Category: Drugs

Insulin Delivery Techniques

It is important to note that insulin delivery is primarily conducted through injection, which is why it is of paramount importance to be able to properly operate the given procedure. The main reason for the unavailability of oral delivery is the fact that insulin is easily digestible by enzymes, and thus, the hormone needs to be transferred directly into the bloodstream. Before the procedure, a person needs to wash his or her hands with soap in order to make the process as sterile as possible. The technique of injections begins with the preparation of ones insulin supplies and a fresh syringe, where the premixed or intermediate insulin is gently stirred. Then, it is important to remove the cap from the syringe and pull the plunger to fill the syringe with air equivalent to the dose. After, one needs to insert the needle into the vial and push the plunger until the air is emptied into the syringe because it helps to balance the draw up of insulin due to pressure stabilization. The syringe needs to be filled with insulin to the desired amount, and newly formed air bubbles in the syringe need to be removed by pushing the plunger until there are no air bubbles left. It is of paramount importance to avoid contaminating the needle by not letting it touch anything besides the area of injection. Insulin can also be delivered through a pen, where one needs to follow the manufacturers specific instructions for usage.

Injection Process

The injection technique includes folding of the skin in the area of injection, but it is important to note that one should not fold the skin too tightly or too loosely. The area of injection needs to be sterilized and cleaned with alcohol prior to injection. The skin needs to be pinched with ones first finger and thumb, where either pen or syringe needs to be inserted at a 90-degree angle with one quick motion. It is important that the needle of a syringe is inserted fully, after which the plunge needs to be pushed gradually with a steady pace until it is empty, where the whole delivery process after insertion needs to take 10 seconds for a pen and 5 seconds for a syringe. The needle needs to be also removed at a 90-degree angle, and the site of injection needs to be pressed with ones finger for a few seconds in order to prevent leakage of insulin. The syringe or the needle of a pen needs to be disposed of appropriately in thick plastic containers.

Injection Area

In the case of areas of injections, it is important to conduct rotations of these sites because continuous use of one site can lead to an unpleasant experience, pain, discomfort, inflammation, and lipodystrophy, which is a fat tissue breakdown (American Association of Diabetes Educators, n.d.). Although insulin can be injected in any location, the most preferred sites are the abdomen, buttocks, thighs, and arms. The rotation process needs to be systematic, where, for example, in the case of the abdomen, the insertions can follow various patterns. The recommended pattern resembles an S-pattern, where one starts injecting insulin in his or her abdomen in the upper right corner and moves to the upper left corner of the abdomen injection area, after which he or she moves to the lower middle left area and moves to the right middle area. Then, one begins injections in the bottom right corner and gradually moves to the bottom left corner.

Medication Properties

Insulin is a hormone, which regulates a wide range of internal processes, but primarily focuses on lowering blood glucose levels by inducing the uptake of glucose by cells. In the case of diabetes, the cells are either insensitive to insulin, or the body does not generate the hormone, which means that glucose regulation is disrupted. In both cases, insulin injections increase the overall insulin concentration or supply the absent insulin, which leads to the lowering of glucose in the bloodstream. There are generally four types of insulin medications, which can be categorized as rapid-acting, short-acting or regular, intermediate-acting, and long-acting, and they last for 2 to 4 hours, 2 to 6 hours, 12 to 18 hours, and 24 hours, respectively (NIDDK, n.d.). Insulin needs to be stored in fridges or at room temperature, and one needs to keep it from direct sunlight and heat. In addition, one also needs to avoid freezing insulin, in which case, it becomes unusable even if it is thawed. The insulin expiration date needs to be checked on the medicine itself, but generally, after opening insulin, it needs to be discarded after 14  42 days depending on the injection device (How to store insulin, 2021). Therefore, a user needs to be attentive to the guidelines described by a manufacturer.

Injection Devices

In the case of choices in regards to injection devices, the most common involve needles and syringes as well as insulin vials. Pens are easier to use, and they come in reusable or one-use forms. Insulin pumps allow a person to deliver insulin at a steadier and gradual pace throughout the day because it remains attached to the body through a needle for longer durations. Insulin can also be delivered through an inhaler, where the hormone is transferred to the bloodstream through the lungs. Injection ports are useful devices, which allow a person to avoid repetitive skin puncturing, where a short tube is inserted into the skin, which can be used for several insulin deliveries, and these ports usually last for a few days (NIDDK, n.d.). Jet injectors spray insulin into the skin at higher levels of pressure and can be an alternative to a needle.

Timing

Insulin intake or injection schedule is verified and approved by a doctor, but usually, insulin is taken twice a day, and in some cases, thrice or four times per day. Short-acting insulin is usually taken ten minutes before a meal, whereas long-acting variants are taken around 30 minutes before a meal (AAFP, 2020). In either case, one should consult his or her doctor in order to design an appropriate schedule for insulin delivery.

Nursing Care Plan

The selected nursing care plan is at risk for unstable blood glucose, where the nursing diagnosis is evidenced by inadequate blood glucose monitoring, inability to follow diabetes management (Vera, 2021). The first intervention is an administration of prandial and basal insulin because normal range levels prevent or slow down microvascular issues. The second intervention revolves around being watchful for morning hyperglycemia signs, such as the dawn phenomenon. The third intervention focuses on educating a patient on performing a glucose monitoring process, where the measurements are taken at bedtime and prior to meals, and these values determine the dosage. The fourth intervention is centered around reporting blood pressure changes because diabetes is strongly linked to hypertension. If systolic pressure of 160 mm Hg is exceeded, it needs to be reported.

References

AAFP. (2020). Diabetes: How to use insulin. Web.

American Association of Diabetes Educators. (n.d.). Insulin injection know-how.Web.

How to store insulin. (2021). Web.

NIDDK. (n.d.). Insulin, medicines, & other diabetes treatments. Web.

Vera, M. (2021). 17 diabetes mellitus nursing care plans.Web.

Introduction

My nursing practice problem is to determine the most effective remedy against hypertension in pregnant patients. Currently, there are two most common medications for the treatment of this disease: labetalol and methyldopa. The investigated question is to evaluate the advantages of labetalol over methyldopa during the gestational period. My PICOT question is the following: in gestational patients suffering from hypertension (P), does labetalol medication therapy (I), compared with methyldopa medication therapy (C), improve hypertension control and patient pregnancy outcomes (O), during the gestational period (T)?

Background of Studies

Problem

Arterial hypertension during pregnancy is an increase in blood pressure recorded two or more times within four hours. The numbers e 140 mm for upper systolic and e 90 mm for lower diastolic blood pressure are considered elevated (Easterling et al., 2019). In this paper, gestational arterial hypertension is investigated, which is detected after the 20th week of pregnancy by the time of detection (Bellos et al., 2020). It is a problem due to the threat to the health of both the mother and the fetus. The risks for mother and child are placental insufficiency, fetal growth retardation syndrome intrauterine fetal death, as well as the death of a child in the early postpartum period.

Significance to Nursing

The significance of treating the problem of arterial hypertension in pregnant women to nursing is to reduce the death of mothers and fetuses. This problem is quite common: it affects from 5 to 8% of expectant mothers (Easterling et al., 2019). For this reason, special attention should be paid to the study of drugs used to treat this pathology.

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is a comparative studying of the characteristics of two drugs used for the treatment of gestational hypertension in pregnant women: labetalol and methyldopa, and to identify the most effective of them.

Objective

The objective of the study is to compare the drugs used to treat the diagnosis of arterial hypertension in pregnant women, finding distinctive signs taking into account individual statistics of the effectiveness of therapy at the gestational stage.

Research Questions

This study aims to get answers to the following research questions: What are the advantages of labetalol medicine therapy over methyldopa medicine therapy? How much do each of the drugs improve hypertension control and patient pregnancy outcome? What are the features of prescribing these drugs during the gestational period?

Support of the Nursing Practice Problem

These two articles will be used to answer my PICOT question because they provide evidence-based research regarding the effectiveness of labetalol and methyldopa medicine therapy. The first article is a network meta-analysis evaluating the effect of drugs on the etiological, pathogenetic and symptomatic components of the disease in terms of the composition of these drugs and their complex component effects (Easterling et al., 2019). The second article is a description of the open-label, randomized controlled trial, which appeals to the evidence base of the use of labetalol and methyldopa in arterial hypertension of pregnant women (Bellos et al., 2006).

The interventions in both of the articles consist in the treatment of pregnant patients suffering from hypertension with drugs identified in my PICOT question. Comparison groups in the articles are almost identical to those identified in my PICOT question. In both articles, pregnant women are treated with labetalol and methyldopa both before and after the 20th week (Easterling et al., 2019). However, in the following case, a narrower sample is needed, since in this research, patients are examined during the gestational period.

Method of Studies

The first article uses the theoretical method of classification of the following drugs labetalol and methyldopa. The classification method involves the division of drugs into groups according to the active substance and effectiveness in countering symptoms and their causes (Easterling et al., 2019). The second article uses a practical comparison method: the effectiveness of several drugs for hypertension in pregnant women, including labetalol and methyldopa, is compared (Bellos et al., 2006). The methods used in the articles differ, since the first article uses the theoretical one, and the second one uses the practical one. The first method involved the processing of existing scientific material through logic (Rezk et al., 2019). The second method is used to obtain new data empirically, in practice.

The advantages of the comparison method are that in this way it becomes possible to simultaneously cover changes in the condition and reactions of pregnant patients to treatment with labetalol and methyldopa. The advantages of the classification method are large information capacity, conventionality and familiarity of use, good adaptability for information processing, and the ability to create mnemonic codes that carry a semantic load (Rezk et al., 2019). The limitations of the classification method are its rigid structure, which is due to the fixity of the features laid in its foundation. Due to the pre-established order of drugs, it is not allowed to include new medicines in the classification and exclude medicines that have disappeared from the market.

Results of Studies

The key findings of the first study are the appointment of labetalol as a first-line drug as the most studied antihypertensive drug for the treatment of hypertension during pregnancy (Easterling et al., 2019). However, according to the results of the analysis of theoretical literature, methyldopa in most countries is a first-line drug for the treatment of hypertension in pregnant women, which has been studied in numerous prospective studies in comparison with other antihypertensive drugs. The second study confirms the effectiveness of labetalol in comparison with methyldopa, but notes its cost, which is a complicating factor in the wider use of this drug (Bellos et al., 2006). The implications of the two studies in nursing practice include the need to change the accepted standards for the treatment of hypertension in pregnant women. According to the existing practice, methyldopa drugs are prescribed first of all. However, as both practical and theoretical studies have shown, labetalol is better at improving hypertension control and patient pregnancy outcomes during the gestational period.

Ethical Considerations

The first ethical consideration is conducting research is to test drugs on pregnant women. The ethical dilemma in this case is to decide what poses a greater risk  side effects for the mother and fetus when testing the test drug or the mothers disease. The second ethical consideration is to prescribe, first of all, a more effective drug: labetalol, which has proven to be more effective than methyldopa. However, it is also more expensive, and not all pregnant women can afford to buy this medicine. When conducting these studies, scientists exclude pregnant women and women with childbearing potential from clinical trials of phase I and phase II medicines, in which new drugs are tested for safety and efficacy (Rezk et al., 2019). Moreover, the appointment of labetalol should be carried out taking into account the financial situation of the pregnant woman, and the priority of this drug does not exclude the possibility of prescribing methyldopa treatment.

Conclusion

As a result of the study, it was revealed that drug therapy with labetalol, compared with drug therapy with methyldopa, really improves the control of hypertension and pregnancy outcomes of patients during the gestational period in patients suffering from hypertension.

References

Bellos, I., Pergialiotis, V., Papapanagiotou, A., Loutradis, D., & Daskalakis, D. (2020). Comparative efficacy and safety of oral antihypertensive agents in pregnant women with chronic hypertension: A network metaanalysis. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 223(4), 525-537.

Easterling, T., Mundle, S., Bracken, H., Parvekar, S., Mool, S., Magee, A. L., & Phil, P. D. (2019). Oral antihypertensive regimens (nifedipine retard, labetalol, and methyldopa) for management of severe hypertension in pregnancy: An open-label, randomised controlled trial. The Lancet, 394(10203), 1011-1021.

Rezk, M., Emarh, M., Masood, A., Dawood, R., El-Shamy, E., Gamal, A., & Badr, H. (2019). Methyldopa versus labetalol or no medication for treatment of mild and moderate chronic hypertension during pregnancy: A randomized clinical trial. Hypertension in Pregnancy, 39(4), 393-398.

The spread of fraudulent drugs poses a serious danger to the publics health. While governments and international organizations put their efforts into curbing fake drug selling schemes, they continue to reemerge, particularly during the influenza season. In these circumstances, individuals should also take responsibility for their health, ensuring that they purchase only safe medications.

To combat the spread of counterfeit and substandard drugs, it is essential to educate the public on how to recognize fake medicine. First of all, consumers should be aware that flu drugs are not sold without a prescription (US Food and Drug Administration, 2018). Some over-the-counter medicines can be used to reduce certain symptoms such as fever, but they cannot cure or prevent influenza, and FDA warns against buying products that make such promises (US Food and Drug Administration, 2018). For instance, fraudulent drugs manufacturers may claim that their medicine can prevent catching flu without a vaccine, reduce the severity of the illness, or cure it fast (US Food and Drug Administration, 2018). It is essential to be particularly careful when purchasing medicine online. Online pharmacies that sell prescription drugs without a prescription or at reduced price best to be avoided (US Food and Drug Administration, 2018). It is recommended to use only certified sellers with a licensed pharmacist available to answer questions (Bupa Global, n.d.). Following these rules, customers can ensure their safety while buying medications.

There are many fake drug schemes that are widespread on the Internet. Some of them include selling counterfeit medications that are disguised as well-known products. To spot them, it is essential to check the packaging and the drugs carefully (Bupa Global, n.d.). Sometimes poor-quality or unusual packaging can indicate fraud (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017). For instance, the drugs may have different shape or color, or the packaging may miss expiry date (Interpol, n.d.). Some researchers also advise avoiding several drugs marketed as relieving influenza symptoms such as Oscillococcinum, Colloidal Silver, and Zink (Radcliffe, 2018). Selling various kinds of homeopathic remedies is immensely facilitated by fake news that suggests that vaccination is dangerous or unhelpful (Sanicas, 2018). Buying uncertified products that contain harmful ingredients or larger dosages of active ingredients can be more than just a waste of money  it may lead to serious health consequences.

Although the influenza season increases health anxiety in many individuals, it is during global pandemics when such schemes are particularly successful. For instance, a noticeable increase in selling and buying fake medicine was noted during the 2009 H1N1 virus pandemic (DeNoon, 2009). Another impetus to fraudulent medicine advertising was given by the COVID-19 pandemic. FDA warns against purchasing questionable products that are marketed as Coronavirus tests, treatments, and vaccines and claim to cure or prevent COVID-19 contagion (US Food and Drug Administration, 2020, April). The organization regularly updates the list of fraudulent Coronavirus medicine that is worth consulting with (US Food and Drug Administration, 2020, September). However, it is important that people acknowledge that there is no drug that can cure or prevent COVID-19 yet and avoid purchasing any products that claim otherwise.

Manufacturers and sellers of fraudulent medicine use not only peoples fears but also their hopes while marketing their goods. For instance, exploiting the vulnerability of people with eating disorders, dealers sell life-threatening drugs such as DNP, advertising them as effective for weight loss (McKay, 2020). This requires stricter governmental control, as well as spreading awareness on the consequences of taking weight-loss pills with unknown or dangerous ingredients.

To conclude, while it is officials responsibility to curb illegal medicine schemes, the public should also recognize the dangers associated with buying fraudulent products. It is particularly important these days, during the COVID-19 pandemic, when people are increasingly anxious about their health. Being bombarded with fake news, they may be misled by false promises made by dishonest manufacturers. Hence, individuals should be aware of how to detect counterfeit or substandard medicine, be it flu, weight loss, or COVID-19 drugs.

References

Bupa Global (n.d.). How to avoid counterfeit medicines. Web.

DeNoon, D. D. (2009). Beware fake Swine Flu drugs, FDA warns. Web.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2017). Counterfeit medicines. Web.

US Food and Drug Administration (2018). FDA warns of fraudulent and unapproved flu products. Web.

Radcliffe, S. (2018). Here are 52 fake flu products you should watch out for. Web.

Sanicas, M. (2018). Flu vaccine fake news that goes viral during the flu season. Web.

US Food and Drug Administration (2020). Beware of fraudulent coronavirus tests, vaccines and treatments. Web.

McKay, S. (2020). Knowing it could kill you isnt a deterrent: the deadly trade in diet pills. Web.

US Food and Drug Administration (2020). Fraudulent Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) products. Web.

Interpol (n.d.). Fake medicines. Web.

Psychotherapeutic drugs are used to treat issues related to the thoughts and actions of people with perceptual and behavioral disorders. They are not used to treat psychoses, but they assist both adults and minors with living more suitably. Unfortunately, as it occurs with other medications, they have side effects that may negatively influence the health of certain individuals. The following essay will review the reasons why such drugs are riskier for older adults and how nurses should assign treatment.

Since older adults are known for experiencing issues with the cardiovascular, central nervous and respiratory systems, it is important to review how the medication affects them. For example, specific antipsychotic and neuroleptic drugs may lead to muscle spasms, hypotension, and arrhythmias. In worse cases, some of these agents may cause pulmonary edema, which is a life-threatening condition (Tabangcora, 2022). Thus, nurses must be able to monitor such cases and assist their patients properly.

First, they are advised to review a patients medical history and search for some precautions and contraindications. Said contraindications include allergies, cardiovascular problems and respiratory illnesses (Tabangcora, 2022). However, this measure is insufficient, which is why they must assess their patient more thoroughly by performing a thorough examination that depicts the patients health in a more detailed manner. Thus, certain complications may be prevented from occurring in the future.

Second, nurses are advised to make certain interventions that are necessary for patients who take psychotherapeutic drugs. Some of them involve providing comfort and safety measures and monitoring glucose levels (Tabangcora, 2022). These employees are recommended to inform their patients about agent therapy to assist the patient with understanding and complying with the methods. That way, nurses can ensure proper communication with their patients and guarantee them a comfortable environment.

Finally, it is highly recommended that nurses ensure the effectiveness of the agent therapy. To do so, they should review the patients response to therapy and search for any negative effects, if there are any. The employees are to be certain that the person complies with the treatment and does not violate any regulations. This may help nurses discover whether the medication is useful or not.

Reference

Tabangcora, I. D. (2022). Psychotherapeutic drugs: Nursing pharmacology study guide. Nurseslabs. Web.

Introduction

Drug administration means the flow of drugs into the body. Two main routes encompass, Enteral, which is the administration of drugs orally. Concurrently, Parenteral entails piercing the skin. Enteral is the simplest mode of administration that entails swallowing or placing drugs underneath the tongue. Oral delivery drugs to the stomach occur after swallowing, whereas putting drugs under the tongue allows direct assimilation into the fluids (Finkel, Clark, Champe, et al., 2008). Dosage types taken orally comprise solution and solids.

Body

Important issues are subject to consideration, before administering drugs orally. The condition of the patient, which influences the capacity to take drugs, is paramount. Ingestion of drugs requires that patients retain the drug after intake; furthermore, the drug ought to be present in the gastro intestines.

Any condition that hinders this has to be addressed. It is vital to consider the gastric emptying interlude of the patient, availability of provisions, and the intestinal or gastric pH. Variations in any of the factors affect the movement and strength of drugs thus lowering their effectiveness (Arcangelo & Peterson, 2006).

Before administering the drug via the mouth, it is rational to carry out patient education to determine whether the patient can endure taking the drug orally. Patients may lack the capacity to take something via the mouth. For example, when a patient is vomiting or unconscious, he may not take anything. In this case, a decision needs to use other routes of medicine administration is paramount. There are certain cases when it is irrational to administer drugs orally.

For example, when patient education reveals a condition that hinders oral intake of drugs, then it necessitates the use of other routes (Aschenbrenner & Venable, 2008).

The advantages of administering drugs orally lie in its simplicity and convenience since the patient does it single-handedly. This is because specialized paraphernalia or instruction is not required. Most patients accept drugs administered orally because they consume minimal time. Drug administration via the mouth has its negatives as manifest in factors that can hinder absorption.

Some patients encounter concerns swallowing the prescribed amount of drugs such techniques pose management troubles amongst elderly patients. Intestinal fluids pH also reduces the effectiveness of the drug. The existence or deficiency of food in the body affects the drugs, for example, food reduces the rate of incorporation. The occurrence of alcohol also hinder absorption as it slows down food movement (Brick & Erickson, 1999)

These drugs are subject to destruction by gastric acids or enzymes; furthermore, other drugs may not be absorbed. The slow movement of food in the intestines where drug assimilation occurs makes the dissolution and absorption process difficult. This is frequent with medicine that is enteric-coated. Medical practitioners sometimes find it necessary to use this method of drug administration. This situation is always true because this is the simplest, common, and convenient method of administering drugs. Apart from this, the practitioners also get to use this method when the patients health condition allows it.

Conclusion

From the above discussions, it is considerable to note that, oral administration of drugs remains an elementary technique. The method requires that the patients condition sustain the intake of substances. The method has several realistic advantages over thus making it a preferred way of issuing drugs. The disadvantages are also worrying, since the speed of dissolution and absorption may be too low. Many people choose to administer drugs orally since it eliminates the need for hospitals.

References

Arcangelo, V. & Peterson, A. (2006). Pharmacotherapeutics for advanced practice: a practical approach. 2^nd Ed. Pennsylvania, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Aschenbrenner, D. & Venable, S. (2008). Drug Therapy in Nursing. 3^rd Ed. Pennsylvania, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Brick, J. & Erickson, C. (1999). Drugs, the brain, and behavior: the pharmacology of abuse and dependence. New York, NY: Routledge.

Finkel, R., Clark, M., Champe, P., Cubeddu, L. (2008). Pharmacology. Pennsylvania, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Are the urban poor their own worst enemies? Answer this question from the perspective of both Rational Actor Theory and Structured Socialization Theory

The documentary Baltimore: Anatomy of an American City examines how the American government has been dealing with drugs. This war on drugs has received numerous feedbacks from different researchers and sociologists. The documentary examines how the war on drugs targets young African Americans. The war has taken the energy that emerged from the Civil Rights Movement (Hayward 242).

Many young African Americans have been incarcerated. This malpractice makes it impossible for them to achieve their potentials. Some government officials are focusing on new approaches that can deal with this public problem. The idea of incarceration has failed to produce the best outcomes. More families have become disoriented. Such families have also been unable to achieve their potentials. The malpractice continues to promote new misbehaviors. Such misbehaviors will affect the future of many citizens. The greatest question is whether the urban poor can be described as their own worst enemies.

To begin with, the urban poor cannot be described as their own enemies. This is the case because American society has always supported the concept of inequality. The dark history of America has left a mark on the faces of many minority groups. Many African Americans have been living in poverty. They do not receive the required support from the government. They have been unable to get a proper education. This position explains why they engage in dirty businesses such as drug trafficking (Hartney and Vuong 2). Such African Americans have also been using drugs. They have become aggressive and violent. The above documentary explains how the war on drugs targets specific minority groups in Baltimore.

Different theories can be used to explain why these African Americans should not be blamed for their misfortunes. According to the Rational Actor Theory (RAT), human beings will always focus on their needs and expectations. They make rational choices whenever weighing means and ends (Hayward 247). The theory argues that crime is committed when an individual seeks to address his needs such as money, food, entertainment, and sex (Hayward 238). The provision of such needs can fulfill the goals of many criminals. The theory explains why many African Americans engage in criminal activities.

As well, the Structured Socialization Theory explains why different individuals in a given society embrace specific behaviors. Human beings have the capacity to inherit specific customs, values, and ideologies. Socialization is, therefore, the means through which socio-cultural continuity is maintained (Gul 39). The theory describes how a persons genetic makeup influences his or her behaviors. The environment will also dictate the behavioral aspects of an individual. This knowledge can be used to analyze the nature of crime in a given society. Many poor individuals in different urban regions embrace most of the behaviors supported by their neighborhoods (Hartney and Vuong 5). This theory supports the continued use of drugs in Baltimore.

Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of these perspectives (Rational Actor Theory and Structured Socialization). Is there a middle ground? Are there alternatives for these young black men living in Baltimore? If so, what do these alternatives look like? If no alternatives exist, why not?

The Rational Actor Theory justifies why many individuals in Baltimore engage in criminal activities. Most of the children born in poverty do not get proper education (Gul 41). They eventually engage in dirty practices in an attempt to fulfill their social needs. This perspective is relevant because it highlights the fate of poor Americans. Many young African American men fail to get a proper education. They lack appropriate amenities and services, thus looking for new ways to fulfill such needs. The strengths of this theory make it effective towards describing the behaviors of many individuals in the society (Gul 39).

The concept of Structured Socialization (SS) also explains why crime is common in Baltimore. According to the documentary, drugs and guns have become a way of life among the youths. Many individuals engage in criminal activities due to lack of the required resources. The situation becomes worse when the genetic makeup of the individuals is inclined to criminal activities (Hartney and Vuong 7). However, this perspective argues that the entire society will focus on specific values, habits, and behaviors. This weakness makes the theory inapplicable in many settings.

It should be agreeable that there is a middle ground. Many cities across the country are characterized by crimes and drugs. Many young men have been imprisoned for engaging in different criminal activities (Hartney and Vuong 7). The situation has worsened because more individuals are engaging in criminal activities. That being the case, the government should use the Social Contract Theory (SCT) to support the needs of its people. The above perspectives explain why many young African Americans continue to face numerous obstacles.

The government should use several alternatives to help these young people. The government should support the needs of these individuals. The Rational Actor Theory supports the fulfillment of different social needs in order to produce the best behaviors and moral values (Hartney and Vuong 8). The society should also use a powerful public development strategy (Hartney and Vuong 8). This strategy will fulfill the health, social, economic, and educational needs of every individual. New support mechanisms should be in place in order to empower these young men.

Works Cited

Gul, Serdar. An Evaluation of the Rational Choice in Criminology. Journal of Sociology and Applied Science 4.8 (2009): 36-44. Print.

Hayward, Keith. Situational Crime Prevention and Its Discontents: Rational Choice Theory versus the Culture of Now. Social Policy and Administration 41.3 (2007): 232-250. Print.

Hartney, Christopher and Linh Vuong, 2009, Created Equal: Racial and Ethnic Disparities in the US Criminal Justice System. Web.

Introduction

For decades, mass media have been the main instrument for commenting on the most pressing social issues, thus shaping how people view the world. More than ever, contemporary mass media has gained immense influence on the behaviors of their target audiences, both intentionally and unintentionally. On the one hand, the media could be the vehicle for spreading awareness of healthy perceptions and behaviors. On the other hand, it could utilize its influence when shaping rather harmful attitudes. The romanticization of drug use has been a common trope that could be traced in multiple pieces of media due to the topics controversial nature, which can contribute to spiking ratings and, thus, more money. Presenting drug use in a favorable light is a problem for younger generations and vulnerable populations who may get influenced by the perfect image and engage in drug use behaviors despite the risks.

Glamorizing Drug Use in Mass Media

The popular HBO series Euphoria has been among the most controversial pieces of media in terms of the debates over its glamorizing of substance abuse. The theme of drugs is traced in the storyline of Rue Bennet, a seventeen-year-old high school student struggling with addiction (Fry, 2022). In the show, viewers can sometimes see how the drugs Rue takes make her feel good during high. According to the statement released by the Drug Abuse Resistance Education (D.A.R.E.) program, instead of warning younger generations about the horrific consequences of drug abuse, Euphoria has chosen to misguidedly glorify and erroneously depict high school student drug use, addiction, anonymous sex, violence and other destructive behaviors (Eklund, 2022). Indeed, depicting drug use as something commonplace and even pleasant to a person may have adverse effects on vulnerable audiences, which is why the D.A.R.E. statement can potentially stand.

However, the trope of glamorizing drug use is not as clear-cut as it seems, depending on the perspective from which it is analyzed. When analyzed from the race perspective, Rue is a young woman of color, and her socioeconomic background suggests that she was raised in a one-parent household, which struggled financially. To deal with the mental health challenges that she has experienced, Rue may have turned to drugs as something that allows her to cope and feel better, which is something through which many young people have gone (Richert et al., 2020). Thus, even though Euphoria makes substance use glamorous in its imagery, it does not mean that it encourages the act per se. Responding to the D.A.R.E. statement, the team involved in the show mentioned that the imagery is for adult consumption only, which means that easily-influenced young people should not be watching it. Besides the euphoric highs that drugs provide, Rue is also seen experiencing severe lows, which are quite brutal to her mental and physical health, which shows that the effects of drugs are not lightened in the show.

The trope of glamorizing drug use has developed over time with the increasing influence of mass media. Without the unhealthy 1990s fashion standards that glamorized drug-oriented lifestyles, the trope may not have become as significant. The problem with the heroin chic, despite its goal to challenge the standard of perfection, was that it indeed coincided with a rise in heroin use among the population and consequently spiking rates of overdose (HHS, 2021). The aesthetic that was pushed in fashion magazines and other mass media of the 1990s was inspired by the thin, pale, and anxious look of a person who might be a regular user of heroin. Viewed in the context of gender, the heroin chic look was something applied predominantly to women; the pressure was increasing for them to look as thin and pale as possible to mimic the aesthetic (Rosser, 2010). Besides depicting drug use in a more favorable light, the 1990s fashion perpetuated unrealistic standards of beauty as mass media was dominated by skinny models.

During the rise of the heroin chic culture, the epidemic of AIDS was nearing its all-time high, which meant that using needles was highly dangerous during drug use. Thus, the intake method switched, with snorting replacing shotting, which also became a method that the wealthier classes found more appealing, therefore, reports about celebrities snorting cocaine emerged quickly. Coupled with the idea that heroin chic was trendy, society was primarily influenced by the ongoing exposure to images of celebrities doing cocaine as if it was something desirable (Hickman, 2002). The problem with the trend was that it indeed glamorized addiction, with not much being commented on the adverse effects of drug use.

Conclusion

To conclude, the trope of glamorizing drug use in mass media can take different forms. The most problematic thing with the topic is the aesthetics of drug use because the media does not show the reality. In Euphoria, drug use is often accompanied by beautiful sequences filled with bright colors and sparkles, while the heroin chic aesthetic shows gorgeous thin women posing in underwear in front of the camera. What is crucial in the example of Euphoria, though, is that the show does not cover the negative side of using drugs, which means that glamorization is balanced by the real picture. In the case of the heroin chic look, however, there is a lack of social commentary on the problem, in addition to the setting of unattainable standards of beauty for young women.

References

Eklund, K. (2022). Does Euphoria take it too far? UMKC Roo News. Web.

Fry, N. (2022). The addictive chills and thrills of Euphoria The New Yorker. Web.

Hickman, T. (2002). Heroin chic: The visual culture of narcotic addiction. Third Text, 16(2), 119-136.

Richert, T., Anderberg, M., & Dahlberg, M. (2020). Mental health problems among young people in substance abuse treatment in Sweden.Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy, 15(43). Web.

Rosser, E. M. (2010). Heroin chic: The fashion phenomenon analyzed through the writing of Christine Harold and Timothy Hickman. Inquiries Journal/Student Pulse, 2(12). Web.

Introduction

The cross-border effect historically had a strong influence on trade. By cross-border effect, the economists normally mean the impact that certain local legislations have on the retail business in the neighboring regions: for example, Nicholson et al. argue that the cases of large tax differences between the neighboring states created a positive environment for the border crossing to avoid cigarette tax avoidance (1). Similarly, in the case of the psychoactive drug trade, taxation could have a cross-border effect by either promoting drug smuggling or decreasing the smugglers incentive from it (Courtwright 162). This paper aims to discuss the influence of cross-border effects on psychoactive goods taxation. Historically, there were two different directions for this influence. First, the cross-border effect created a stronger connection between taxation and regional trade activity by promoting trade in the regions where taxation is lower and decreasing sales in high-tax regions. Moreover, it also affected the setting of taxes in the region, as it created a need for the government to investigate cross-border taxation schemes before setting their taxes to decrease the possible negative influence of taxation on the trade in the area.

Main body

The effect of cross-border taxation on trade is widely studied by economists. For example, Courtwright describes the history of drug taxation, noting how certain laws affected the smuggling practices and their scale (162-163). He notes that the low tax on goods was not the only criterion that promoted trafficking and that the costs and taxation on other supplies were nonetheless important: when cheap supplies are unavailable in the nearby territories, smugglers would reach out to other regions, although it was a lot costlier, riskier, and less tempting due to the long distance (Courtwright 163). One of the examples of cross-border effects in taxation can be seen in the evolution of taxes on salt. Given that salt was an addictive product that was always in use in most local households, both Asian and European governments used to set high taxes on salt to increase their revenues from its trade: peasants could spend a large part of their yearly income on salt, with most of the price representing the governments tax (Courtwright 163). Nevertheless, illegal smuggling of salt arose in response to high taxes; smugglers used to bring salt from low-tax regions to high-tax areas to sell it to people at a more favorable price (Courtwright 163). Another example of how taxation facilitated cross-border trade is the case of tobacco sales in the 1960s-1970s. Courtwright explains that cigarette taxation was highly uneven, which caused an increase in tobacco trade in the states with lower taxes, such as North Carolina (163). The states where taxation was increasingly high, such as New York, on the other hand, suffered severe losses of revenues from tobacco taxes: by the mid-1970s, net losses of revenue could reach over 300 million dollars a year (Courtwright 163), much of which went to criminals and smugglers. As a result of revenue losses due to smuggling, some governments had to decrease tobacco taxes, thus proving the impact of the cross-border effect on taxation.

Another way that cross-border effect influenced taxation was by promoting cross-border cooperation. For example, Courtwright states that, in thinking how high they could safely push their taxes, the government officials had to be aware of the taxation set by their neighbors (163). Both in the salt example and the case with the tobacco trade, loss of tax revenues could be avoided if an even cross-border taxation approach was used from the very beginning. Thus, when the taxation on salt was determined, both the Chinese and European governments could compare the tax rates of the neighboring regions and adjust their planned figures for better cross-border tax cooperation. Similarly, tobacco taxes required a well-rounded unified approach to be implemented in all states at once to even out the tax revenues, as both smuggling and adjustment behavior of customers could lead to the loss of revenue due to the reduction of cigarette tax collections and the decrease in sales of cigarette products (Nicholson et al. 2). A more unified approach for all states would result in even tax revenues from the sale of tobacco not just in the U.S., but all over the world (Courtwright 164).

Finally, the cross-border effect was also used to determine the effective level of taxation. Similar to cross-border cooperation, this was caused by the need to avoid loss of revenues due to high tax levels. However, the cross-border effect was also utilized in countries that wanted to raise their tax revenues by promoting trade. For instance, in Mexico, the price of supplies needed for the drug trade, as well as the cost of drugs, has been relatively small compared to that of the U.S. in the late 20th century, which promoted the trade in the region.

Conclusion

Overall, the history of taxation and trade shows that the cross-border effect was one of the determining factors of effective taxation levels, as it facilitated the connection between taxation and trade intensity. Therefore, by looking at the taxation levels imposed on psychoactive goods in the neighboring regions, as well as globally, governments could either define the effective level of taxation that would answer to the external tax levels or propose lower taxes to facilitate trade activities.

Works Cited

Courtwright, David T. Forces of Habit: Drugs and the Making of the Modern World. Harvard University Press, 2002.

Nicholson, Andrew, et al. Cigarette Taxes and Cross-border Revenue Effects: Evidence Using Retail Data. Public Finance Review, vol, 44, no. 3, 2016, pp. 1-33.

Implementation of a drug-free workplace is a fundamental component in strengthening and most importantly protecting ones business. Employees are as well protected from the dangers associated with drug abuse such as violence and injuries. The implementation of drug-free workplace programs differ in regard to size of an organization.

Basically, the approach towards development of these programs is a stepwise process that requires a lot of evaluation by the employer. First of all, the employer needs to assess the needs and requirements of his business. For instance, organizations running projects funded by the federal are required to have drug-free workplace policy in place. This should include a written policy, employee training and education.

Employers should also consider employees holding safety-sensitive positions as well as the possibility of substance abuse occurrence in the organization to guide them in implementation of these policies. The employer should also consider the availability of resources in regard to the size of his business. This is because some programs such a drug testing and health promotion may not be favorable to a small organization.

An effective program should consist of written policies such as the basis behind the development of the program and how it was developed. Expectations by the employer on employees behavior should also be indicated.

It is also necessary to provide the employees with information on the prohibited drugs as well as undesired behaviors in the workplace. Information on consequences in case of policy violation should be made available to make everyone understand the seriousness of the program. Ways of handling appeals and determining a violation should, too, be put in place (Franklin, 2010, p. 1).

Employee confidentiality should be maintained and fairness among all employees especially when they request for help. Efforts should be made to help the employees abide by the policy requirements since most drug abusers are addicts and might have difficulty avoiding the drugs.

Employers should consider providing employee assistant programs which are programs sponsored by the business aimed at offering service to employees as well as their families.

Some organizations may even go to the extent of addressing health and wellbeing of employees besides dealing with problems associated with alcohol and other drug abuse. Some organizations especially the large businesses offer internal employee assistance programs but small businesses can unite with their health providers to give external services to employees at cost effective rates.

Employee assistance programs are important where the largest population of employees is faced with the risk of social and disturbing problems as well as drug abuse (Franklin, 2010, p. 1). These services include employee education, assessment and follow up and most importantly, individual counseling for motivation.

For a drug-free workplace program to be successful, employees need to be educated on drug abuse consequences and supervisors trained to watch their progress. The education program should focus on all employees no matter the organization level they are in.

This program should discuss the accessibility of assistance by all employees and how their problems in duty execution will be dealt with (Franklin, 2010, p. 1). Besides the assistance program, an employee awareness program should be included as well to educate them on the effects of drug abuse and the benefits of a drug free life.

Employers who have put into place the drug-free workplace policy enjoy some benefits that they would not have noted were it not for the program. Cases of employees nonattendance, theft and occupational injuries are reduced. On the other hand, productivity increases as well as moral values.

Employees experience reduced use of medical benefits due to better health conditions (Franklin, 2010, p. 1). Premium costs for workers compensation reduce as well. The overall effect is a secure workplace with enhanced productivity and comprehensive service delivery.

Reference List

Franklin, G. (2010). Do drug-free workplace programs prevent occupational injuries? Web.

Creating a political environment that is fully devoid of violence is barely possible since there will always be war profiteers who will spur the development of confrontations. However, when considering the history of political brutality in the 20^th century, one should mention that Latin America has been at the forefront of the described sad trend. The problems of political violence in Latin American countries have been scrutinized thoroughly in Gabriel García Márquezs News of Kidnapping and Isabel Allendes The House of Spirits. Although each of the books deals with an unrelated phenomenon of political violence, the personal tragedy of innocent people that were caught in a crossfire is what makes the books stand out and showcase the cyclical nature of violence in Latin America.

Although the connection between politics and peoples personal lives might seem quite distant, The House of Spirits is quick to show that the inhumane attitudes toward citizens easily trickle into interpersonal relationships. The severity of the military dictatorship in Chile is paralleled with the use of violence in the community. Esteban killing a mangy dog is the first clear sign of aggression, yet the casual nature of this action marks the cyclical essence of violence in society and indicates the presence of tension (Allende 68).

It is also quite curious that Allende adds another source of tension on top of the presence of political dictatorship in her novel. Apart from the intrusive forces of political violence, religious conflicts are also interwoven into the fabric of the story. For instance, representing a stark contrast to Rosa, Severo is described as an atheist, who frequents the Catholic Church only to clutch for the opportunity to seize more power and, thus, use his affiliations to gain influence in the political circles. As Allende describes it, he had political ambitions and could not allow himself the luxury of missing the most heavily attended mass on Sundays (12). The desire to use religion as the means of seizing power renders the insidious nature of political dictatorship in Chile at the time, creating a very unsettling yet vivid portrayal of the misplaced values in the society.

Changes in the dynamics of interpersonal relationships caused by the presence of dictatorship and the persistent, ubiquitous threat of violence may occur at a different pace, as the novel shows. However, the cyclic nature of the observed problem remains in its place, with random outbursts of violence at the start of the novel being replaced by the consistent sense of irritation that can be seen as a sign of hopelessness. Allende portrays the described alterations in social and family relationships very vividly by creating a sense of despair in the novel.

The tragedy of a dysfunctional family in which the notion of violence has been perpetuated by the powers ruling the country becomes fully evident as Nicolas relationships with his family are described. For instance, Allende mentions that the materialism of domestic life and the excessive ministrations of his mother and his sister, who insisted on feeding and dressing him, irritated him (312). Thus, the presence of political pressure and the use of violence as the means of forcing people into following the artificially constructed social hierarchy represents the fluctuation of violence in the history of South American society.

As a result, the connection between the increase in the brutality of the measures used by government authorities and the rise in violence in interpersonal communication is shown perfectly in the novel. Moreover, Allende makes a very compelling statement by showing how violence circulates in society, causing new loops of brutality to become even more intense and causing even greater pain to innocent people.

Although revolving around an entirely different problem, the incident in Colombia could also be seen as the direct effect of cycles of violence in the Colombian political arena. Remarkably, unlike Allendes novel, which features exclusively imaginary characters, the novel by Márquez describes an actual case of a journalists kidnapping. The reference to an actual tragedy that occurred in Columbia adds another layer of credibility to the story, making the authors argument of the problem of violence in Colombian society even more profound.

It is quite peculiar that, while also affecting interactions between the lead characters, the increase in brutality in the political arena causes civilians to oppose the unfairness of the people at the helm instead of submitting to their will. Maruja is shown at her bravest, with the author referring to her political and journalistic activism being the core reasons for the kidnapping to have taken place (Márquez 7). Furthermore, the tone of the violent intentions of criminals is shifted toward cunning and conniving manipulation as opposed to thirst for blood.

For instance, the leader of the kidnappers sets the tone for the overall dynamics of the negotiations between his gang and the government in cold blood: We acknowledge publicly that we are holding the missing journalists (Márquez 45). The situation described by Márquez proves that, whether being driven by emotions or twisted logic, the very notion of violence and any kind of brutality is inherently immoral.

One could argue that, in contrast to Allendes novel, the story of Maruja in Márquezs book did not feature quite as much brutality and violence, not even using euphemisms to coat the uninhibited and inhumane nature of the acts. Nevertheless, Márquez establishes quite early that the only reasoning behind keeping the hostages alive was the argument that Maruja and Beatriz will be Escobars defense against extradition (31). Therefore, the violence Described by Allende can be paralleled with the conniving calculations of Escobar. Keeping people against their will in inhumane conditions, Escobar demonstrates another curve of violence in the history of Latin America and establishes dictatorship as a norm.

When considered as a part of a longer narrative about the nature of power in Latin America, the books in question show a rather troubling tendency toward power being viewed as the end goal of political relationships in South America, and violence being rendered as one of the only tools to attain it. However, even when considered alone, each novel indicates that the described case is only another link in the chain of political choices made to use violence as the tool for attaining power. Both The House of the Spirits and News of Kidnapping show explicitly how people are dehumanized in the process of fighting for political power, and how their rights are systematically violated to the point where winning a political argument is deemed as a justification for glaring violence against civilians.

Despite the differences in their narratives, each book indicates that the increase in political violence introduces immediate changes to social relationships, making them more aggressive and, thus, closing the cycle. The perpetual aggression amplified to the nth degree as political authorities apply criminally violent measures to restrain civilians is demonstrated masterfully, albeit very morbidly, in both books.

Admittedly, there are numerous differences between the storylines, the main one being that Márquezs novel is centered on a true story, and Allende prefers to create her characters. Still, in both novels, the portrayal of the political disarray in Latin America through the lives of innocent people helps to prove that the phenomenon of political violence transferring into personal relationships among citizens has a fully cyclic nature and, therefore, is forced to repeat itself as long as brutality is justified on a political level.

Furthermore, the recurrent nature of violence in Latin American society is shown explicitly through the depiction of interpersonal relationships. In The House of the Spirits, sexual brutality as an inherent element of the deeply patriarchal society is hinted at, allowing the reader to fill in the gaps: Before her, her mother  and before her, her grandmother  had suffered the same animal fate (Allende 74).

At first, the connection between the political regime and interpersonal violence might seem somewhat blurred, but the further exploration of the wider context of the story will show that Esteben acts knowing that he would not have to face any legal repercussions. With violence firmly engraved into the very foundation of the political decisions within a state, it will inevitably force its way into interpersonal relationships, marginalizing those who cannot fend for themselves. Thus, the problem of brutality and violence as a phenomenon that transcends political boundaries and trickles into social relationships is portrayed as irreversible and constantly repeating itself.

As a result, both novels show graphically that the problem of violence in Latin America is nested deeply into its political history and, thus, defines interpersonal relationships with fixed standards for social interactions and gender normativity. The authors do not shy away from the graphic portrayal of the implications of violence being engraved into the very system of Latin American society and affecting every facet of peoples interactions. Intertwining personal conflicts with political ones, both authors show how the terrible legacy of violence continues, becoming inherently characteristic of communication in societies that are driven by dictatorship relationships with their rulers.

Despite dealing with entirely different plots that unwrap under different political circumstances, both Márquezs News of Kidnapping and Allendes The House of Spirits poignantly emphasize the dire effects of political violence on the social relationships within the Latin American community. Describing the lives ruined by the ill-conceived and often criminally destructive decisions of the ruling class, be it a state dictator or a covert drug syndicate, the authors link the political violence in Latin America to its social implications. Thus, each novel represents an elaborate and cruelly honest account of the cyclical nature of political crimes in Latin American society.

Penetrating the minds of citizens and shaping their perception of relationships between authorities and country residents, the tragic phenomenon of political violence betrays the trust that the balance of powers is expected to create within a state. Consequently, both books can be seen as crucial arguments against the use of political violence under any circumstances.

Works Cited

Allende, Isabel. The House of Spirits. Translated by Magda Bogin, Bantam, 1986.

Márquez, Gabriel García. News of Kidnapping. Translated by Edith Grossman. Reprint ed., Vintage, 2008.