print.
“Ge Hong’s Autobiography”. Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook. 1993: 91-96. Print.
“Heaven, Earth, and Man”. Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook. 1993: 57-59. Print.
“Legalist Teachings”. Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook. 1993: 32-37. Print.
“Penal Servitude in Qin Law”. Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook. 1993: 51-53. Print.
“The Classic of Filial Piety”. Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook. 1993: 64-68. Print.
“The Tang Legal Code”. Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook. 1993: 116-119. Print.
Foster, Robert. “The Original Way.” Hawai’i Reader in Traditional Chinese Culture. 2005. Print.
Mair, Denis. “Tang Poems as Vehicles for Ideas”. Hawai’i Reader in Traditional Chinese Culture. 2005: 340-347. Print.
Mair, Victor, Nancy Steinhardt, and Paul Goldin. “Shang Dynasty Oracle – Bone Inscriptions”. Hawai’i Reader in Traditional Chinese Culture. 2005:8-12. Print.
Owen, Stephen. “Two Tales of Keeping Faith”. An Anthology of Chinese Literature. 1996: 518-531. Print.
Xiong, Victor Cunrui. “A Memorial on the Relic of the Buddha”. Hawai’i Reader in Traditional Chinese Culture. 2005: 355-358. Print.
Chinese civilization of the Middle Ages was one of the most advanced in that historical framework. By the time of the Crusades, the Chinese already used gunpowder, printing press, and paper. Their knowledge in natural sciences, astronomy, medicine, and mathematics defined the high advantage of China if compared to Mediaeval Europe. There are many explanations for such historical particularities: China was considered to be an isolated state for centuries as it’s geographically protected by mountains in the west and desert in the North and its geographical position guaranteed relative protection from the invaders. Moreover, the Chinese didn’t experience any religious domination which could prevent the society from gradual development, unlike Mediaeval Europe where all spheres of life were subordinated to regulations from the side of the Catholic Church. Nevertheless, in many cases, the remoteness of China was the main reason for its failure in the wars against the Mongols and Manchus dynasty, as in the times of Empire’s decline, famine, or troubled times it became very vulnerable for the invaders.
Chinese culture and society after the invasion by Genghis khan
After the invasion of China by Genghis Khan in the 13th century, Chinese culture and society, in general, were experiencing a decline. The decline of China during these years can be explained by the decline of nationalism, national culture, and humiliation of the Chinese as an ethnic group. The further revolts against Mongols were mainly caused because of the discrimination policies towards Chinese and mainly because of discrimination towards Han Chinese. Mongols changed the Chinese system of government and administration giving the most miserable positions to the native Chinese. The highest official positions were taken by Mongols who were assisted by foreigners, Chinese role in the official hierarchy of the Yuan Dynasty was minimal.
Such conditions created a favorable environment for the growth of patriotism and a national sense of dignity among unsatisfied native Chinese of different social statuses. Many historians consider that this was the main reason which led to peasant revolts and the failure of the Yuan dynasty. But the opinion of such historians as Joseph Walker, for example, diverges with general opinion. He writes that the main reason for the rebellion was the over-circulation of paper money, which led to inflation in a relatively short period on the other hand with the refusal from irrigation projects caused by Yellow river flooding. Such events served as a catalyzer of peasant rebellions which spread all over the country. The leading role in the peasant revolution was played by Han Chinese led by a group of Zhu Yuanzhang. Zhu Yuanzhang succeeded in the struggle against the Mongols and 1368 he established Ming Dynasty with residence in Nanjing. Zhu Yuanzhang took the title of Hong Wu and for the next 260 years, China was ruled by the members of the Zhu family.
Establishing of Confucianism
Hongwu started his reign with the great reformation of all spheres of life of the Chinese empire. As he was from a poor peasant family and later was a Buddhist monk, he understood quite well what eroded society and state from the inside. To reintroduce traditional Chinese values he established Confucianism as the state religion again, and from that time social and political life was based on the principles of Confucianism. Hongwu reorganized the army according to the military traditions of the Tang dynasty, also known as Wei-so. The Wei-so system was explained as a strong army with principles that included avoiding bonds between common soldiers and officers of different ranks. A strong army was one of the main priorities of Hongwu’s state, as he aimed to restore China’s superiority in the region by analyzing the fatal mistakes of former emperors. The main reform laid in the innovation of the military organization. Soldiers of the Ming dynasty were trained in their military districts and were mobilized during the time of war. When the war was over, soldiers returned to their districts and were mainly dismissed. Commanders had control over soldiers only during the time of war, which allowed to improve mobility of the army and avoided autocracy of commanders who didn’t have personal control over soldiers all the time. Such a method eliminated the personal dependence of soldiers and insured hierarchy and subordination in the army. On the other side, such military organization was very practical as it didn’t require supplying of the army with the provision regularly as it would create an additional burden on the state and peasantry.
Chinese agriculture
Hongwu made very progressive reforms in Chinese agriculture. To eliminate mass peasant poverty he supported the creation of self-supporting farming communities, which were often organized based on expropriated lands of landowners from the Song dynasty. For example in 1370, Hongwu ordered to distribute lands among landless peasants who reached the age of manhood and to protect their property rights it was stated that this land has a status of being untransferable in the future. Later Hongwu also liberalized landowning legislature by issuing laws that guaranteed freedom from taxation for the fallow lands which were brought for farming. Such practices were met with enthusiasm from the side of common peasants who expanded the area of cultivated lands several times (Brook, 1998).
Hongwu also insisted on the abolition of private slavery and in 1372 he ordered the release of innocent slaves who became victims of former famines, government also was buying out children from slavery who were sold by parents in the times of great famine.
Population growth in the early years of the Ming dynasty
The early years of the Ming dynasty are also marked by considerable population growth (50% growth during the reign of ZhuYuanzhang) achieved by well-planned and reforms in state administration, taxation, and the agricultural sector. Historical chronicles describe prosperity as follows:
“During his reign, grain production was so abundant that rice rotted in the granaries. In many aspects Yongle’s military and civil achievements outshone those of his father.” (Pi-Ching, 2002).
Bureaucratic apparatus of the Ming dynasty
The bureaucratic apparatus of the Ming dynasty was developed under the traditions of Confucianism. Officials had to pass a special exam before they could hold a position. Their activity was strictly supervised and those accused of corruption or serious faults could be even sentenced to capital punishment. The most traditional form of punishment for bureaucrats was public whipping, it’s often mentioned in historical chronicles that the scare-crow of a former official served as a decoration of the office of a newly appointed official. It’s important to note that Ming introduced a well-developed suppressive mechanism of violence and tortures to common practice in China. Peasant revolts were always bloodily suppressed by state troops as “dynasty consigned them to the status of rebels, from which there were the only two exits, dynastic overthrow or suppression. ”(Robinson, 2002) The absolutism of Ming emperor’s is described as follows: “In the final analysis, Yongle’s brutality and ruthlessness mixed with a moral tone and high ideals would make him the perfect absolutist monarch–a man who believed himself to be the one and only master of the entire world” (Pi-Ching, 2002 ).
Trade during the mid-Ming dynasty
Under the Ming dynasty, China experienced a revival of international trade that was lost in earlier centuries. Even though during the early years of the Ming dynasty private trade was prohibited and merchants were discriminated against, illegal trade was flourishing in bordering provinces. Later private trade prohibition was abolished as the state did not employ the possibility of private trade taxation as this article of treasury income was not utilized. Trade during the mid-Ming dynasty was among the main articles of state income, as Chinese merchants were trading all over Asian Pacific and even reached African shores and established colonies on the island of Madagascar. Monetary reforms during the Ming epoch and later refusal from paper money which produced hyperinflation during the reign of the first emperors stimulated silver import to the country and promoted the policy of mercantilism, which guaranteed free exchange of currency together with the basis for the economy’s stability expressed in the accumulated amount of silver.
Last emperors of the Ming dynasty
Yet, the power of the Ming Empire starting from the late 16th century was shaky. The last emperors of the Ming dynasty shifted their activities from autocratic state rule to enjoyment of luxuries, which dramatically weakened the state machine from the inside.
In the late 16th century, a considerable threat appeared from the side of Manchus(ethnicity which is considered to be decedents of Tungucian people of Siberia), people who populated territories of Mongolia. Machus understood that it was impossible to defeat the Chinese army alone, as it was well organized and had very talented generals. Yet, Manchus made an emphasis on the total militarization of society upbringing warriors from childhood. Manchus hired former generals and officers of the Chinese army to train their troops in the Chinese tradition. After several decades of wars and treaties with neighboring states in the west, Manchus appeared able to organize a strong and numerous army to start the invasion. Starting from the late 1620’s Manchus made several attempts to defeat the Chinese army, but only succeeded in the 1640s. In the 1630-1640s Chinese empire suffered numerous peasant rebels, which ended with the victory of peasant leader y Li Zicheng over official Beijing of Ming. Yet, Li Zicheng’s victory only brought disorientation and chaos to the country, which was masterly used by Manchus who gained the support of the Chinese elite and suppressed rebels. Manchus in many respects continued the political and administrative course of the Ming empire improving bureaucratic apparatus and continuing centralization: “The Qing model involved the use of new technologies, the establishment of special forms of local government, the planting of agricultural colonies, and the development of commerce and trade. All of these were done with the overt or hidden threat of force. Once the use of force declined, so did the effectiveness of Chinese control. One of the particular features of Qing (and later) expansion was the settling of involuntary migrants in the border regions–convicts, disbanded soldiers, disgraced officials, and the desperately poor. These unhappy migrants were as unwelcome in their new “homes” as they were in their places of origin. The use of the borderlands as oubliettes may be one of the most serious flaws in the centuries-long march to the west. It has ensured that the idea of moving west is a dismal one that few people have ever accepted with anything but resignation, while at the same time convincing the inhabitants of the borderlands that they are being punished by having undesirables foisted on them..” (Lary, 2005) By the 17th century Manchus improved state legislature and conducted several financial reforms to eliminate corruption and embezzlement of state funds by officials. Unlike the Ming dynasty, Manchus saw the basis of state prosperity in territorial expansion:
“The urge to dominate and control the western regions, to bring them to heel, was not achieved cheaply. To fund its huge campaigns, to put the huge armies into the field, the Qing rulers were forced to commit most of their resources to the project. The Qing state and society were organized for war, not for peace. The costs of this expansion were enormous. This was an imperial overreach, ultimately too costly for the state to bear. While there were strong and determined emperors like Kangxi and his grandson Qianlong, the momentum kept the expansion going, but once it had reached its full expansion, the gradual decline of the dynasty…” ( Lary, 2005).
In the issues of foreign politics Manchus promoted China’s isolation on state-level reducing any possible contacts with Western World including sea trade.
Conclusion
In conclusion it’s important to note that despite the attempts of such charismatic emperors as Hung Wu of the Ming dynasty and emperors of Manchus dynasty Qing, China’s geographical isolation, its ethnically diverse population, and bordering undeveloped states played a key role in the decline of both dynasties. There is no argument that both Manchus and Ming were very progressive in the early stage, but their decline was inevitable. Ming came to power due to the growing nationalism of the Chinese and hyperinflation caused by paper money together with other misfortunes such as famine and epidemics. During the Song dynasty, the Chinese empire represented a relatively consolidated society, with Chinese of different social classes who could unite under one idea for national liberation from the Mongolian political elite. China up to the 14th century was in decline, there was not a big difference between eastern and western provinces which was an important factor in the mobilization against the Yuan Mongol dynasty. The period of the Ming empire decline was different from the decline Yuan dynasty, as by that time China was a regional political and economical leader, which expanded its borders and had regional influence over the territories of modern Mongolia and the Russian Far East in the north, eastern Turkestan in the west and Tibet and Indo-China peninsula in the south. It was promoting protectionist policies over the neighboring states and was the dominant trading partner of these states and nomadic tribes. Understandably bordering territories of China were inhabited by different confessional and ethnic minorities, which were guaranteed certain protection from the central government of Beijing. But after 100 years of prosperity under the Ming dynasty, the epoch decline started. It was rather a crisis in centralized Unitarian administration than an economical or political crisis.
Chinese lacked unity and integrity. Neither a strong army nor high economical and financial potential could guarantee safety for the country which lacked universal integrity. Volunteer isolation of China from its Western neighbors and the absence of any desire to establish contacts with European powers contributed to the decline of the Ming Empire. The economical and social gap within the provinces was obvious: eastern provinces which had better climatic and geographic position were prosperous due to farming and intensive trade with Indonesia, India, and Japan (even though that open trade with Japan was banned for a long time). That’s why the invasion of Manchus didn’t meet a forced and united resistance from the side of Chinese society which was involved in class struggle and prolonged peasant revolts. It was merely a fault of the central government and the emperor, which substituted totalitarian rule by the authoritarian plutocracy of his officials. That’s why the foundation of the Manchus Qing dynasty is seen more like the change of ruling elites rather than the invasion and occupation. Han Chinese ethnic elite was replaced by Manchus who in many respects continued the political course of the Ming dynasty but also initiated the expansion of Chinese state on neighboring states in the West and Southwest. The decline of the Qing empire is explained by different reasons as well. After the invasions were over, militarized Manchus lost their potential as once hordes of Mongols lost it when they reached Eastern Europe. Its artificial isolationism only deepened the process of inevitable decline and future dependence on colonial powers of Europe.
References
Brook, T. The Confusions of Pleasure: commerce and culture in Ming China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.
Lary, D. China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Asia Journal article by; Pacific Affairs, Vol. 78, 2005.
Robinson, D. Brook, T. Bandits, Eunuchs, and the Son of Heaven: Rebellion and the Economy of Violence in Mid-Ming China Journal article China Review International, Vol. 9, 2002.
Pi-Ching, Hsu Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle Journal article The Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 122, 2002.
Huang, R. 1587, A Year of No Significance: The Ming Dynasty in Decline. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982.
This assignment is a discussion on the topic of Chinese dynasties. The focus of the paper is examining the institutional developments after the Ming dynasty’s fall, with a view of illustrating the changes in the power division, distribution, structure, and dynamics in the Qing dynasty era through a comparative approach with the Ming Dynasty.
The Ming dynasty 1368-1644
The Ming dynasty was an absolute Chinese monarch that ruled the country for an uninterrupted period of 276 years. It is arguably one of the most influential and orderly governments that China has ever had. It came into office following the fall of the Yuan dynasty, which had ruled from 1271 to 1368 and ruled from 1368 to 1644 with several emperors such as Hongwu, Yongle, and Wanli (Travel china guide, 2013). It came into power after overpowering its predecessor, the Yuan dynasty, which had weakened following divisions in its leadership. The Yuan dynasty had also faced an almost collapsing infrastructure, which had risen the levels of discontentment among the people. Some of the key figures who noted the crumbling of the Yuan dynasty were Zhu Yuanzhand and the leader of the Han, the Chinese largest ethnic group Chen Younliang. The two leaders quickly turned into rebels of the Yuan dynasty.
In 1363, a battle known as the ‘battle of Lake Poyang’ was staged up (Encyclopadia Britanica, 2013). The battle involved the two rebel factions, one led by Zhu and the other led by Chen in which the former managed to eliminate the latter. After the defeat of the Han faction led by Chen, Zhu gained control of the south and the area around the Yangtze River valley. In 1367, the then leader of the Yuan dynasty Red Turbans died, leaving a vacuum in leadership. Zhu seized the opportunity to declare the Ming dynasty as being in power after destroying Yuan palaces and cities, especially in Dadu. After taking power, Zhu Yuanzhang became the first Ming emperor under the name of Hongwu (Department of Asian art, 2013).
Institutional structure and division
The Ming dynasty ruled through the provincial administration, just like its predecessor, the dynasty. The administrative structure comprised of 13 provinces which were led by a secretariat. The Ming also had three commissioners in charge of civil, surveillance, and military departments. At the lowest level of the provincial administration were counties which were headed by magistrates (Oracle Think Quest, 2013).
Ideology
The Ming dynasty under the leadership of Wang was characterized by a mixture of ideology and was thus heterodoxy in nature. Ideally, the Ming dynasty subscribed to the Confucian ideology, but the Wang emperor also embraced the Buddhist ideology and, to some extent, Taoism (Asian art collection, 2013).
Confucianism is a philosophically derived ideology that outlines the moral and ethical principles which govern the relationship of people in a society. The philosophy has its roots in the works of Chinese philosopher Confucius who founded it in 551 BC. Confucianism does the project of moral self-cultivation central to human living and offers a distinctive account of the nature of the self and how the self is cultivated. According to early Confucians, the essence of humanity is to live and serve other humanity with a view of creating a harmonious society (Berling, 1996).
From the Confucianism view, morality is an approach of distinguishing and classifying actions and decisions as being good or right on one hand and bad or wrong on the other. Put simply, morality refers to what is right and what is wrong based on some specific socio-cultural environments. It is synonymous with virtues, ethics, and good (Patheos Library, 2013).
The Wang emperor emphasized the pursuit of education and the idea that women were equal to men when it came to attainment of education. The main proponents of education for women were Li and He. However, they were jailed by their opponents in the Wang government for pursuing such strange ideas and they died while at the prison. Those opposed to the idea of education and equality of men and women were regarded as conservatives and after the death of Li and He at the prison, they attempted to renew Confucianism. The conservatives led by Gu Xiancheng were very critical of Wang’s idea of moral knowledge gained through education equating it to pursuit of personal narrow interests at the expense of the interests of the majority. These wranglings between the conservatives and the liberals split the Wang emperor into two factions. The state ministers, who were liberal used their powers to impeach the conservatives from their leadership positions as court judges.
Philosophy
Ming’s philosophy was generally regarded as liberal as opposed to conservatism. The Ming emperors and especially Zhu Xi based their leadership on the belief that every body was capable of having moral knowledge. This was as opposed to the views of conservatives who believed in elitist scholars like Aristotle, who had argued that there was nothing like moral knowledge, but rather “knowledge of the forms”, which meant that moral knowledge was only found in those people who were trained or had studied morality.
Other philosophers, who were inclined to the view that there was universal knowledge about morals based on cultural and philosophical orientations argued that it was essential to reject the elitist views of Aristotle and base arguments on conscience simply because everybody has a conscience which directs him or her to make judgments on what is good, right, bad or wrong. The difference of this view from the elitist one was that conscience enables everyone, regardless of whether educated on moral knowledge or not, to be able to gain moral knowledge regarding what is good, right, bad or wrong. According to the Zhu Xi emperor, moral knowledge came from reason, experience and traditions.
Reason
Every action is triggered by a reason. This means that many of our actions are based on some reasons and realities. The big question is whether the reasons are genuine or not. The aspect of reason is synonymous to conscience; which can be seen as the basis upon which we base our actions, behavior and thinking. One person may prefer stealing instead of borrowing money while the other may prefer borrowing to stealing. Even though the two are reacting to a similar problem of lack of money, they have different consciences which lead them to meet their need using different ways. In this example, the question of whether one is right or wrong or who is right or wrong may become debatable because we may not know the beliefs under which the conscience of the two were based and whether the beliefs were true or not, but one thing we know is that both acted as per their conscience, which may have been based on true or untrue beliefs. The interpretation of their actions as either moral or immoral depends on our socio-cultural orientations.
Experience
Since we live in a social world, it constantly keeps on influencing our behavior, actions and thinking towards various social phenomena. The ideas of John Locke who argued that we are born as a tabula rasa, meaning that we are open to absorb what is within our socio-cultural environments explains how experience can be a source of moral knowledge. What we experience greatly shapes our morals. If we undergo through tough life conditions like war or civil strife, we may find our self not caring much about killing other people because we have witnessed others be killed as opposed to situations where by we have not been exposed to such experiences before. If we live in a country where we experience a lot of official corruption, we may see nothing wrong with involving ourselves in it because we would have either participated in it in one way or another or we would have benefited from the same. Experience can therefore enable us develop some ideas about moral knowledge.
Tradition
Culture and traditions greatly influence our understanding and acquisition of moral knowledge. Each culture or tradition has got its teaching about what is acceptable as good behavior and what is not acceptable. The morals are passed on from generation to the other through birth and assimilation as well as acculturation. Even though they keep on changing, each generation is able to have a chance to gain some moral knowledge from the culture and traditions of that community, which increases commonness and makes the community members, have a sense of solidarity as they acquire and share similar morals and moral knowledge.
Reasons of its downfall
The key reason which triggered the downfall of the Ming dynasty was hyperinflation which was caused by scarcity of silver in China. In 1640, thousands of Chinese starving peasant farmers staged a rebellion against the Ming dynasty due to its inability to cushion them from hyperinflation which had made it almost impossible for them to pay their taxes to the government led by the last Ming emperor Wang.
The starving peasants together with the Manchu led rebel faction repeatedly defeated and eventually overpowered the Chinese army which was poorly paid as well as poorly fed. The last Ming emperor hanged himself after the realization that Beinjing had fallen under the hands of the Li Zicheng. The Manchus eventually crossed the Great Wall of China under the leadership of Prince Dorgon. The Manchus were later to be defeated by the Qing dynasty which took control of China until the birth of the republic of China.
The Qing dynasty 1644-1912
It was the last imperial Chinese dynasty which was succeeded by the people’s republic of China. It was founded by a clan called the Aisin Gioro under the leadership of Nurhachi. As early as 1635, the son of Nurhachi Hong Taji had started efforts of forcing the Ming out of southern Manchuria. In the same year, his allies were incorporated into his army to form the Manchu command which invaded North Korea in 1636 (The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2013).
The capture of Sogshan and Jingzhou territories by the Manchu command in 1637 culminated into full seizure of power from the then weakened Ming dynasty in 1644. However, Hong Taji was not to become the first Qing emperor following his death in 1643 without appointing his preffered leadership mantle bearer. This brought Kangxi into power and enabled the Jurchens enough time to reorganize themselves to choose a person from Hong’s familiy to take the mantle of leadership. The seat attracted two people namely Hoog and Dorgon. There was a bitter rivalry between the two and this prompted the Jurchens to pick Fulin, a five year old son of Hong as a compromise candidate. Fulin became the Shunzhi emperor while Dorgon was appointed as the defacto leader of Manchu.
Changes made by the Qing dynasty
One of the changes introduced by the Qing dynasty was the increase of the provinces from 13 to 22. Just like the Ming dynasty, the Qing dynasty also had three commissions namely the surveillance, military and civil commissions. However, under the Qing dynasty, the provinces were placed under governors and a military commander. There were also viceroys who were in charge of three provinces with the viceroy of Zhili of Beinjing being the most powerful of all the viceroys since Beinjing was the capital. The Qing dynasty also extended its rule to Mongolia, Xinjiang and Tibet, where it deployed commissioners to oversee its affairs in those areas.
It also introduced reforms in the land sector by taking huge tracks of land from wealthy people and giving it back to the local people, who had been forced to sell it to wealthy merchants due to their inability to pay land rates for their land. The dynasty also greatly reduced the tax burden and also gave the local people some incentives to start small businesses. The dynasty also improved the trasnport sector by opening the Grand Canal to private merchants. It also introduced a system of regulating grain prices thus eliminating grain shortages which were occasioned by farmers hoarding their grains in anticipation of higher prices. It also regulated the licensing of wealthy merchants, whom it percieved as a threat to small businesses if they were allowed to do business without regulation. During the reign of the Qing dynasty, China’s population grew rapidly from 150 to 300 million people in the 18th century. This was due to improved economy as well as relatively peaceful and politically stable country.
Philosophy
The Qing dynasty was guided by the modernity philosophy, which appeared to down play conservative ideas held by former dynasties in regards to many issues such as trade and unity with neighbours and potential rivals. The dynasty was of the view that collaboration with other countries was the way to develop the Chinese country, which had suffered the devastating effects of ethnic wars and bad governance by former dynasties especially the Ming dynasty. It collaborated with the British, Japan and India in many issues and especially in trade. This saw foreign trade re-introduced and picking at a rate of 4% growth per annum in the 17th and 18th centuries. China’s key exports included silk and tea. As a result of the exports, there was a steady flow of silver into the country thus easing the effects of hyperinflation whach had set in during the reign of the Ming dynasty (China connection tours, 2013).
Comparison of the Ming and the Qing dynasties
Aspect
Ming Dynasty
Qing Dynasty
Head of state
Emperor was the centre of authority
Emperor was the centre of authority
Ministries’ function
Ministries played minimal to no role but the emperor directed almost everything
Ministries were proplery formulated with full fledged ministers in charge of the affairs of the central government.
Nature of government
Fully centralized system of governance
Government decentralized with governors heading the provinces
Army
Functional military under the command of the emperor
Functional militray under the command of the emperor
Judiciary
Part of the central government
Judiciary partly independent from the central government
Education
Integrated with religion. Education of women seen as a strange idea
Education part of government’s strategy to hasten economic growth. Education of women not a strange idea
Foreign influences
The Ming isolated itself from, or had limited interaction with neighbours.
The Qing was connected with the west and its impact on its institutions.
From the above table, it is evident that the Qing dynasty was more progressive than the Ming dynasty. Due to its progressive nature, it was able to turn around the economy of China from a lame economy to a promising one. It created a condusive environment for investors from all over the world who established businesses in the country. It can then be argued that the progress China has made today is due to the firm foundation laid down by the Qing dynasty. Even though the Ming dynasty had its shortcomings, it succeeded especially in conservation of Chinese traditions and culture. However, its major shortcoming was poor governance which contributed to high levels of inflation which led to the institutionalization of poverty.
References
Asian Art collection. (2013). Ming dynasty 1638–1644. Web.