Category: Drugs

Introduction

International drug trafficking is among the global societal problems that have drastically grown over the past several decades. The drug trade has become one of the worlds major industries, with devastating effects around the globe. The market for illegal substances is one of these businesses most prominent and most lucrative. The global drug trade, estimated to be worth over $500 billion annually, has persisted for over forty years (Jenner, 2011). As a multifaceted sector, the drug trade aims to meet the industrys incessant demand at every stage, from production to consumption, with the drug trafficking phase being the most problematic (Jenner, 2011).

The global community has tried various approaches to combat the expanding drug trafficking industry and the illegal activities it supports. For instance, the United Nations formed the current worldwide drug control system in three separate treaties. While international drug trafficking continues to expand and increase damage, governments worldwide have devised ways of curbing the problem by introducing mitigation measures to stop production at the source and pursuing and persecuting drug traffickers. Thus, it is crucial that states join forces at the international level for a regional fight against the illegal sale of drugs.

Background Information

It is significant to note that illicit drugs are widespread in the wonderful world. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) noted in 2008 that between 155 million and 250 million people worldwide have taken these substances at least once in their lifetime (Srubar, 2015). At the same time, the drug trade is becoming increasingly globalized due to advances in technology and increased trade routes. Moreover, it is of concern that the power of drug traffickers is constantly growing and that they are influencing the economic and political affairs of cities. As a consequence, this has led to violence, corruption, and ineffective laws. It should also be noted that most of the illegal substances are heroin and cocaine, they are concentrated in Russia and Western Europe.

Drug trafficking has a negative impact on the economic and political stability of nations globally, as well as the personal lives and communities of their citizens. Consumers and addicts are frequently the targets of a shady industrys deceptive practices. One major threat to political stability is the growing influence and power of drug traffickers in some nations, which gives them the capacity to influence politics through corruption and violence (Srubar, 2015).

The government of the United States argues that through complex networks of shell companies and other financial gimmicks, drug traffickers hide their multibillion-dollar criminal enterprises from authorities and avoid detection (United States, 2021). Whitehouse claims that the drug trade has resulted in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Americans and incalculable suffering in Rhode Island and elsewhere (United States, 2021). From 1989 to 1991, countries like Colombia, Afghanistan, and Myanmar, experienced extreme anti state violence or the breakdown of national authority linked to the narcotics trade.

However, most of the drug trade does not engage in political activism of its own but chooses to coexist with and manipulate the state through corruption. One common form of corruption in Colombia and Latin America is the attempt by criminal organizations to buy influence and power at the top levels of government (Lee,1995). The rise of modern narcotics businesses has aided criminal authorities at the cost of proper state authorities. For instance, when it comes to matters of law and order, such as the protection of property rights and the upkeep of essential community programs, traffickers typically side with the police. However, police who lead government drug trafficking police raids or operate for direct competitor trafficking agencies are often targeted for assassination.

The drug trades economic effects are felt most strongly through legalizing the money from illegal drugs for taxation. There are varying trends across countries. The Chinese Ministry of Public Security thinks that opium and heroin smugglers put very little of their profits toward projects that help the Chinese economy. Almost all of the profits from drug sales are laundered through banks in non-communist Asian countries, and the small amount that makes it back home is typically spent on high-end real estate, furnishings, technology, and jewelry. Law enforcement officials in Russia estimate that the narcotics trade provides seed money for a significant portion of the countrys small, lawful businesses, including shops, restaurants, and fruit stalls. Different nations worldwide have come up with mitigation measures to curb this problem.

Solution

For the fight against drugs to be effective, it has to be conducted at an inter-regional level. Therefore, international organizations like the United Nations must obtain data from states on the patterns of drug use, the methods of drug importation, and the states that stimulate the drug business (Flynn, 2000). This is because the drug trade is a global business with huge profits. Illicit money flows that support this business undermine the economies of member states and increase the perceived and actual dangers to foreign direct investment and confidence in international development efforts. Accordingly, it is essential to deal with the drug problem in certain regions in a sectoral manner. This will help to destroy illegal schemes and stop the supply of drugs to other states.

The heroin trade in the southern direction is the accumulation of illicit trade flows south of Afghanistan, creating a favorable environment for organized crime. Thus, it leads to corruption and is considered a key source of funding for the Taliban, which is a threat to regional security and stability. At the same time, drug trafficking also originates in Central Europe and Mexico. As a consequence, the UN may convene a special commission consisting of the states most affected by drug trafficking. Representatives of the different states can share the methods they adopt at the state level and define a common strategy.

It is important that solutions are negotiated specifically from the problems and peculiarities of the region. This will make it possible to fight the drug business effectively. For example, the states affected by the flow of drugs from Russia may share data on the owners of the drug business and the structures that protect it (Lee, 1995). Accordingly, they can impose general sanctions on them to reduce drug smuggling. Consequently, this fight at the state level will significantly reduce the number of drugs in circulation. Moreover, it is combined with national laws and programs because national legislation is aimed at detecting and punishing the abuse, importation, and illicit trafficking on the territory of a particular state. Meanwhile, international efforts would be directed at fighting on a global scale to reduce the negative impact on states.

Moreover, it should be noted that regional cooperation is a proven way. Thus, expanding regional cooperation to an international scale will improve the results, as evidenced by the cooperation between the U.S. and Mexico. It is important to note that the U.S. is constantly plagued by illegal drug trafficking into the country from Mexico. Mexico also has various problems that have recently become critical. For example, in 2017 there were a record number of murders in Mexico. Meanwhile, most of them were caused by drug problems (Realuyo, 2019). Violence and illegal schemes that shape human and drug trafficking have also increased.

Thus, the U.S. and Mexico have joined forces to stop the crisis in Mexico. At the same time, it will have a positive impact on the level of drug abuse in the U.S., it will decrease, because in Mexico, certain regulations will begin to take effect. Accordingly, the proposed solution to the problem will be viable because the concept of unification of states will be applied at the level of the UN. Moreover, the struggle will be with different regional groups using different methods, depending on the specifics of the region. In addition, states would be given a platform to negotiate and join forces.

Interpretation of Statistical Data

Flynn (2000) points to the idea of combating drug trafficking through small groups with a common strategy. However, the validity and reliability of these findings is due to the fact that stimulation was provided to several groups of students in the classroom. Thus, the groups in conditions similar to UN discussions proposed solutions to the problem. Then, it can be argued that the proposed solution was verified in this way.

The groups had only 75 minutes to thoroughly examine and solve the problem. In addition, the time was broken down into different phases, such as 5 minutes to study the problem. In this way, the children were able to provide effective solutions in a limited amount of time. Also, there is a certain bias to the method presented in Flynn (2000), because the students also played the roles of drug traffickers and their advisors in order to gain a better understanding. In reality, it cannot be certain that children can appreciate the thoughts and actions of such people.

Furthermore, Lee (1995) notes that the drug industry ranks first in the world in the illegal circulation of money and receives 200 to 300 billion dollars. The author also divulges the problem that Colombia produces about 70 to 80 percent of the worlds cocaine production. Similarly, states such as Poland, China, Russia, Azerbaijan, and the Baltics. States supply amphetamines. It can be argued that the study is valid and reliable because the author used scientific sources and reports to obtain the data. Moreover, Lee (1995) also indicates the years when analyzing the problematic points, which confirms the datas validity.

Although, this study has a bias at this point, which concerns its relevance. Therefore, the analyzed data from the years 1980 and 1990, in most cases, are no longer relevant; for example, Poland has become a European state and did not participate in the large-scale trafficking of drugs.

Realuyo (2019) uses data from government and international reports, so it is accurate, relevant, and valid. Thus, the author can estimate the potential heroin production in Mexico and the fight against it. The production is 81 metric tons, and Mexican forces seized about 13 metric tons of cocaine and 26 metric tons of methamphetamine. Thus, this data suggests that the fight against the drug business through unity of effort with the United States is successful. However, the studies are not biased; therefore, the author used reliable and up-to-date and performed a proper analysis. It should be noted that all three studies analyze reliable data and focus on different aspects of combating the problem. Their disadvantage is that the authors need to prescribe sound solutions for tackling the drug business. Therefore, further studies need to provide recommendations in a sectoral way.

Ethical Consequences

It is significant to note that increased international scrutiny will reduce the pressure on the courts in the United States. Thus, judges can pay more attention to cases that are now commenced and harmonize practice on the issue of incomplete crimes (Dabb, 2021).

This is because most of the cases that could entail statutory violations will manifest themselves before the crimes are committed. The negative consequence of the proposed solution is that cooperative efforts at the international level may not be affected by globalization (Storti & De Grauwe, 2009). That is, the drug business can be significant and needs to be eradicated from within states. On the positive side, the ethical implications will prepare a superior judicial system to impose fair punishments. At the same time, the public will spread the word of a serious fight against drugs, which would deter small traders. On the negative side, big business will continue to grow and will encourage corruption and bribery of officials through significant funds.

Conclusion

Therefore, to successfully combat the development of the illicit drug trade, it is essential to combine efforts at the international level. Accordingly, assembling the forefathers of states that have problems with the consequences of the drug business will highlight regional difficulties and work together to combat them. Moreover, this will lead to the fact that they will make a strong effort to prevent drug trafficking in certain regions. In this way, it will reduce the burden on the bodies that fight drug trafficking within the state that has entered their territory.

References

Dabb, N. L. (2021). The United States Sentencing Commission attempts to expand the career offender guideline: The addition of inchoate offense to the definition of controlled substance offense. Iowa Law Review, 107, 1745.

Flynn, S. E. (2000). Drug trafficking, the international system, and decision-making constraints: A policy-making simulation. International Studies Perspectives, 1(1), 45-55.

Jenner, M. S. (2011). International drug trafficking: A global problem with a domestic solution. Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies, 18(2), 901-927.

Lee III, R. W. (1995). Global reach: The threat of international drug trafficking. Current History, 94(592), 207.

Srubar, B. (2015). Breaking bad policy: Shifting US counter-drug policy, eliminating safe havens, and facilitating international cooperation. Houston Journal of International Law, 37, 197.

Storti, C. C., & De Grauwe, P. (2009). Globalization and the price decline of illicit drugs. International Journal of Drug Policy, 20(1), 48-61.

United States: Whitehouse Applauds Biden Orders Tackling Transnational Organized Crime, Narcotics Trafficking. And Illicit Finance (2021). Mena Report. Web.

Introduction

Drug consumption constitutes a major global problem that is also acute in the United States. There are different approaches to combat drug consumption, but one may distinguish two polarizing types: drug prohibition and harm reduction policies. In general, these two classical approaches outline distinctive philosophical worldviews about attitudes toward addicted people and addiction in general. The former means a strict legislature on the trade and storage of illegal substances, making drug circulation harder. The latter concentrates on methods of reducing harm from drug consumption while softening legislation for consumption and storage.

Background

Drug abuse has become a crucial issue on the agenda in the 1970s. In 1971, US President Richard Nixon declared drug consumption as public enemy number one (as cited in Exum, 2018, p. 941). In the 21st century, the US still has some awful numbers concerning overdose deaths because of opioids: in 2017, in the US, the overdose mortality ratio was ten times higher than in the European Union (European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, 2019). The target group of these problems in the US is vulnerable people, especially minorities (Kaliszewski, 2022). These people are usually young and inexperienced, so they may easily get an overdose or HIV infection. Therefore, it is a really acute problem that needs a systematic response.

Prohibition-based policies build on harsher attitudes towards the drug trade, targeting it as a challenge to national security and health. This approach gives law enforcement agencies more authority on drug control, which was aimed mainly at reducing drug use. Theoretically, the introduced ban on drug use decreases the number of users, as it is more difficult to get drugs because there are fewer drug dealers and the price is high.

Harm reduction has gained popularity only recently, especially under the active movement of liberal scholars. It is a pragmatic approach to reduce the negative consequences of drug use implemented with the active partnership of users (Owczarzak et al., 2020). The common strategies include needle and syringe programs, HIV testing, safe injection facilities, opioid substitution treatment, and many other similar strategies (Kluczewska & Korneev, 2021). Given the possibility of increased HIV transmission, some policymakers have decided to use a harm reduction approach.

Pros and Cons of Both Approaches

The major benefit of the prohibitionist approach is that strict laws discourage people from experimenting with illicit drugs, including youngsters, which are vulnerable to the drug market. The fear of prison sentences should make people afraid of buying any kind of illegal substance. However, these pros can be easily overlapped by the outcomes of the campaign. Scholars emphasize that Nixons and Reagans stance on drugs resulted in the militarization of police and disproportionate pressure on minority groups (Ghiabi, 2019). Thus, it seems there should be a clear strategy for setting restrictions if the government decides to pursue a prohibition-based policy.

As for the harm reduction approach, the problem is that it is often unwelcomed by the population. In practice, it is regarded as an effective strategy that diminishes the distribution of HIV, hepatitis C, and tuberculosis (Owczarzak et al., 2020). Nevertheless, these policies break the well-established global regime of narcotics control. As Rushton (2018) indicates, the 1961 UN Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs and some further treaties established the rule of the game, based on the fight against drug flows. In addition, some conservatives may disregard harm reduction because it is discursively framed as the legalization of free uncontrolled drug consumption.

Personal Position and Evidence

After extensive consideration of both sides, it seems that the harm reduction policies are incompatible with the prohibitionist approach, so transnational organizations and media should soften the suspicion towards harm reduction. Organizations like the World Health Organization and Global Fund, and media such as the Washington Post, New York Times, and others have access to the audience and international actors, so their contribution may be beneficial.

The major reason why harm reduction should replace prohibition-based policies is the deteriorating situation with the penitentiary system. The reason is that the US has the highest prison population globally (International Center for Prison Studies, 2018), and 40% of US drug arrests in 2018 were because of marijuana possession (Gramlich, 2020). The academic community disregards such harsh punishments for minors and marijuana possession because it breaks drug users links with health and social services (Csete, 2020). In addition, the large prison population of drug users creates an environment that is very prone to infectious disease infections, such as HIV and hepatitis C (Csete, 2020). Thus, the prohibition-based approach may have disastrous effects in the American context.

Conclusion

To sum up, this essay focused on the critical discussion about the appropriate policies to combat drug addiction in the US. While some argue that the government should fully restrict the drug trade and use harsher methods against drug dealers, others adhere to the pragmatic view that authorities should assist addicted people. This essay concluded that harm reduction policies should prevail because they cannot coexist with prohibitionist practices, which lead to stigmatization and an increased prison population.

References

Csete, J. (2020). More harm than public health in drug policy? A comment. In J. Buxton, M. Chinery-Hesse & K. Tinasti (Eds.), Drug policies and development (pp. 261273). Brill Nijhoff.

Exum, J. J. (2018). From warfare to welfare: Reconceptualizing drug sentencing during the opioid crisis. Kansas Law Review, 67, 941-959. Web.

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. (2019). Drug-related deaths and mortality in Europe: Update from the EMCDDA expert network. Publications Office of the European Union. Web.

Gabi, M. (2019). Lessons on the drug war from an enemy. Current History, 118(811), 322324. Web.

Gramlich, J. (2020). Four-in-ten U.S. drug arrests in 2018 were for marijuana offenses  mostly possession. Pew Research Center. Web.

International Center for Prison Studies. (2018). Highest to lowest  prison population total. World Prison Brief. Web.

Kluczewska, K., & Korneev, O. (2021). Policy translation in global health governance: Localising harm reduction in Tajikistan. Global Social Policy, 21(1), 75-95. Web.

Owczarzak, J., Weicker, N., Urquhart, G., Morris, M., Park, J. N., & Sherman, S. G. (2020). We know the streets: race, place, and the politics of harm reduction. Health & Place, 64, 1-8. Web.

Rushton, S. (2018). Promoting pro-health policies across regimes: Global AIDS institutions and the harm reduction debate. Global Governance, 24(2), 267-286. Web.

In response to serious opioid issues, Canada decided to introduce the decriminalization of the possession of heavy drugs in its particular territories. According to the government, this measure will help release the burden of the justice system and concentrate on health and the ways of its promotion within the framework of the prevention of drug use. Analyzing the rationale of this decision, this work aims to provide arguments against it. In other words, the decriminalization of heavy drugs is an inefficient measure for the prevention of their use as it deals with the consequences of this issue rather than its major causes, such as inadequate health practices, poor education, and economic and social inequities.

The growing rates of opioid use disorder (OUD) and the number of opioid-related deaths have become one of the most disturbing issues in the healthcare system of Canada. According to Belzak and Halverson, while the opioid crisis has affected every region of the country, western Canada (British Columbia and Alberta) and the northern territories (Yukon and Northwest Territories) have experienced the highest-burden (224). In British Colombia, probably the most affected province, in 1993, the number of opioid-related deaths did not exceed 330; however, in 2017, there was an increase of 400% with 1473 deaths (Fischer et al. 81). In response to this devastating situation, the government decided to focus on health care excluding opioid-related problem from the competency of the justice system.

Thus, starting January 31, 2023, an exemption from the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act will be implemented in British Colombia for three years. According to it, individuals (18 years and older) will not be arrested or charged for possessing small amounts of certain illegal drugs for personal use. The total amount of illegal drug(s) must be equal to or less than 2.5 grams (British Colombia par. 5).

These drugs include opioids, methamphetamine, cocaine, and MDMA; at the same time, their traffic, purchasing, and use in public places remain illegal. According to lawmakers, the criminalization of these drugs possession cannot improve the problem associated with opioid misuse. Moreover, it contributes to more negative consequences  the legal punishment of drug users will not prevent them from drug misuse. However, incarceration and its consequences may create additional social issues.

At the same time, the analysis of the situation shows multiple factors that should be addressed in order to minimize the rates of opioid misuse rather than deal with its consequences. Thus, according to Fischer et al., in the 1990s, overdose deaths were primarily from combined heroin and cocaine injecting of drug users with HIV (81). However, later, Canada increased the prescription of opioids and other heavy drugs for medical use, implementing and expanding opioid substitution treatment and supervised consumption sites. That is why since the early 1980s, the volume of opioids sold to hospitals and pharmacies for prescriptions in Canada has increased by more than 3000% (Belzak and Halverson 225). At the same time, the organization of research and investments in medical science for the identification or creation of safer substituents of opioids for patients with cancer or mental health issues could minimize the prescription of opioids and their potential misuse.

While the decriminalization of opioid use aims to promote safe supply and decrease the popularity of the illegal market, medical prescription does not prevent non-patients from drug abuse. There are multiple routes of opioid supply for non-medical use, including prescription-related fraud and forgery, double doctoring, Internet purchases, robberies and thefts, and street drug markets. In addition, according to Health Canada, the most common source of opioids used without a prescription was a family member  in other words, prescribed opioids may be shared among relatives (Belzak and Halverson 225). In addition, the mixing of drugs and alcohol consumption is an additional factors in opioid-related deaths. In turn, the education of citizens, along with the spread of awareness related to the negative consequences of drug use, could prevent its potential misuse in non-patients.

Finally, opioid misuse is connected with other serious social issues, such as racism, discrimination, and poverty. As multiple research states, homeless individuals and First Nations populations across the country are heavily impacted by high rates of problematic substance use (Belzak and Halverson 226). In addition, adolescents are highly vulnerable to opioid misuse as well. In these cases, addiction and associated consequences are caused by economic, educational, and employment issues, along with the stigmatization of asking for help and the absence of reliable assistance. In other words, due to structural racism connected with unemployment, poverty, unavailability of health care, mental health illnesses, and the absence of culturally competent health care providers, people are involved in drug use and potential misuse. Thus, paying attention to other social issues for the improvement of peoples welfare may prevent opioid issues more efficiently than drug decriminalization.

All in all, it is possible to say that the idea of help as the basis of decriminalization may be regarded as right  the punishment of drug users may create more challenges than solve the problem of drug misuse. However, it is not efficient as it does not address the main factors of drug misuse, including social, educational, health care, and economic issues that exist in society. In turn, the improvement of peoples well-being, the spread of awareness concerning the harmful effects of drugs for non-patients, and the absence of stigmatization of their medical use will genuinely decrease the seriousness of the current situation.

Works Cited

Belzak, Lisa, and Jessica Halverson. Evidence Synthesis-The Opioid Crisis in Canada: A National Perspective. Health Promotion and Chronic Disease Prevention in Canada: Research, Policy and Practice, vol. 38, no. 6, 2018, pp. 224-233.

British Colombia. Decriminalizing People Who Use Drugs in B.C. British Colombia. 2022. Web.

Fischer, Benedikt, et al. The Opioid Death Crisis in Canada: Crucial Lessons for Public Health. The Lancet Public Health, vol. 4, no. 2, 2019, pp. 81-82.

The increasing problem of illicit drug use worldwide required some countries to introduce special maintenance programs for people with addiction. For example, the United Kingdom initiated needle exchange and oral methadone replacement therapy in the 1970s to combat the expansion of infections among drug users (MacGregor 220). For example, methadone replacement therapy is part of opioid maintenance treatment (OMT) prescribed to people with opioid addiction (Shapira et al. 2). Healthcare in the UK is free because it is financially supported by taxation; thus, OMT is available to everyone as part of the public intervention (Kalk et al. 184). An additional reason to continue this program was HIV/AIDS epidemic in the 1980s when the government further encouraged the intensification of needle-exchange services and opiate replacement therapy to stop the infection from spreading among injection-drug users (Kalk et al. 186). Indeed, HIV transmission due to needle sharing reduced from 55% to 20% in the 1990s (Kalk et al. 187). Addictive drug maintenance programs are moral from the standpoints of utility, rights, and ethics of care; however, OMT should be tightly supervised to achieve abstinence among a more significant number of people with addiction.

Utilitarian ethics claims that actions are right if they result in happiness in a group of individuals. The United Kingdoms policy of maintenance programs for drug users promotes gradual and less painful rehabilitation. Therefore, from the utility ethics perspective, this program can be considered morally right. This policy fosters happiness for the groups of drug users, and it is beneficial for society. For example, the number of crimes associated with illicit drug use dropped by 75%, and overall involvement in criminal acts among users decreased by 50% (Kalk et al. 192). Many addicted people search for additional doses or replacements for the drugs, which results in thievery, robbery, murder, and other crimes. Therefore, the legalization of drug replacement therapy as a medical service reduces unlawful acts, creating an advantage for drug users and society.

Access to healthcare is a fundamental human right regardless of a persons social background. Addiction is a psychiatric disease that results from alterations in brain chemistry, causing constant drug-seeking behavior (MacGregor 217). As mentioned previously, the UK maintenance program for drug users is provided by general practitioners as part of a free medical service. From the legal perspective, this program is moral because it gives people in need access to the fundamental human right to health, helping them to overcome addiction and prevent infections associated with injection drug use. Moreover, the citizens have the right to security; thus, the government should focus on crime reduction to ensure safety for people. For example, in England, the National Treatment Outcomes Study identified that about 30,000 crimes associated with illicit drug use were registered several months before the maintenance program was started (Kalk et al. 192). A significant reduction of felonies after the implementation of OMT indicates improved safety for civilians.

Ethics of care claims that people should take collective responsibility for those in need. Therefore, from a care ethics perspective, the legalization of OMT in the United Kingdom is moral because it ensures supporting people with psychiatric illnesses. Furthermore, treatment for addiction in the UK is not simple detoxification from drugs because this program also includes a long-term rehabilitation program that allows overdose risk reduction and achieving abstinence (Kalk et al. 195). This cooperative help to people with addiction is a benevolent act for the good of society.

The criticism of the UK maintenance program for drug users claims that this policy is unethical. The idea of the immorality of this program was further reinforced by the media representation (MacGregor 226). The opponents of this policy state that some replacement drugs, like methadone, are more addictive than illegal substances, resulting in a delay in proper recovery for users (Kalk et al. 193). Nevertheless, data from scientific reports show a significant improvement in infectious disease prevention among injection drug users after the initiation of needle exchange and oral opiate replacement therapy (Kalk et al. 196). Furthermore, crime reduction was achieved with a maintenance program, resulting in monetary benefit for the country by saving three pounds on crime for every pound spent on treatment (Kalk et al. 192). However, the healthcare workers who provide a prescription for replacement therapy should supervise these patients for appropriate and moderate use of the drugs substitution.

Overall, the UKs maintenance program for illicit drug users can be viewed as a practical action that provides care to patients with addiction and supports the universal human right to health and safety. Implementing this policy resulted in illegal drug-related felony reduction, ensuring security for the civilians; it also decreased HIV/AIDS transmission among injection-drug users. However, replacement therapy is addictive and does not solve the nature of the problem. Therefore, the prescription of these drugs should be carefully monitored to prevent overdose, and proper rehabilitation programs should be obligatory for drug users to achieve complete abstinence.

References

Kalk, Nicola J., et al. Treatment and Intervention for Opiate Dependence in the United Kingdom: Lessons from Triumph and Failure. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, vol. 24, no. 2, 2018, pp. 183-200.

MacGregor, Susanne. Drug Policy in the United Kingdom. European Drug Policies: The Ways of Reform, edited by Renaud Colson and Henri Bergeron, Routledge, 2017, pp. 217-237.

Shapira, Barak, et al. The Switch from One Substance-of-Abuse to Another: Illicit Drug Substitution Behaviors in a Sample of High-Risk Drug Users. PeerJ, no. 8, 2020, pp. 1-25.

Introduction

For the majority of people, using drugs is a way of having fun and relaxing. However, it is vital to understand that there are individuals for whom drug use is not entertainment, but rather a method to escape various psychological issues, curiosity, or therapeutic reasoning (Reasons why people use drugs, n. d., para. 1). Psychological reasons include mental health problems, troubles at home, at work, or other people, individual reactions, and surroundings influence. In the current paper, different reasons why people use drugs will be discovered and classification of types of drug use will be considered.

Main body

People use drugs because of various reasons and in different frequencies. Besides, it is essential to understand that a substantially low number of people develop serious drug addiction issues (Why do people use alcohol and other drugs? 2017, para. 5). It should be stated that there is a precise classification of types of drug use. The first type implies practical use, which is a simple curiosity of a person. These kinds of people usually try a substance once or twice in their lives. The second category is recreational use, which means that an individual uses drugs occasionally for fun and socialization purposes. In this case, it is uncommon to develop a severe addiction. The third type refers to situational use, which implies that people occasionally use a particular substance (Why do people use alcohol and other drugs? 2017, para. 6). It is done to overcome shyness, under peer pressure, to combat a stressful situation, or for similar reasons.

Another type is called intensive use or bingeing, which means that an individual decides to consume a large amount of a substance over a relatively short period, as several hours, days, or weeks. There are many reasons behind the destructive behavior, but usually, it is connected to psychological issues. The fifth type is dependent use, which refers to a situation when an individual becomes dependent on a substance after taking it for a prolonged period or in large quantities. Such an individual needs the drug regularly, as it allows him or her to feel comfortable and to avoid withdrawal syndrome. The last category of drug use is therapeutic, which implies that an individual takes a particular drug for medical purposes with a doctors permission (Why do people use alcohol and other drugs? 2017, para. 6). It should be noted that this type of drug use does not eliminate a possible addiction to a substance.

Not all the above-discussed reasons why people use drugs imply that those individuals become addicted to substances. However, those who fall into regular substance use usually escape some kind of psychological issues, including mental health problems, troubles at home, at work, or with other people, individual biology, or peers influence (The science of drug use, 2020, para. 13). This kind of psychological reason for drug use usually requires medical attention, as it is relatively complicated to quit substances without professional help.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it should be noted that drug use does not become a severe issue for most people, as they take substances to have fun. However, there are some other types of substance use, as intensive and dependent categories, who face dangerous consequences of such behavior. These types are usually associated with psychological issues when a substance becomes a way to escape a particular unbearable condition for an individual.

Reference List

Reasons why people use drugs (n. d.)

The science of drug use (2020).

Why do people use alcohol and other drugs? (2017).

Abstract

Intensive development of foreign economic relations, a significant increase in the number of their participants, and the changes in customs policy in the context of the emergence of a market economy require the customs services to ensure high-performance, effective customs control of goods, vehicles, and belongings of people traveling across the state border. One of the defining integral elements in the daily inspection work of customs operatives is their use of technical means of control, without which it is now impossible to ensure the timeliness, quality, and culture of control at the border. The operational tasks of the customs services, requiring the use of technical means of customs control, are fundamental for understanding the role and place of the operational activities in the customs services. The issue is worth discussing, thus, the given paper will consider the use of electron bremsstrahlung for customs control of drugs at the border.

Introduction

High efficiency of control is achieved by the complex application of technical means in each specific area of customs control. For checking each kind of object moved across the state border, certain types of technical means must be used. Good knowledge of operational and technical capabilities, modern techniques and methods of their application, mastering practical skills of working with them can ensure a high professional level of customs control, starting with a reasonable calculation of duties and ending with the identification of contraband items.

Technical means of customs control is a complex of special means used by services directly in the process of operational control of all types of objects moved across the border. Objects are understood as hand baggage and accompanied luggage of passengers and transport employees, all types of cargo, international mail, international transport vehicles, and, in exceptional cases, specific people (when there are sufficient grounds to believe that they are carriers of contraband goods). Technical means of control are a necessary weapon for operational workers of the customs service, the use of which ensures the economic and state security of the country. The given paper will discuss the use of electron bremsstrahlung for control of drugs at the border.

Impact of Radiation

Scanning is safe for those who cross the border; the consequences may arise for people working with these devices. In medical practice, for hazardous working conditions, specialists who work with radiation receive various wage increases. For a person who undergoes an X-ray screening procedure once a month, it is not dangerous if he or she is outside the vehicle during scanning (Ivashova & Kiida, 2019). As a rule, two people always work at the inspection complexes, and one of them must take the driver and passengers outside the radiation exposure into a safe zone. The equipment is tested annually, and a special examination protocol is issued.

The main processes of interaction of X-ray radiation with a substance at the energy of quanta of the electromagnetic field (photons) less than 106 eV are photoelectric absorption and scattering. In this case, the physics of phenomena is completely adequate to the physics of the formation of X-ray radiation. Photoelectric absorption of X-ray radiation occurs when X-ray photons interact with atoms of a substance. Photons hitting atoms knock electrons from the inner shell of the atom. In this case, the primary photon completely spends its energy to overcome the binding energy of the electron in the atom and imparts kinetic energy to the electron. As a result of the energy rearrangement of the atom, which occurs after the emission of a photoelectron from the atom, characteristic X-ray radiation is formed, which, when interacting with other atoms, can cause a secondary photoelectric effect.

This process will continue until the photon energy becomes less than the binding energy of electrons in the atom. It is very important to note that the process of attenuation of radiation when passing through a substance depends not only on the energy of photons and the wavelength of radiation but also on the atomic number of the substance in which photoelectric absorption occurs (Jakubassa-Amundsen, 2018). The scattered radiation generated when passing through a substance is due to the fact that under the action of an electric field the electrons receive an alternating acceleration. As a result, they themselves emit electromagnetic waves with a frequency that coincides with the frequency of the primary radiation and the changed direction of radiation (the so-called coherent scattering) or due to the interaction of photons with free or weakly bound electrons of an atom of a substance (Kuniev & Bielova, 2019). Thus, as a result of photoelectric absorption of X-ray radiation in the substance and scattering, part of the energy of the primary radiation remains in the form of characteristic and scattered radiation, part of the energy is absorbed, and part is converted into the energy of charged particles  electrons.

Operation

Within 5-15 minutes, without opening and unloading the vehicle, customs officers receive an image of the vehicle and the goods transported in it. The inspection complex has doubled the speed of checking cars that pass the customs. Specialists work outside the sanitary zone; there is practically no radioactive radiation in the field. Employees are provided with personal dosimeters with which they can monitor the level of radiation. In practice, the process is the following: a truck or a passenger car drives into a spacious box with a scanning device. A customs officer checks the image of the insides of the car on the monitor.

X-rays transmitted through an object or substance are attenuated to varying degrees depending on the density distribution of their material. Thus, it carries information about the internal structure of the object, forms an X-ray image of the translucent object, which is then converted into an adequate optical image perceived by the operators eyes. The resulting scattered radiation does not carry information about the internal structure of the object and only worsens the quality of the formed image. The main requirements for X-ray image converters are maximum information content of the X-ray image at the lowest possible absorbed dose of radiation by the translucent object and optimal conversion of the X-ray image into an optical one, which ensures that the operator receives the maximum information contained in the shadow X-ray image.

The quality of an X-ray image is mainly determined, by contrast, brightness, non-sharpness, and resolution. The lower the level of scattered radiation, the higher the image contrast (Mahmoo, 2019). Real radiation sources produce a diverging beam of rays emerging from the focal spot of the anode of the X-ray tube, and the intensity of the X-ray radiation decreases in inverse proportion to the square of the distance from the focus of the X-ray tube. To obtain a higher radiation intensity in the plane of the observation screen and, therefore, higher brightness of the screen glow at a given X-ray tube power, it is advantageous to bring the focus of the tube and the screen as close as possible to the object under study. However, depending on the distance from the focus of the tube to the surface of the translucent object and from the surface of the object to the X-ray image converter (screen), distortion of geometric relationships occurs in the shadow X-ray image: structures of the same size, located at different distances to the focus of the X-ray tube are significantly different by the shape and area of the shadow. Since the size of the focal spot of the tube has a finite value, the transition from the highest image brightness to the area of full shadow occurs gradually  instead of a sharp border, a transitional penumbra region is formed. The contrast that provides a given probability of detecting an object is usually called the threshold contrast (Singh et al., 2015). This parameter is significant because practically the operator does not know where and when the forbidden object will appear in his field of vision.

Types Application

The brightness of the image, in addition to the power of the X-ray source, depends to a large extent on the properties of the used X-ray screens and detectors, which are characterized by rather high parameters of the energy output of luminescence, a high level of absorption and a high coefficient of spectral compliance with the human eye. Resolution is the ability to give clear, separate images of two small objects close to each other. The resolution limit is called the smallest linear (for X-ray inspection equipment) or angular distance between two objects, starting from which their images merge. In practice, it is customary to estimate the value of the resolution by the number of lines per 1 mm, and the thickness of the lines is equal to the thickness of the intervals between them.

Customs authorities began to be equipped with this type of X-ray inspection camera at the end of the 70s. At that time, samples of fluoroscopes were presented on the market, meeting the requirements of the organization and the technology of customs control. The Rapiscan 522 X-ray screening system is designed for use at airports to screen hand luggage and baggage carried by passengers on board an aircraft. Rapiscan 526 is the next generation of X-ray inspection systems. The ergonomic, durable, and reliable control panel allows an operator to easily control the inspection system, as well as select the desired parameters for image acquisition and processing. Implementation of the image processing unit in the form of a mono-board made it possible to significantly reduce the connections, which provides a higher reliability of the unit; post-processing technology ensures high image quality.

Conclusion

It is possible to state that the operational tasks of the customs services requiring the use of technical means of customs control are fundamental for understanding the role and place of the operational activities in the customs services. It can be concluded that despite the noticeable successes of customs authorities in organizing control using technical means, this direction of control is now in the process of being improved; vigilance and adherence to principles are required from the customs control authorities. Only in this case it will be possible to achieve tangible results, as well as to reduce and prevent illegal export and import of drugs and other objects of control at the customs.

References

Ivashova, L. M., & Kiida, L. I. (2019). Digitalization of customs procedures: The current situation and prospects of customs development.Public Administration and Customs Administration, 3, 218230. Web.

Jakubassa-Amundsen, D. H. (2018). Electron-electron-photon polarization correlations in high-energy bremsstrahlung.Physical Review A, 98(6). Web.

Kuniev, Yu. D., & Bielova, D. S. (2019). The customs procedure customs warehouse: Theoretical aspects.Legal Position, 2, 6069. Web.

Mahmoo, R. (2019). Cross-border electronic commerce: Challenges for customs administrations and the way forward.Customs Scientific Journal, 2, 1635. Web.

Singh, T., Kahlon, K. S., & Dhaliwal, A. S. (2015). Role of polarization Bremsstrahlung in the formation of thick target Bremsstrahlung spectra in the energy range of 5-10 keV.X-Ray Spectrometry, 41(3), 172175. Web.

Introduction

Many religions, mostly polytheistic alone, have the concept that the existing reality along with the universe is a place or path in which nature, humans, gods, and various spirits coexist in a cycle of eternal rebirth. Although such a mythical neighborhood is much closer in polytheism than in Abrahamic and other monotheistic faiths like Zoroastrianism, this spiritual linkage is not enough for those looking for genuine and native faith. People whose community role is priesthood or shamanism and just curious enthusiasts have already been looking for ways to start a dialogue with their deities via mind-altering substances in ancient Egyptian times. According to Lawler (2018), substances less well known today may have played a role in healing or ecstatic rituals in the ancient Near East (para. 11). However, one can hear nowadays that drug use should be removed from rite practices and spiritual guidance, and this opinion has significant ethical, scientific, and theological justifications. Drug-taking is a necessary element of spiritual guidance, and forbidding it is impermissible as it will lead to the erosion of native cultures and ethnic mindsets.

An Argument for Drug-Taking in Spiritual Guidance

Needed Preliminary Clarifications and Explanations

A good starting point for developing the proving argument stated above would be clarifying the concepts of spiritual guidance and drug use. Many shamans and practicing believers, such as Dirk Wolf (2019), identify spiritual guidance as the process and experience of receiving wisdom from the divine (para. 5). One needs to mention that drugs mean hallucinogens in this paper since it is this category of chemical compounds that religious practitioners have always included in rituals throughout human civilization (Hallucinogens drugfacts, 2021). According to health professionals, hallucinogens are a diverse group of drugs that alter a persons awareness of their surroundings as well as their own thoughts and feelings (Hallucinogens drugfacts, para. 1, 2021). These terminological explanations and descriptions are necessary to provide clarity on the lexicon used in the proving argument section presented below.

Substance Use as a Pillar of Religious Tradition

The proving argument about the need for the presence of the drug-taking procedure in spiritual guidance, which will be described below, is a complex one, and each of its segments can be considered a separate point in a thematic debate. It is no secret that any ritual is both a performed sequence of elements of the verbal, tactile, and intellectual traditions of a specific culture and a cumulative tradition by itself. For example, drinking wine was both the foundation of the food culture of the ancient Greeks and a particular method of exalting Dionysus (Clark & the Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, n.d.). To simplify even more, taking drugs in the course of a priestly or shamanistic rite has the same or similar conceptual and cultural value as taking sacramental wine and bread in Christianity. For those who take substances for religious purposes, the goal is not to achieve relaxing disturbances in the nervous system and body chemistry but to recreate, preserve, and propagate the traditional practices of their theological and ethnic ancestors.

The exclusion of this procedure from tradition directly destroys the culture, leading to a historical trauma similar to that experienced by Hawaiians and many other non-European indigenous communities (Williams et al., 2019). Removing it would begin the loss of sacral, prehistoric meaning and knowledge. In the case of spiritual guidance, this would make it impossible for believers and their leaders to contact, communicate, and cognize gods and other culturally critical spiritual entities. Interruption of religious traditions, especially those that have already been negatively and irrevocably affected by Western colonial and Christian ideological influences, is unethical and destructive even due to medical concerns.

Drug Use in Spiritual Guidance as Temporal Lenses

As mentioned above, shamans and other top representatives of the polytheistic cultic and religious communities resort to the use of drugs to find a direct channel for communication with gods and spirits and cognition of them. Through altered thought processes and perceptions, they and other believers are able to perceive, feel and make sense of the world in much the same way that their theological ancestors did millennia ago (Williams et al., 2019). Therefore, accurate spiritual guidance is authentic and effective only when intergenerational communication is established through hallucinogens.

Another explanatory parallel with the Abrahamic faiths can be drawn here. The shortly described cognition process is similar to how modern Christians become aware of their religious pioneers through the Testaments (Paauw, 2018). Many native communities also have their own records of mythology, spiritualism, and rituals. Still, their problem lies in their lost genuine authenticity due to former colonial influence, and, as a result, old recipes remain the only option for maintaining religious continuity. The ban on drug use would lead not only to the destruction of tradition but also to the interruption of ethnic continuity and the degradation of such religions.

An Argument against Drug-Taking in Spiritual Guidance

The most expected argument to come from the opponent team would be that human life carries far more critical value than any practice, even one as socially decisive as tradition. It is not about the rapid drugs damage to the health of their long-term negative manifestations in the human body but rather about the accidental deaths that insufficiently tested substances sometimes lead to. The case of Henry Miller is a tragic and mournful example of the incompetent use of unchecked rite substances, 2018). Only living persons can maintain and pass on traditional and ritual practices, and if taking away drug use from practiced rites provides this condition, it must be removed. The essence of the ban is to keep both people and fundamental societal norms that they need existing, developing, and prospering.

Conclusion

This paper develops a two-pronged argument for a group of proponents defending the use of mind-altering chemical substances of natural origin in religious ritual practices as spiritual guidance. The pillars of this argument were ethical reasoning, historical data, religious comparisons, and personal logical inferences. The core of the opponent teams alleged counterargument consists of appeals to logos and pathos. Online written sources of diverse nature were explored and analyzed while creating a logical justification of a given socio-relevant topic.

Interestingly, this dilemma has almost equal stakes on the two sides. First, it is a tradition of mostly small indigenous religious communities that both groups of supporters would protect. The other two are the authentic living style that Team Pro would advocate for and the literal human lives that Team Con would defend. The question arises about the adequacy of applying Western, post-Christian, European, and Abrahamic perspectives on theological issues of such type and narrow category.

References

Clark, W. H., & the Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (n.d.). History of drug use in religion. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web.

Hallucinogens drugfacts. (2021). National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA). Web.

Henry Miller died in gap year Colombian tribal ritual. (2018). BBC News. Web.

Lawler, A. (2018). Did ancient Mesopotamians get high? Near Eastern rituals may have included opium, cannabis. Science. Web.

Paauw, G. (2018). Communal Reading in the time of Jesus: How did the first Christians learn the Bible?Institute for Bible Reading. Web.

Williams, I. L., Makini, G. K., & Rezentes III, W. C. (2021). Indigenous Hawaiian psychoactive drug use: Before European contact, and after 1778. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 53(2), 111-126. Web.

Wolf, D. (2019). 10 powerful ways to receive spiritual guidance. Guy Counseling. Web.

Abstract

This paper investigates the problem of Mexican drug cartels provoking a significant level of violence in the country and the consequences of the War on Drugs. The information used to analyze the topic of the paper includes peer-reviewed articles and books studying the main specifics of the problem. The paper presents a careful examination of the current research on the problem and the analysis of the findings gained during the process of studying the available sources presenting relevant information about the specifics of the issue.

The examination of the current research on Mexican drug cartels and the War on Drugs helps to understand the causes of the outburst of violence, define the major tendencies of the Mexican War on Drugs and its drawbacks, and suggest potential solutions able to change the course of events and reduce the unprecedented level of violence caused by the activity of drug cartels in the country.

The twentieth century brought an unprecedented development of drug business all over the world. As the United States is considered one of the biggest consumers of drugs, some of its neighboring countries are involved in continuous process of delivering marijuana, cocaine, heroin, crystal meth, and other drugs to the US. Mexico witnessed the extension of drug-trafficking organizations and faced the problem of dealing with them in the twentieth century.

The proclaimed War on Drugs has gained some significant results but has not succeeded in stopping the growth of narco-business. Careful examination of current research on the problem of drug cartels, their violence in Mexico, and the mistakes of the War on Drugs helps to identify the main causes of the current situation, analyze them, and suggest potential solutions able to reduce the violence and correct the previous mistakes of the war.

Examination of Current Research of Mexican Drug War

The violence of Mexican drug cartels and the War on Drugs are one of the most urgent topics in Mexico and the United States as they directly influence both countries.

Therefore, the research on the causes of the war, its main specifics, the factors influencing the actions of drug cartels, and the possible solutions to the problem is of vital importance, as appropriate studies can help to identify major tendencies, propose the ways of dealing with current situation, and suggest the methods for avoiding the repeat of violent events.

The modern sources include various articles and books investigating the discussed issue. The examination of current research on Mexican drug cartels and the War on Drugs helps to determine certain contributions of the researchers to revealing the causes of the critical situation and possible ways out.

There are many articles shedding the light on the course of events in the Mexican War on Drugs. Articles exploring the history of the drug business in Mexico help to understand the origins of war in this country. Grillo (2013) presents a well-developed investigation on the relations between the development of drug cartels in Mexico and the United States policy. The author explores the history of drug cartels in Mexico through the prism of a hundred years of U.S. drug policy.

The author presents an analysis of the events starting from the beginning of the twentieth century when opium was banned in the United States, and numerous opium smugglers appeared in Mexico. The prohibition of alcohol is examined as another event that boosted Mexican smuggling networks.

The author also investigates the transition from marijuana to cocaine cartels. After providing the proper analysis of the historical background, Grillo (2013) presents numerous factors that can explain the explosion of violence leading to the Mexican War on Drugs. The author also emphasizes the importance of innovations in the United States policy for the success of struggle against narco-terrorism.

Another category of articles helps to discover the most influential events of the Mexican War on Drugs and their impact on different spheres of national and international communities. Kellner and Pipitone (2010) present a careful investigation of the events that shaped the course of the Mexican War on Drugs.

The authors start with the analysis of relations between Colombias successful war on the Cali and Medellin drug cartels and the escalation of drug cartels violence in Mexico. The examination of the events at 1990s and at the beginning of the new millennium helps to understand their potential contribution to the beginning of full-scale war between several drug cartels and further development of war between the members of drug business and the governmental forces.

Kellner and Pipitone (2010) give information about the countrys largest cartels  the Sinaloa gang and the Gulf Cartel, revealing the development of rivalry between them and the causes of the polices attempts to stop the violence. The authors provide the analysis of the activities launched by Felipe Calderon to fight back the drug cartels and compare his strategy to the one that was used in Columbia. Besides, the authors emphasize the lack of help provided by the United States to assist the fight against narco-terrorism.

Studies analyzing the causes of the Mexican War on Drugs and the factors that helped narco-business to become one of the dominant powers in the country are also of vital importance as such research helps to define the barriers that should be eliminated to make the struggle against drug business successful. Campbell (2014) presents a detailed investigation of the narco-propaganda as one of the main factors promoting the strength of drug cartels domination in Mexico.

The author explores the specifics of the main types of narco-propaganda. He starts with analyzing the spectacles of violence for public view as the first tool used by the drug business. Narco-messages present another type of propaganda and include signs, graffiti, and manifestos in public places. Videos and narco-genres of music are examined as another group of methods used by drug cartels to provide effective propaganda.

Control and censorship of the mass media and information by drug cartels in Mexico is investigated by the author as the major threat to freedom of word in the country and the factor creating corresponding attitudes in the society. The author emphasizes the devastating effects of aggressive politics of drug cartels aimed at controlling all means of informing the public about their crimes. Campbells study on propaganda of drug cartels contributes to providing a clear view of the situation in Mexico and sheds the light on its origins.

Many articles investigate the importance of the participation of the United States in the process of regulation of violence outburst caused by drug cartels in Mexico. Such studies are of vital importance for American society, as lack of effective actions taken by its government can be regarded as one of the contributors to the worsening of the situation in Mexico.

Morris (2013) presents an article aimed at demonstrating the effects of the rise of drug-trafficking organizations in Mexico on the security of the US and attempts to show the negative impact of the lack of attention paid by the American government to significant problems in Mexico. The author presents proofs of the fact that drug-trafficking organization are engaged in human trafficking related to illegal immigrants and sex workers.

Morris (2013) studies the relations between the War on Drugs in Mexico and the rise of criminality in particular cities in the US. The author presents the proofs of the negative impact of cartel activity in the US on domestic crime. The article presents relevant arguments proving that the US should search for efficacious solutions and take part in the struggle against drug cartels violence in Mexico.

The studies on ways of dealing with the problem of domination of drug cartels in Mexico are also of vital importance as they help to analyze the effectiveness of previous decisions and suggest potential future solutions. Besides a big number of books investigating the issue, there are also numerous articles covering this topic.

Wright (2010) presents an analysis of the connections between drug-related violence in Mexico and the revision of state and federal criminal codes. The author analyzes the efficacy of such decisions and demonstrates the importance of putting more effort in the struggle against criminal activity of drug cartels. Other studies analyze potential solutions, including legalization of marijuana, promoting the security of the border, supporting the official armed struggle against drug cartels, etc.

The examination of current research on Mexican drug cartels and the War on Drugs helps to understand the causes of the outburst of violence, define the major drawbacks of the Mexican War on Drugs, and suggest potential solutions.

Analyzing the Causes of the Violence of Drug Cartels and the War on Drugs in Mexico

Examining the studies on the difficult situation in Mexico helps to identify the main causes that led to the escalation of conflicts and the factors contributing to the domination of drug cartels in the country.

The first cause can be identified as the low economic development of the country. This factor appears to be the cornerstone of extensive interest to drug business among young people in Mexico, who present the social basis for drug cartels. Long-term economic instability has contributed to the high rates of unemployment and low job opportunities in the country (Shirk, 2014).

Such situation has motivated numerous young people to find their place in the drug business to be able to earn for living. The revenues of narco-business grow dramatically every year. Therefore, thousands and even millions of Mexicans are ready to commit crimes, including homicides, to stay in the business and do not lose the only source of income.

The historical background can be determined as the second cause of the current situation in Mexico. Multiple policies prohibiting certain substances in the United States stimulated the activity of drug business in Mexico. Tough situation in Columbia shifted the center of drug trafficking to Mexico.

Besides, growing demand for psychotropic substances in the United States in the 1970s stimulated the growth of the drug-related business. Numerous people became involved in the business, and the number of its members was growing every year. That led to the situation when this business became one of the main sources of employment in the country. Such state of affairs promoted the aggressiveness of drug cartels striving for winning the turf for their employees.

Political situations in Mexico and in the United States can be defined as other factors that contributed to the rise of violence. The Institutional Revolutionary Party managed to maintain careful control of the activities of drug cartels and establish a cooperation that kept the relations stable (Medel & Thoumi, 2014).

However, when the party lost governors race in northern states, territorial rivalries became more severe in certain regions and soon transformed into the outburst of violence. Therefore, the shift in domestic political power resulted in the loss of control over drug lords and led to growing violence. The change of power from the one-party rule to a multiparty system led to fragmentation of security forces and the competence between political groups, resulting in lower ability to oppose the enemy.

Certain steps made by the American Government can also be regarded as the factors that contributed to the rise of violence in Mexico. The North American Free Trade Agreement eliminated the barriers to both legal and illegal trade between the US and Mexico and increased shipments of drugs to the north. Therefore, the rivalry for turf grew. Besides, the United States did not provide appropriate control over the flow of weapons to Mexico.

The repeal of the assault weapons ban in the US in 2004 also made its contribution to the escalation of violence, as the members of drug cartels are heavily armed, and the main origin of the weapons is the United States. The neglectful attitude to the export of weapons gave the drug cartels in Mexico an opportunity to gather an abundant amount of weapons and be competitive with the official army of the country.

The growing number of former militants who joined the drug cartels also increased the levels of violence. Las Zetas gave an example of employing former soldiers and police officers and using them in terrorizing activities against competitive cartels. Similar strategies were employed by other cartels and led to the escalation of violence with the help of paramilitary tactics.

All of the factors mentioned above have contributed to the rise of violence in Mexico. Drug cartels started using an enormous amount of homicides to gain the ultimate power over the drug business. Such a frightful situation encouraged the Mexican government to start a serious struggle against drug cartels and resulted in the War on Drugs.

Mistakes of the Mexican War on Drugs and Potential Solutions

When Felipe Calderon was elected as a president, he proclaimed the War on Drugs. With the help of the United States, the government managed to achieve certain strategic goals by arresting the important figures in narco-business and confiscating weapons and monetary assets. However, the counternarcotics efforts intensified the violence of drug-trafficking organizations and contributed to the escalation of conflicts between them.

After the arrests of the heads of several drug cartels, leaders that are more violent came to power. New leaders organized terrific massacres and used various methods of terror. The war caused numerous deaths among civilians and made the ordinary people lose the feeling of safety. Though causing numerous deaths, Calderons offensive did not have a significant impact on drug trafficking. The multi-billion dollar industry continued to grow and use violent methods for fighting for turf.

The drawbacks of Calderons War on Drugs illustrates the importance of employing a comprehensive approach to dealing with narco-industry, as military actions appeared to provoke even more violence and have no impact on the growth of the business. Therefore, alternative solutions to the problem should be considered.

Legalization of marijuana is one of the solutions often regarded as an effective method for decreasing the growth of drug cartels in Mexico. Legal regulation of marijuana distribution in the United States will cut one of the main sources of income of drug-trafficking organizations in Mexico. However, there is also a dangerous possibility that if one of the most commonly sold drugs will be removed from illegal business, drug cartels will be pushed to search for new sources of income, which can cause the escalation of violence.

Besides, they can turn their attention to human trafficking or providing a bigger supply of cocaine or heroin. Such tendencies will bring more terror, as these sources of revenue involve more violent actions than marijuana does. Therefore, legalization of marijuana should be considered as one of the solutions, but must be accompanied by ensuring preventing other more dangerous activities.

Another potential solution that is based on the analysis of the causes of the lack of success of previous actions of Mexican government can include eliminating mid-level bosses in cartels. Targeting kingpins appeared to be ineffective as it caused more violence and destabilizing succession wars.

Targeting low-level members of cartels also seems to be an unsuccessful solution, as they can be easily replaced. Mid-level leaders present the category of members of drug cartels who are relatively easy to be found and arrested. They are influential enough, and their elimination will cause potential harm to drug cartels. However, such strategy will not provoke violent succession battles.

Financial targeting appears to be one of the most effective solutions as it directly affects the ultimate purpose of drug-trafficking organizations  profit. Influencing the financial system of drug cartels is the key to controlling their development. This aspect can be controlled by ensuring severe penalties for any financial institution cooperating with the members of these illegal organizations.

Such strategy will help to cut off the ways of receiving revenues by imposing strict regulations on banks, which are currently involved in providing necessary financial operation for drug cartels. High-intensity law enforcement can stop further extension of narco-business in Mexico (Kan, 2012).

Putting effort in strengthening economics of the country and promoting the development of civil society are also of vital importance for dealing with drug cartels in Mexico. An economically stable country has more power to oppose drug business than the one with poor economics, as income factor is the one that motivates the population to engage in the activities of drug cartels. Ensuring efficient job opportunities and social security in the country is the key to attracting the attention of the youth to the spheres able to boost the economy.

Searching for peaceful ways of dealing with drug cartels and the outburst of violence they provoke is the cornerstone of successful outcomes, as militarization of the struggle against narco-business turned out to give few positive results while taking thousands of lives of soldiers and civilians.

Conclusion

There are many relevant articles and books studying different aspects of the domination of drug cartels in Mexico and investigating the benefits and drawbacks of the War on Drugs. Careful examination of such sources helps to identify the main causes of the destructive processes, analyze previous decisions made in the course of struggle against drug cartels, and propose solutions able to change the situation and reduce the unprecedented level of violence in Mexico.

References

Campbell, H. (2014). Narco-propaganda in the Mexican Drug War: An anthropological perspective. Latin American Perspectives, 41(2), 60-77.

Grillo, I. (2013). Mexican cartels: A century of defying U.S. drug policy. The Brown Journal of World Affairs, 20(1), 253-265.

Kan, P. R. (2012). Cartels at war: Mexicos drug-fueled violence and the threat to U.S. national security. Dulles, Virginia: Potomac Books, Inc.

Kellner, T., & Pipitone, F. (2010). Inside Mexicos Drug War. World Policy Journal, 27(1), 29-37.

Medel, M., & Thoumi, F. E. (2014). Mexican drug cartels. In L. Paoli (Ed.). The Oxford handbook of organized crime (pp. 196-219). New York: Oxford University Press.

Morris, E. K. (2013). Think again: Mexican drug cartels. Foreign Policy, 203, 30-33.

Shirk, D. A. (2011). The Drug War in Mexico: Confronting a shared threat. New York: Council of Foreign Relations.

Wright, R. (2010). Mexican drug violence and adversarial experiments. North Carolina Journal of International Law & Commercial Regulation, 35, 363-385.

Introduction

Drug cartels in Columbia refer to organized production and related operations on illegal drugs particularly cocaine. Columbia has been among the leading countries reported to have the most sophisticated and violent organizations dealing with trafficking of drugs worldwide.

The venture started as a small business of trafficking cocaine but now it has turned into an international empire of drug trafficking, not only of cocaine, but of other illegal drugs as well. Additionally, the traffickers have now attained more than adequate capital to invest in the business (Chatsworth 1).

For instance, the traffickers hired experts in engineering from the Unites States of America and from Russia to help build a submarine which has been used to secretly smuggle large volumes of illegal drugs especially cocaine to the U.S.

History of Columbia and the drug problem

How the cartels started

Drug trafficking in Columbia began way back in the 1970s where the leaders started off with smuggling of marijuana but in the mid-1970s, the traffickers started engaging in cocaine trafficking through export of small quantities of cocaine to the U.S. using suite cases. At this point, cocaine was sold freely in the American streets.

With the increasing production, trafficking and consumption of the initial drug marijuana, the United States government in conjunction with that of Columbia launched a campaign on trafficking of drugs referred to as war on drugs (Prada 1). Following this prohibition, some of the established producers and traffickers of drugs established unified trafficking cartels.

By 1980s, the demand for drugs had increased resulting to expansion and more organization of the cartels into major criminal organizations which were led by specified members of the groups. Some of these cartels included the Cali cartel, the North Coast cartel and the Medellin cartel among others.

To get a better understanding of the development of the cartels, we will look at how the various cartels were established. The Medellin cartel was one of the leading cartels in Columbia which was operated under Pablo Escobar. This was a ruthless organization which kidnapped and killed people who tried to get in the way of their operations.

As a matter of fact, the Medellin cartel was reported to have caused hundreds of deaths of law enforcement officers, politicians, government officials and even innocent citizens who they encountered during their operations (Tate 1). In order to make their operations much easier, the cartels in-cooperated its operations with various criminal groups in the countries involved.

The Medellin cartel began its operations inside Colombia where they imported coca and processed it into cocaine and distributed it to the United States of America. This put great pressure on the U.S. government and that of Colombia to destroy the cartel by countering it using police and military personnel.

The Cali cartel was established in the southern part of Colombia within the city of Cali with its founders as the Rodrigues brothers, Miguel and Gilberto. The initial operation of Cali cartel was based on kidnappings which were used to raise funds for trafficking of marijuana which later progressed to cocaine. With time, the Cartels revenue grew substantially to an estimate of over $7 billion a year (Ramsey 1).

This caused a great impact on the country as justice systems as well as political issues began being influenced by the Cali cartel from different levels.

For instance, the Cali cartel participated a great deal in the downfall of the Medellin cartel as it was involved in the manhunt of the leaders of the Medellin cartel which saw the killing of Pablo Escobar, the ring leader of the Medellin cartel. However, the cartel collapsed as well during time which it was discovered that the cartel had been using the leading companies in Columbia to finance its operations.

Consequences and effects of the cartels on Colombia

As the cartels grew and increased, they began using terror activities with the aim of gaining government support by attaining bargaining power from them. Death rates increased through kidnappings and killings of law enforcement officers, political personalities and citizens.

The year 1989 was reported to have been the most brutal year ever with many deaths per capita which resulted from the violence exhibited by the members of drug cartels. As a matter of fact, for several years when the cartels had gained much strength and power in the country, the rate of deaths in Colombia was reported to have been the highest in the world with an estimated 62 deaths in every 100,000 people (Muse 1).

However, with the current prohibition of drug trafficking, this number has deceased greatly to a low of 39 murders, a number that is even lower than that reported in South Africa. Statistics have shown that more than 90% of these murders are on men.

Kidnapping cases were similarly reported to be high as a total of about 5, 181 kidnappings were reported within a period of seven years. Although this report was based on a worldwide scale, the greatest percentage of it was from Colombia.

With the cultivation of coca being the major illegal operation in Colombia, most of the land in the rural regions of the country had been used on production of coca leaving little land for cultivation of basic plants/foods for the rural residents. An estimate of 281, 553 acres of land was used for cultivation of coca with a total of 430, 000 metric tons of cocaine production potential per year.

Response to drug cartels

International and U.S. response

The increase in the production and trafficking of drugs in Colombia drew a great deal of attention from various countries including the United States of America, several Latin-American countries and organizations as well as international organizations.

To begin with, the U.S. collaborated with the government of Mexico and several other Central American countries and established the Merida initiative which was aimed at combating drug trafficking as a transnational crime. This initiative appropriated funds for provision of training services to military and law enforcement systems to help in strengthening the national justice operations.

Similarly, the endless violence in Mexico has helped bring into the spotlight the response by the Latin American countries on drug trafficking especially on Colombia. New crime organizations including those dealing with drugs in Colombia are being torn apart in a silent but efficient manner by the Bogota extradition operation (Rempel 1).

This has been the reaction of Latin American countries on Colombias drug trafficking crime which has seen the sending of many of the leaders of drug cartels to the United States of America to face crime charges. The Latin American countries were drawn to this response as the major cartels, Medellin and Cali exhibited coercive pressure which prevented such extraditions from taking place.

In addition to the U.S. providing funding for military training services, it had a strong reaction on drug traffickers who continued their businesses while they were still in prison cells back home in Colombia. The response by the U.S. on this matter was the transfer of the traffickers to U.S. prisons which are non-luxurious as opposed to those back at home which paved way for their ease access to business operations.

As a matter of fact, this strict response by the U.S. resulted to a steady reduction in organized drug trafficking as well as other crimes, a factor that drove Mexico to reassessing its refusal of extraditing its drug traffickers to the U.S.

Since most of the drugs produced were exported to the United States of America evidenced by cocaine being sold all over the streets back in the 1970s and 1980s, it is only natural that the country had a negative response shown, not only through establishment of extraditions to the U.S., but through support of local programs which were designed to eradicate drug production and trafficking.

Similarly, the United Nations and the U.S Agency for International Development (USAID) responded by facilitating production of alternative plants and provided projects for enterprise development, strengthening of institutions, exploitation of natural resources and easy market access for Colombias entrepreneurs (Chomsky 1).

Response by Colombian government, citizens and its neighbors

The Colombian government itself was opposed to the then rapidly growing production and trafficking of cocaine especially to the U.S. since the two countries had been allies on economic aspects.

With the futile response by the U.S. government on the production of drugs, the government of Columbia responded to cartels by acting aggressively to them evidenced by the way the government worked hand in hand with the government of the United States of America to curb drug trafficking.

However, since the high demand of cocaine and related drugs was determined to be the major factor contributing to endless drug production, the Colombian government urged the U.S. to take responsibility at home by finding ways to reduce the demand for drugs in the U.S.

This is because consumption of these drugs was high in the U.S. compared to that in Columbia despite the fact that the production itself was done in Columbia. This was an indication that the demand arising from drug abusers in the U.S. was partly a contributing factor to the problem.

This is why one of the Colombias responses to drug trafficking was to advice the U.S. to reduce demand of the products, a request that was initially neglected but later the U.S. government saw the sense in it and began working on the same. Additionally, the government deployed National police who tracked down the leaders of drug cartels and destroyed the already produced drugs as well as those in plantations.

As a matter of fact, the operations of the Colombian National Police contributed to the downfall of many of the cartels including the most powerful ones such as the Medellin and Cali cartels (Jung 7).

Due to the poor economic conditions in Colombia, some of its citizens responded well on the production and trafficking of drugs as they saw it as a way of creating more income to community members either directly by getting involved in the operation or indirectly by means such as creation of labor or improved living standards among society members.

Most of these people were uneducated whose population was very high considering the low levels of education in Columbia back then. However, many other citizens were against the vice including the educated elites who understood very well the impacts of such drugs on humans and on the society as a whole. Religious groups were similarly opposed to it and they all pressured the government to speed up ways of combating drug production.

Others responded aggressively to the production as they needed more land to cultivate consumption plants for their families. Different countries neighboring Columbia had different responses to the high levels of drug production in Colombia.

The most notably neighbor was Mexico which began engaging in drug production and trafficking following the amount of cash flow especially in Southern Colombia from drug trafficking.

As a matter of fact, illegal drug trafficking in Mexico grew to the point that Mexico established transit zones which were used to export cocaine and other drugs to the U.S. This was precisely the reason why the U.S.-Mexico border was established in efforts to curb the problem.

The main actors

Who they are

Colombia has been historically known for high levels of violence and resultant deaths. The country had various criminal groups which altogether contributed to the incredibly high rates of violence in the country. Drug cartels were among the most powerful of these groups.

However, the main actors who facilitated the formation of cartels were the guerrillas which were superior organizations which supported and strengthened the operations of the cartels. The Revolutionary Armed Forces of Columbia (FARC) and the National Liberation Army (ELN) were the two most powerful guerrilla organizations which supported the operations of drug cartels (Romero 62).

Their major role was using the Colombian government to mask the operations of cartels. They did this by running for public offices especially in the police and military agents. The guerillas particularly participated in protecting the fields and other operational fields of cartels especially those of cocaine production. This, they did in exchange for large amounts of money they were paid by the cocaine traffickers.

Cartel leaders and the president

Similarly, some of the paramilitary groups were direct actors in drug cartels as they were also used in guarding and protecting production and operation fields. The government, through the then president Juan Manuel Santos was a major actor in dismantling many of the strong cartels.

Although the government had previously failed in the war against drugs, the new constitution that was implemented in the year 1991 played a big role in ending the drug war (Wilson 7).

This was through its clause of extradition of drug traffickers to the U.S. which led to many of the traffickers to surrendering to the government in exchange for lighter sentences due to the fear of the conditions in which they would be exposed to in the prison cells in the U.S.

However, the guerillas were said to have benefited from the resultant break-up of the cartels as they used their finances to support and establish new producers and traffickers of drugs. The paramilitary groups continued to receive most of their finances from drug funds and therefore they continued to protect the drug production fields.

Additionally, the leaders of the cartels enhanced their efforts of undermining law enforcement through giving of bribes to police and threatening court officials (Meyer 1). This way, the leaders maintained their role of protecting the interests of drug production and trafficking.

Extend of influence of drug cartels

Influence on society

The high rates of drug production and trafficking in Colombia had impacts to the society. As the production of cocaine and marijuana continued to increase, more and more small farmers became dependent on the cultivation of these drugs for livelihood.

Besides the cultivators themselves, thousands of Colombian citizens became dependent on income derived from cultivation of these drugs through indirect participation such as transportation, picking of the plants on seasonal terms and guarding the fields among others.

The production and trafficking of drugs through cartels resulted to improved economic stability, increased living standards and income rates as the business turned out to be a very significant source of wealth, not only to Colombia, but to most of the Caribbean coast cities. These countries experienced great economic prosperity which had never been experienced before due to previous poor economic conditions of the countries.

However, at the same time, violence cases related to cultivation and trafficking of drugs increased a great deal and most importantly, these operations led to disintegration of police and military institutions as well as other judicial organizations. This resulted mainly due to the in-cooperation of officials from these institutions into the operations of cartels through corruption and bribery deals with the cartel leaders (Lopez 1).

Since most of the rural land was used in the cultivation of marijuana and coca, the general food production rate of the country declined gradually. Similarly, the few farmers left were faced with the challenge of laborers as they became scarce and quite expensive due to the competition in marijuana cultivation. This stimulated inflation on land markets and many legal businesses were involved in money laundering by the cartels.

These included banks, hotels and especially casinos resulting to lower tax rates to the government. The societys traditional morals and values were deteriorated as more and more innocent society members engaged in the vice, directly or indirectly due to their desperate need for source of income for their livelihood.

Consequently, violence rates in Colombia and any other country practicing the same business became high even if resulting from other factors due to the history of violence in such countries.

Influence on the government and political system

With the use of trained assassins, cartel leaders planned murder and assassination plots on government officials in their bid to prevent the governments move to extradite them to the U.S.

As a result, the countrys judicial system was dismantled and a great number of Colombian citizens moved out of the country and settled elsewhere (The Daily beast 1). Life in Colombia was devaluated as assassinations became more and more eminent with murder becoming a usual way to earn money.

Due to their wealth and economic power, many drug loads took control over the countrys economy through construction of cheap rental houses basically to buy votes from the society, became proprietors in big national businesses such as in media houses and they also showed interests in politics as some formed their own political parties which they publicized through their own media houses (Shifter 19).

For instance, Escobar ended up being elected as a congressman in the 1982 elections. The nation was also faced with the problem of addiction to cocaine and marijuana among other drugs as the finest quality drugs were exported leaving the poor quality drugs for consumption by the Colombians.

As a result, hundreds of thousands of Colombian citizens suffered from nervous problems some of which were permanent and the government had the challenge of facing this problem.

Conclusion/recommendations

The high rates of drug trafficking in Columbia evoked response from the government as well as other countries especially the U.S. since most of the drugs were exported into the United States. The government, using funding from the U.S. and international organizations such as UN and USAID established police and military training services who were assigned the duty of preventing further progression of the business.

Due to the resultant corruption and bribery techniques used by the cartel leaders to curb the advances of the government, the Colombian government in collaboration with the U.S government established the extradition rule which would see drug traffickers imprisoned in the U.S. rather than in their home country (Miller 1).

May be the real solution to this problem is not eliminating or imprisoning the drug dealers but rather acting on the core factors that led to the growth of the business. For instance, the Colombian government should establish sustainable economy for its people where citizens will have alternative sources of income through provision of job opportunities may be by promoting industrialization and other developmental activities.

This way, the citizens will not lack means of earning livelihood and therefore will be less likely to engage in illegal businesses. However, this is a big step and would require great support from international organizations and other industrialized countries.

Similarly, the U.S. government should curb the factors that cause such a high demand of cocaine in the country. In this case, the drug traffickers will not produce as much drugs as they did because of the lack of demand.

Works Cited

Chatsworth, John. Roots of violence in Colombia. David Rockefeller Center for Latin.

American studies: Harvard University. (2003). Web.

Chomsky, Noam. Plan Colombia. Rogue states. (2000). Web.

Jung, Walter. Exports, growth and casualty in developing countries. Journal of development economics. 18.2 (1985): 1  12.

Lopez, Andres. From drug lords to warlords: Twentieth century drug traffickers. CBS interactive business network resource library. (2003). Web.

Meyer Cordula. Colombias cocaine cartels learn a new trick. Spiegel online: undersea trafficking. (2012). Web.

Miller Sarah. Medellin once epicenter of Colombias drug war, fights to keep the peace. The Christian Science monitor. (2010). Web.

Muse, Toby. New drug gang wars blow Colombian city revival apart. The guardian: World news, Colombia. (2012). Web.

Prada, Juan. Latin America breaks rank with U.S. over war on drugs. Limaohio.com: The Lima news. (2012). Web.

Ramsey, Geoffrey. Colombia to reassess policy of extraditing drug traffickers to U.S. The Christian Science monitor: Latin America monitor. (2012). Web.

Rempel, William. How Colombia is busting drug cartels. Cable News Network (CNN), Edition: international. (January 19 2012). Web.

Romero, Mauricio. Changing identities and contested settings: regional elites and the paramilitaries in Colombia. International journal of politics, culture and society. 14.1 (2000): 51  69.

Shifter, Michael. Colombia on the brink. Foreign affairs. 78.4 (1999): 14  21

Tate, Winfred. Colombias role on international drug industry. Washington D.C. Foreign policy in focus. (1999). Web.

The Daily beast. Drug cartels and terrorist organizations vs. the Colombian ministers. HMUN Press corps. (2012). Web.

Wilson, James. Coffee or poppies? Colombian growers under the spotlight. Financial Times. (October 25 2001). Print.

Introduction

Drug use is a common practice in nationals all over the world. In the US, recreational drug use has occurred for centuries. Unlike with other consumer products, drugs can have adverse effects on the individual. For this reason, the government tries to regulate the use of drugs among its citizens. In the US, the negative impacts of drug use became evident in the society at the end of the 19th century, when it was observed that psychotropic drugs such as cocaine and morphine led to addiction.

The government therefore started imposing prohibitions on the use of and trade in these drugs. In 1914, the Harrison Administration passed the Harrison Narcotics Act, which imposed greater restrictions on psychotropic drug trade. However, the most significant government action in response to drug use occurred under the Nixon administration, when a war on drugs was declared.

History of the War on Drugs

The modern war on drugs in the US can trace its beginning to the Nixon administration. On June 17, 1971, President Richard Nixon declared that drug abuse was a national emergency and he proceeded to rank it public enemy number one (872). He declared a war on drugs and dedicated significant federal resources to this task. A number of notable events led to the start of this war. While drugs had always been a part of American popular culture, trends in drug use during the 1960s led to the need for a war on drugs.

During the 1960s, the US witnessed a spike in drug use among middle-class white youth (Benavie 34). The prevalent drug use among this class led to drugs losing some of their stigmatization and this increased drug consumption. The government came up with radical policies to solve the drug problems in the country. This commitment to fight drug abuse has remained strong in each US president since that time.

Key Points

In its history, which spans over four decades, the war on drugs has had a number of significant moments. The first major moment in the war was in 1973 when the Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) was formed. This agency was tasked with reducing the availability of illegal drugs in the US.

It set out to accomplish this task by curtailing the supply of drugs, especially from the international market. Another key moment was in 1981 during the Reagan administration. The President called for touch actions against drug users since he saw this as a more effective method than trying to cut the supply of the drugs. During this period, the US adopted a zero tolerance policy against users of illegal drugs. This tough on drugs policy has continued to characterize the approach used by successive administrations.

Pros and Cons

A significant benefit of the war on drugs is that it led to a sharp decline in the production and distribution of illicit drugs. Due to the punitive penalties attached to dealing in illegal drugs, people were dissuaded from engaging in these activities. The overall quantity of illicit drugs available in the country therefore decreased.

The war increased awareness of the negative effects of drugs among Americans. The government earmarked millions of dollars for education programs that were meant to empower the community. These programs highlighted the destructive nature of drugs and urged Americans to stay away from drugs.

A major demerit of the war on drugs is that it prevented the government from engaging in action to address the causes of drug abuse among most US citizens. Niesen notes that by positioning drug abuse as a problem to be dealt with by individuals and families, successive US administrations have avoided resolving the possible root causes of drug abuse, such as poverty and unemployment (872). Another significant demerit of the war is that it contributed to the large systematic corruption in the criminal justice system. By criminalizing drugs, the government created a situation where many individuals were in violation of the law and eligible to criminal penalties (Nicholson 305). To avoid these penalties, many detained drug users bribe law enforcement officials or criminal justice personnel.

Effects on Media, Economic, Policy, and Public Opinion

The mass media was significantly affected by the war on drugs. To begin with, the Nixon administration made extensive use of mass media to advise the public on the dangers of drug use. Niesen documents that the media was advised to give regular reports on the rise in drug-related deaths and print research findings that would help deter drug experimentation (875). The media endorsed sensationalism as a strategy to provoke public interest on the topic of drug abuse.

Public opinion concerning recreational drug use was affected by the war on drugs. Before this war, moderate drug use was normative behavior among youths and many middle class Americans.

The war on drugs led to the public view that all drug users were addicts. When declaring drug abuse public enemy number one, the Nixon administration did not distinguish between drug addicts and social users. Nicholson et al. note that the war on drugs approach promoted the perception that any drug use is abuse where illicit drugs are concerned (305).

Economically, the war on drugs led to an increase in government expenditure. The prohibition of drug use increased government spending on drug prevention. From the onset, the government dedicated significant resources to wage the war.

Specifically, law enforcement and criminal justice resources were used to deter illegal drug use and punish individuals who violated the law. On the other hand, the war on drugs greatly benefited drug dealers. Nicholson confirms that the war on drugs approach has contributed to the sustenance of a profitable black market in drugs for decades (305).

Results of the War on Drugs

The US has been involved in an intensive war against drugs for over four decades. The war has led to an increase in the number of inmates in American prisons. Drug offenders make up a significant portion of the prisoners in US penitentiaries (Jones 492). The Bureau of Justice Statistics reveals that over 50% of federal convicts are imprisoned on drug related charges (Sledge par. 4). Most of these drug offenders are social users who do not have criminal records.

The War led to the emergence of a huge black market that deals in illicit drugs. Williams reveals that criminalization of drugs destroys the legal economy and an underground economy emerges to satisfy the demand (326). As such, the war on drugs has led to the growth of a powerful black market that dealt in the illicit drugs. This black market enjoyed great profits since it could inflate the price of the drugs and obtain a large profit margin.

The war on drugs has failed to mitigate drug use among Americans. Millions of Americans continue to use illicit drugs in spite of the aggressive government efforts to stop illegal drug use. As of 2000, the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse reported that an estimated 11 million Americans were regular users of illicit drugs (Block and Obioha 108).

Recent Trends

In reaction to the fact that the traditional war on drugs has been hugely ineffective, there have been notable shifts in how the government and the community view the problem of drug use. Some policy makers have recognized that recreational drug use is an integral part of the American culture.

Promoting a drug-free life is therefore unrealistic. They have therefore called for the decriminalization of some drugs. Marijuana is one drug that has been legalized in some states in an attempt to deal with the drug problem. Block and Obioha note that legalization does not imply that the government is advocating the use of addictive drugs such as heroin and cocaine (108). Legalization means that it is not a criminal act to use, sell, or buy drugs.

Another trend has been in the emergence of preventive programmes that aim at harm reduction without preaching and propaganda. Such programs acknowledge that drug taking is a fact of life and aim to prevent drug abuse, which causes detrimental outcomes.

In addition to this, there has been a move towards viewing drug abusers as individuals in need of medical assistance instead of viewing them as criminals. Research shows that regardless of how successful criminal penalties are in reducing drug use among people, treatment is more effective.

Conclusion

Drugs remain to be an important issue affecting the American community. This war costs the government billions of dollars per year and the lives of many people are disrupted as they are subjected to criminal penalties for using or dealing in drugs.

In spite of these significant economic and social costs, the war on drugs has proved largely ineffective. There is no possibility that it will lead to the eradication of the drug problem faced by the country entirely. The US government should therefore consider alternative approaches to deal with the drug problems faced by its citizens.

Works Cited

Benavie, Arthur. Drugs: Americas Holy War. NY: Routledge, 2012. Print.

Block, Walter and Violet Obioha. War on Black Men: Arguments for the Legalization of Drug. Criminal Justice Ethics 31.2 (2012): 106-120. Web.

Jones, Michael. Prison overcrowding: the sentencing judge as social worker. Widener Law Journal 18.1 (2009): 491-498. Web. Web.

Nicholson, Thomas, David Duncan, John White and Cecilia Watkins. Focusing on abuse, not use: A proposed new direction for US drug policy. Drugs: Education, Prevention & Policy 19.4 (2012): 303-308. Print.

Niesen, Molly. Public Enemy Number One: The US Advertising Councils First Drug Abuse Prevention Campaign. Substance Use & Misuse 46.7 (2011): 872-881. Print.

Sledge, Matt. The Drug War and Mass Incarceration by the Numbers. The Huffington Post. 2013. Web.

Williams, Daniel. The war on drugs. Contemporary Review 294.17(2012): 324-329. Web.