Since the beginning of his presidentship in the United States, Donald Trump has made a variety of decisions directly linked to healthcare reform and impacting the situation with health insurance in the country. Trump’s contributions to changes in the healthcare system are aimed at revoking some provisions of the Affordable Care Act also known as Obamacare. Although the current president has not removed Obamacare yet, some changes such as the status of the individual mandate, Medicaid funding, and Health Savings accounts (HSA) have been implemented.
Donald Trump and his supporters make efforts to remove the most controversial provisions of the act and provide different states and individual healthcare consumers with more flexible services. One of such provisions is presented by the existence of the individual mandate, which involves penalizing people who can afford insurance but fail to do it for some reason (Rice, Unruh, van Ginneken, Rosenau, & Barnes, 2018). The decision to repeal the mandate helped Trump to achieve goals related both to his voters’ expectations and the optimization of federal healthcare spending.
Also, Trump’s contributions to the healthcare system are strictly related to Medicaid services and the costs of insurance plans, but he has not managed to fulfill all of his goals yet. For instance, his campaign promises included the discontinuation of federal support for the provision of Medicaid services maintained during the presidentship of Obama (Rice et al., 2018). Nowadays, Medicaid programs still exist, “but premiums in insurance exchanges rose considerably in 2018” (Rice et al., 2018, p. 699).
Another difference between Obama’s and Trump’s approaches to healthcare management refers to HSAs. In Obamacare, insurance plans are different in terms of their compatibility with HSAs, and the Trump administration intends to increase citizens’ access to HSAs that have many tax-related advantages (Butler, 2017). The option to use HSAs demonstrates cost-effectiveness in terms of individual healthcare expenses, which explains the positive perceptions of the initiative by many citizens.
References
Butler, S. M. (2017). Repeal and replace Obamacare: What could it mean? JAMA, 317(3), 244-245.
Rice, T., Unruh, L. Y., van Ginneken, E., Rosenau, P., & Barnes, A. J. (2018). Universal coverage reforms in the USA: From Obamacare through Trump. Health Policy, 122(7), 698-702.
The “Arab Spring” brought to the world the new concept of internet-inspired political revolutions, which challenged, and in some cases, toppled formerly stable autocracies. The revolutions in Egypt, Libya, and Tunisia not only sparked similar uprisings in the MENA region but also helped revolutionaries all over the world to realize how they could use the internet to reach their followers. Shervin Pishevar, the owner of the Social Gaming Network (SGN), even suggested the need to have an online platform through which freedom-seeking people could link up without the possibility of interference by their governments (Berrett et al. 2015). Also, President Obama’s re-election campaign made use of the internet to secure his second term at the White House. This new approach to campaigning led him to be termed as the first social media president. However, two recent events, namely, Brexit and the election of Donald Trump as the US president, revealed the true power of internet-mediated collective action. This paper will critically evaluate how the internet shaped both events, resulting in outcomes that were not only unexpected but also shocking.
Brexit
Social media swayed the outcome of Brexit, as many people were mobilized and motivated to vote for Britain’s exit from the European Union (EU). The former British prime minister once stated that the internet had the power to ‘excite the attention of hundreds, thousands, millions of people and stirs them to action’ (Graham & Dutton 2014, p.197). These words were realized during the Brexit debate when the masses voted for leaving the EU, despite the elite class being in favor of staying. The mainstream media was for Britain to remain in the EU, citing potential economic harms of the exit. However, the leaders of the populist agenda such as Boris Johnson resorted to social media to spread their agenda. For months before the Brexit referendum, the ‘leave camp’ was engaged in establishing momentum online through various slogans that became popular over time. Through emotional appeal and a deep understanding of its target population, the ‘leave camp’ was able to secure victory against the London establishment.
Brexit portrayed the internet as a tool for political revolution by the masses that otherwise lack the resources to organize a traditional campaign. Although the ‘stay camp’ led by Prime Minister David Cameron used vast resources to advance its agenda, it failed in terms of reaching the people. This observation is a demonstration that the internet can bring together like-minded people without necessarily requiring huge resources. Indeed, all that is needed is an internet-enabled smartphone and a powerful online message. Platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter were used to reach the masses without the traditional expenses that are typical of political campaigns. Such cell phone-driven technology enabled the ‘leave camp’ to reach many undecided supporters who did not connect with the message being passed by the ‘stay camp’ via traditional media outlets. In the end, the side that understood and exploited the full revolutionary potential of the internet carried the day.
The ‘leave camp’ used internet-based tools to analyze accurately the available data about its target population. The situation where the data about internet users is available for manipulation is known as the ‘big data phenomenon’. With the help of internet tools, analysts can gather and manipulate data about a person or a group of people based on what they posted online via Facebook ‘likes’ and ‘retweets’ among others. Famous Swiss researcher, Michael Kosinski, believes that ‘big data’ paved the way for the Brexit, a view that has also been backed by Alexander James Ashburner Nix, the CEO of Cambridge Analytica (Doward & Gibbs 2017). It is important to note that Cambridge Analytica is the company that designed both the ‘leave camp’ and Trump campaigns. Analysts tracked online debates by the people regarding how they felt about the UK being a member of the EU. Thus, it emerged that certain people were for the exit depending on their age or socioeconomic status. Armed with such information, the ‘leave’ campaign managed to design powerful and emotional slogans to reach this segment of the UK population.
Unlike traditional media, social media is readily accessible by most individuals, regardless of their age and socio-economic status. This reachability enables the voice of those who are otherwise regarded as unimportant to be heard. To illustrate this claim, polls by the UK mainstream media showed that Brexit’s ‘stay camp’ was leading by a 2 percent margin only two weeks to the referendum (Ahmad 2016). Similarly, in the US election campaign, Hillary Clinton led Trump by nearly 6 percent margin in the few days running up to the election. Despite the statistics, Nix insisted that the seemingly unfavorable sides were going to win. This claim turned out to be the case in the end. According to Doward and Gibbs (2017), campaign strategists who relied on the traditional methods failed to reach the grassroots. In other words, the stay movement and the Hillary campaign, respectively, failed to connect with the actual voters. Instead, they would collect data through sampling a few potential voters.
The 2016 US Election
In the US election, the internet brought together large numbers of people who were dissatisfied with the traditional media. In recent times, there have been allegations that political establishments use mainstream media to foster their agenda. Particularly, in the 2016 US election campaign, Donald Trump numerously accused the US media of favoring the Democratic Party candidate. Consequently, Trump’s campaign chose social media as a suitable way to reach its target. The target population viewed social media as the channel that could not be influenced by the all-powerful government to present biased information about the campaign. Every time the CNN and other established media houses published a poll showing how the candidates were faring in the elections, Trump would declare it false and biased. As a result, Trump’s followers became united in a boycott against the mainstream media while at the same time embracing social media. Thus, the ability of social media to bring together different people to a common cause was witnessed in the boycott against the mainstream media.
The internet is gradually undermining the position of traditional media as the most reliable source of information. This situation can as can be seen in the case of the United States’ mainstream media, which is continually being viewed as biased. As a result, people are beginning to trust information published on the internet at the expense of the counterfeit news from the mainstream media. This situation arises from the growing belief that powerful individuals and organizations that have no interest in the truth own and control the traditional media (Holt 2016). This observation may explain why the US president chooses Twitter to communicate to the nation, as opposed to holding press conferences. To illustrate this new trend, the term ‘alternative facts’ has emerged to denote information from platforms other than the mainstream media. This term was popularised by President Trump’s counselor, Kellyanne Conway, who sought to defend the White House spokesperson, despite him stating an outright falsehood about the number of people who attended the president’s inauguration. Thus, the internet is overtaking the mainstream media as the most trusted source of information, even though internet information is not always verified.
The new tendency of the population to believe what it sees or reads on the internet while at the same time ignoring the truth being propagated by the mainstream media demonstrates the uniting power of the internet. While threats may arise that information from the internet could be unverified or may even be plain falsehood, masses are becoming willing to act based on the ‘alternative facts.’ The 2016 US election involved the two main candidates accusing each other of being a liar. However, if used correctly and in good faith, the internet can assist in building strong networks such as online campaigns to raise funds to help in eradicating hunger in developing countries. Many celebrities have run successful online fund drives to raise finances to help the needy in society. Consequently, the collective action enabled by the internet should be viewed positively when it comes to solving the world’s problems.
The internet eliminates the traditional costs associated with carrying out political polls. Traditionally, pollsters have to traverse the entire country in search of potential voters to survey them. The survey must be carried out by identifying a small sample of potential voters to avoid excessive costs. The problem is that such a small population cannot be representative of the true feelings of an entire population (Holt 2016). Hence, the traditional polls on the Brexit and US election, respectively, failed to reflect the true scenario on the ground. Conversely, ‘big data’ analysts can obtain information about every potential voter in the country who uses the internet. Through various tools, the Trump and the ‘leave’ campaigns were able to analyze this data from all potential voters without incurring any costs or physical exhaustion. Consequently, they obtained the true picture of the situation, allowing them to reach their target voters with ease.
The internet enforces a sense of belonging to a group by an individual based on shared values or the perception of being oppressed. In the case of the ‘leave’ and the Trump campaigns, a large number of populations in the UK and the US, respectively, felt alienated by their governments. The numbers included unemployed white people who felt their jobs had been taken by immigrants. Unfortunately, the mainstream media could not express the true feelings of the people, as it would appear to be targeting immigrants and minority populations (Arnorsson & Zoega 2016). On the other hand, social media platforms such as Twitter and Facebook allow people to express their true feelings without the fear of being castigated. This situation may further be enhanced by the fact that the internet offers a level of anonymity that is not available when communicating in a real-life scenario. Because of this anonymity, different groups with extremist views such as the need to eject immigrants were able to come together to collectively push their agenda.
Supporters of the ‘leave’ and Trump campaigns believed the mainstream population and media unfairly targeted them to the extent of causing them to seek ways of becoming united. From the onset throughout the two campaigns, it was believed that the campaigns would lose the referendum and election, respectively. Instances were apparent when Trump supporters claimed they had been violated because of their political stand. Despite being rare, such instances served to bring together those who felt unfairly treated to support what they regarded as representing a better change for them. Therefore, the internet offered an appropriate channel to foster the union of the numerous fragments of like-minded voters. Similarly, the respective campaigns turned out to be emotionally driven seeking to present a certain segment of the population as neglected and often mistreated. The success of the two campaigns reveals the power of the internet to bring together people for collective action, despite physical constraints such as belonging to different states.
The Possibility of Misuse
True, the internet has enhanced the freedom of access to information by ensuring that the said information is not monopolized by the mainstream media. However, the danger of the same internet being utilized by people with ill motives to manipulate the masses is alive today. An illustration is an expression by many people that both the Brexit and the recently concluded US election were based on xenophobia and white supremacy (Ahmad 2016). While the mainstream media will deliberately avoid publishing political contents that are antagonizing in nature, the internet does not have such checks. The result is that any damaging information finds its way to the public. Further, dangerous agenda easily becomes the popular view, which may lead to dangerous trends. Thus, the collective action through the internet can result in widespread harm such as violence and the radicalization of a population.
While internet freedom is lauded as a way of empowering masses, governments need to find ways of curbing potential misuse. However, coming up with such measures could be termed as curtailing people’s freedom of expression. Nevertheless, society stands to benefit when people are more responsible for how they use their freedom. Politicians must not be allowed to use lies and abrasive messages to popularise vices such as xenophobia and racism.
Conclusion
The internet has become the basis of massive political and humanitarian campaigns in the world as evidenced by the Arab Spring, Brexit, and the two last US elections. It is viewed as the source of information that is otherwise unavailable via traditional media. Specifically, social media allows people of all ages and socio-economic status to connect and pursue a common front. Additionally, campaign strategists can collect and analyze ‘big data’ from the internet and use it to sway the masses. This data is available on internet sites that are frequented by people such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. If used appropriately, the data can be used to predict people’s political orientation with accuracy. The validity of the above claim was demonstrated in Brexit and the 2016 US campaign where the unlikely sides won, despite mainstream polls showing they were trailing behind their opponents.
Reference List
Ahmad, K 2016, Brexit: causes and questions, Web.
Arnorsson, A & Zoega, G 2016, On the causes of Brexit, Web.
Berrett, D, Albee, M, Cirrincione, C, Kollenkark, S, Mcclanahan, J, Patten, M & Weare, C 2015, Proximity detection for shared computing experiences, Web.
Doward, J & Gibbs A 2017, Did Cambridge Analytica influence the Brexit vote and the US election? Web.
Graham, M & Dutton, W 2014, Society and the internet: how networks of information and communication are changing our lives, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Holt, K 2016, Media criticism and mistrust in Swedish anti-immigration alternative media, Web.
The ‘Dangerous’ television advertisement was released during the 2016 Presidential campaign by the Donald Trump camp. This Presidential race is considered one of the most controversial and “dirtiest” in history, partially due to the abundance of highly insensitive and personal character attacks that occurred. The objective of the ‘Dangerous’ advertisement was a targeted character attack on Clinton. It attempted to display Clinton as professionally incompetent and personally or physically unfit to take upon the Office of the President of the United States. The premise of such claims is based upon a myriad of crises, including nuclear and military, that are threatening the security of the country. The ad claims that during her tenure as Secretary of State, Clinton failed to manage or prevent many of these extenuating threats. Therefore, by logic, it is unlikely she would be able to competently address them once President, particularly with failing health.
The advertisement was presented as visual media, backed with imagery. The clips were montaged to create a dark, glitch, and retro effect. Visuals displayed terrifying video clips of foreign weaponry, war, and terrorism that concern most Americans. Furthermore, Clinton is shown as ill and frail. All this is to support the main theme of the advertisement. The visual media was supported by dramatic music which could be associated with built-up tension. Furthermore, the narrator’s voice-over used short sentences with highly descriptive imagery which relayed a sense of threat and desperation. The primary technique used by the creators of the advertisement is association. It is attempting to associate Clinton with the direct cause for the emergence of security threats. Furthermore, it relies on emotional advertising and, in a way, manipulation. The advertisement evokes fear and disgust and then attempts to manipulate an emotionally vulnerable viewer into blame for the opposition.
The information presented in the advertisement is accurate to an extent. However, the way it is portrayed that remains potentially inaccurate and deceives the viewer. The list of national security threats is an accurate representation because these crises have been the central parts of the US foreign policy and have been routinely analyzed and discussed in the mainstream news cycle. However, their representation as immediate and unavoidable threats remains up for debate. The personal attacks on Clinton’s tenure as the Secretary of State and her health are also partially accurate but serve as a controversial topic of discussion. Indeed, during and after her tenure, Clinton was repeatedly challenged for the way she chose to act during many crises. She has had to testify before Congress on several critical issues, including the infamous attack in Benghazi. However, the question of health remains a mostly private topic that is speculated in the media. A few reports emerged during the Presidential campaign of Clinton feeling unwell and even fainting. However, it was always explained due to extreme conditions such as fatigue or heat. Overall, it is highly unethical of the Trump campaign to target Clinton’s health as the premise of being unfit for office without presenting sufficient evidence.
In general, the advertisement was effective. The use of fear and the controversy around personal character attacks on Clinton helped the ad gain popularity. Trump was able to gain the support of a targeted demographic ranging from conservatives to a large portion of the population (even Democrats) that distrusted Clinton. Despite Trump’s campaign focusing strongly on domestic socio-economic issues, it was able to manipulate foreign policy threats against Clinton due to her highly controversial tenure as the Secretary of State. By creating a sense of fear and urgency, the ‘Dangerous’ advertisement fulfilled its objectives.
The phenomena of propaganda and disinformation have existed for a very long time and have their roots in the ancient world. Nevertheless, the concept of fake news has become particularly relevant due to recent political circumstances. McNair states that Donald Trump’s appearance on the political stage has made the term omnipresent and raised certain challenges related to the implementation of democratic governance (20).
Social media have been known to have a great deal of fake news, but it was the Trump election campaign and presidency that raised the question of its real impact on public processes. From a technical point of view, the Internet makes it possible to produce fake news in the form of “viral posts based on fictitious accounts made to look like news reports” (Tandoc et al. 138). Their credibility is a critical factor in their influence on public opinion. This paper seeks to define and classify fake news, analyzes its features in the context of social media, and describes its relationship to the political career of Donald Trump.
Definition and Content of Fake News
First and foremost, it is necessary to determine the difference between the classical concept of news and the actual definition of fake news. Researchers note that the term news is defined by various authors in several different ways (Tandoc et al. 140). Ordinary news primarily implies objectivity and reliability of the information provided. These criteria are the gold standard of journalists’ work, based on which their professionalism is assessed.
According to Tandoc et al., standards of objectivity and accuracy are fundamental elements of the definition of journalistic activity (140). McNair discusses an ironic term “truthiness” that gained popularity in the mid-2000s and described how the mainstream news media have attempted to create the impression of objectivity inherent in the journalistic profession (21). The irony is based on the fact that it is almost impossible to report the news objectively, and a particular journalist, in any case, presents information from his or her subjective perspective. Nevertheless, objectivity and credibility remain the main requirements for traditional news reports.
Fake news does not deliberately correspond to these criteria since it is not created to provide real data, but for some other purpose. Allcott and Gentzkow “define ‘fake news’ to be news articles that are intentionally and verifiably false, and could mislead readers” (213). This definition refers to its main factual characteristic but does not address the purpose of the creation. According to the opinion of the previous authors, “unintentional reporting mistakes,” “satire,” “false statements by politicians,” and “reports that are slanted or misleading but not outright false” are the “cousins of fake news” (Allcott and Gentzkow 214).
However, it bears mentioning that they have rather separate objectives. Unintentional reporting mistakes and satire are not aimed at misleading readers, while the last two types of fake news cousins are likely to be produced to influence public opinion.
The definition of fake news should take into account the current situation of its popularization and the context of its distribution in social media. This paper considers fake news as news articles distributed through modern digital media that intentionally distort information to influence public opinion. This definition is based on both the strong link between fake news and social media and its factual inaccuracy and intended purpose. Nonetheless, several researchers and authors provide alternative definitions of fake news, and therefore, it is reasonable to describe possible approaches to fake news typology.
Types of Fake News
Although fake news is now generally discussed in the context of a threat to democratic values, traditionally, it has not always been used for a utilitarian political purpose. According to McNair, fake news is created for a variety of reasons, including for the sake of art or entertainment. (20). Thus, it is possible to consider the typologies of fake news that are based on its goals and content.
A research was conducted to describe how various authors define fake news. It “identified six ways that previous studies have operationalized fake news: satire, parody, fabrication, manipulation, propaganda, and advertising” (Tandoc et al. 141). News parody and satire are of less interest since they do not imply an intention to influence public opinion. At the same time, this intention is present in advertising and propaganda. The difference between these types of fake news is the interest behind them. Advertising involves the goal of influencing the opinion of customers about the product or service being promoted to increase demand for it.
Propaganda aims to acquire or retain political power and refers to news information that is created by a political actor to change public perceptions (Tandoc et al. 146). News fabrication and manipulation are related to the type of information that is subject to distortion. In the first case, it is a text article, which has no factual evidence and is presented as a real news article. Photo and video manipulations involve the distortion of visual types of information.
It should be noted that the term fake news is sometimes used to denigrate reliable news reporting. Based on that, McNair identifies two types of fake news: “(1) news that is actually faked, of fabricated, intentionally by its authors; and (2) news that a political actor disagrees with” (24). Thus, this typology reflects the possibility of using the term both for real fake news and as an instrument of unfair political struggle.
Social Media Context
Social media have undoubtedly transformed the transmission and perception of information. Researchers note that the traditional definition of news has been challenged by its digitalization, and Internet platforms have provided an opportunity for non-journalistic users to reach a public audience (Tandoc et al. 139). Social media offer both an unprecedented freedom of expression and a high risk of misinformation. The journalistic profession is eroded in such circumstances, as any user can, to some extent, act as a news observer.
In modern times, print media, as well as radio and television, are losing their popularity as news sources. Tandoc et al. state that “a survey carried out in the United States found that 44 percent of the population get their news from Facebook” (139). Moreover, the researchers cite evidence that the level of trust in fake news among people who get acquainted with it is high enough (Allcott and Gentzkow 212). This means that any interested individual can use digital media to reshape public opinion. This quality is used by both private and public persons in their interests.
One of the most significant features of fake news on the Internet is its viral distribution. It is possible to state that the concept of fake news has become a meme in itself and functions along with the same principles. According to Tandoc et al., particular “fake stories go viral precisely because they are outrageous” (138). In part, this should be agreed, because even in the past, during the times of newspapers, television, and radio, unusual and emotionally charged news became more popular. However, the specifics of social media themselves and the phenomenon of meme distribution play an important role.
Fake news spreads faster online because Internet communications are based on the principle of information sharing. Thus, it turns out that the distributors of news are not a few publications, channels, or radio stations as before, but countless users. Another important point is that social media blurs the distinction between official journalists and ordinary users, and there is no clear criterion for distinguishing between true and false information. Thus, people tend to trust unverified sources and the fake news they report.
In addition to the fact that fake news has peculiarities of distribution and perception by readers in social media, it also has a certain impact on traditional journalistic activities. Researchers note that the mainstream press is also influenced by the discussion of fake news, and journalists often have to prove the reliability of false reports and sometimes defend themselves against the corresponding accusations (Tandoc et al. 149).
The paradox of this situation is that freedom of speech, which is not censored on the Internet, is, therefore, perceived to be infringed in the mainstream press. The term fake news is often used for either unfair competition or political struggle, as previously mentioned in McNair’s typology.
However, the impact of information space digitalization on democratic processes is not limited to fake news. Due to social media, more people can become familiar with the social and political agenda, which contributes to the development of participatory culture. There have been numerous civic initiatives that were incipient, and some were entirely held in the digital world. One of the most significant illustrations of that is the #metoo movement.
#Metoo Movement
This online initiative was aimed at encouraging victims of sexual harassment to talk about what happened and, thus, protect their rights. The perpetrators were well-known producers, directors, and other men, who were able to take advantage of their position. According to McNair, the Internet has transformed the sexual culture of liberal Western societies after Harvey Weinstein was exposed for sexual harassment of his employees and partners (19). This phenomenon has demonstrated how the information field and its news can affect reality. Several high executives, who have been accused of sex-related crimes, were dismissed, expelled from specific organizations, and were also subjected to public condemnation. This raises the issue of the impact of information events on public life, including politics.
Trump Presidency
The fake news problem was especially acute during Trump’s election campaign. Allcott and Gentzkow state that fake news circulated on social media before the election “was both widely shared and heavily tilted in favor of Donald Trump” (212). Researchers also note that some authors suggested that without the influence of fake news on the electorate’s opinion, Donald Trump might not have won the 2016 elections (Allcott and Gentzkow 212).
This confirms the earlier assertion that information in social media can influence real political processes. Social media are still used by the President of the United States to discuss the political agenda. Moreover, the statements of the Head of State, including those on Twitter, also have real consequences. Stelter and Darcy claim that the “violent political rhetoric” of Donald Trump could have contributed to “CNN’s New York office and several prominent Democratic politicians” receiving “threatening deliveries” of explosive devices. Thus, the words of the politician have real-life consequences, which raises the issue of the possibility of assigning legal responsibility for the dissemination of fake news.
As the phenomenon of fake news has escalated, the profession of journalism has changed significantly. As mentioned earlier, journalists are often accused of reporting fake news and, therefore, have to justify themselves. According to McNair, news reports that criticize Trump and his political decisions are declared fake news that is not credible (24). Thus, fake news was not only used to increase the popularity of one of the candidates in the election, but it is also now used to criticize undesirable reporters.
McNair states that journalists that were declared to be “fake news media reporters were barred from White House press briefings, and live briefings were themselves curtailed” (24). Such Trump’s policies certainly have an impact on journalistic activity and the freedom of access to information.
Donald Trump’s controversial political statements, which are posted on his personal Twitter account, are also disputed. The fact is that, as a rule, announcements of politicians are perceived as part of the political agenda, as an intention to take further action, or as a political position. Thus, such announcements can be perceived as news by readers. Grynbaum and Ember state that, since election day, Trump has made some provocative proposals, including a “U-turn in American diplomatic relations with Cuba and trumpeted false claims about millions of illegal votes”. This raises the question of whether these statements can be considered newsworthy.
Given that politicians usually express their real intentions in this way, and in this case, the President’s real intentions are not always confirmed, this information can be considered as news fake. Such statements on Twitter fully fit the definition of fake news given above. Some of Trump’s proposals can be perceived as news that is distributed through modern digital media that intentionally distort information to influence public opinion. According to Grynbaum and Ember, there are calls on social media to boycott the coverage of President Trump’s statement on Twitter by the news outlets. These may be the first steps towards identifying possible responsibility for the dissemination of social media fake news that deliberately misleads readers.
Conclusion
Fake news differs from traditional news in that it does not comply with the standards of objectivity and reliability and is made to influence public opinion. Researchers have different approaches to its typology and sometimes classify it according to its purposes. Fake news has its characteristics of distribution and perception by readers in social media space. This phenomenon became particularly urgent during the election campaign and the presidency of Donald Trump. The term fake news is used not only to refer to misleading stories that spread virally but also to vilify some journalists. Nevertheless, researchers, reporters, and other members of civil society are actively analyzing and discussing the issue and considering possible approaches to solving the problem.
Works Cited
Allcott, Hunt, and Matthew Gentzkow. “Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election.” Journal of Economic Perspectives, vol. 31, no. 2, 2017, pp. 211-236.
McNair, Brian. “Fake News and Democratic Culture.” Digitizing Democracy, edited by Aljosha Karim Schapals, Axel Bruns and Brian McNair, Routledge, 2018, pp. 17-27.
Donald Trump is a former president of the United States, whose image has been largely impacted by social media. Being an active user on Twitter, he has made controversial statements which abide by conservative worldviews and are unaccepted by liberal standards. Trump’s media presence has been widely discussed in the context of his behavior both before taking the post and during the presidency. Trump is the focus of this essay as a prominent case of a worldwide discourse regarding the negative effects of media on a politician’s image.
Social media has significantly helped Trump during his rise to power in 2016. His presidential campaign was unconventional, while his victory was surprising. According to Francia (2017), Trump focused the press attention on himself through his postings on Twitter. He gained publicity from employing free media without having to spend millions of dollars on advertising (Francia, 2017). Trump’s Twitter account was a way for the future president to clearly share his opinions and be open to the public, which was a factor in his success.
However, during his presidential term, Trump has gained much attention to his controversial statements that are not favored by liberals. The development of leftist thought has brought many critiques to Trump’s persona, and this has indirectly ruined his career. Over the period of 5 years, the political dynamics of America have changed. Although there has always been a balance between Republican and Democratic thoughts among Americans, there are slightly more democracy supporters now than in 2014 (“Wide Gender Gap,” 2018). This trend plays a role in Trump’s defeat in the recent elections, and it has partly been influenced by the former president’s controversies.
In his career, Trump has made many discriminatory statements against women. For example, the former president repeatedly referred to the diplomat Marie Yovanovitch simply by the term “woman,” without ever calling her by the last name (Prasad, 2019). This is an example of gendered language, which does not suggest the value of Yovanovitch as a politician and undermines her professional success (Prasad, 2019). The media focus on Trump’s opinions towards women has brought much attention to the public.
Furthermore, ethnic minorities are also commonly discriminated against by Donald Trump. His infamous border wall is another example of such behavior, which for a while has been a target of media discourse. Trump frequently stated that it is a measure of national security. However, this is not how the mass media portrays it. For instance, Lee (2019) called the construction “a monument to white supremacy” (para. 14). Many other platforms described the wall in a similar light, seeing Trump’s statements regarding it as a mere excuse to mask the politician’s racism towards Mexicans.
Trump openly states his opinions, which are often questionable and, therefore, are the target of the media. The combination of his image and the changing environment of the United States led to his failure to be re-elected for the second presidential term (Bryant, 2020). To maintain his career, Trump would need to adapt his public statements to the current political setting. This would mean a drastic shift to a more liberal, although dishonest, ruler. Considering Trump’s discriminatory statements, it is fair to assume that he is not a democratic leader. His judgments shed light on the true person he is, who should not be a country’s president. This is why the punishment of being impeached twice and losing the 2020 election fits Trump’s wrongdoings.
Social media can have a substantial impact on one’s career. Internet and press can prove beneficial in providing attention to a public image, and it can be an effective way of advertising, or, in the case of Donald Trump, political campaign promotion. Nevertheless, there are also negative effects of the internet on a persona. Once the controversial actions or opinions of a celebrity become known to the public, they are the center of discourse. In a changing environment, such behaviors of the past are less appropriate than they were before. The focus of media on such celebrity attributes, subsequently, can ruin one’s career.
Trade is a central aspect of any economy as goods and services are exchanged in return for financial capital. President Donald Trump has based his economic agenda on making modifications to the way that the mechanisms of international trade operations. While it is not necessarily his goal to reduce trade, he feels it is beneficial to the US economy to exit major international trade agreements, reduce trade deficits with countries such as China, and implement tariffs.
This strategy is based on nationalist political beliefs. It is something that many Americans support, as they also feel that the current trade strategy has led to detrimental consequences for the national economy and US world power. I disagree with this perspective, as the radical practices that the Trump administration is attempting to implement would damage the US economy.
Trade Restriction
One of the primary arguments for restrictions is based on reducing trade deficits. In this view, the US imports a significant amount of foreign goods, thus suppressing domestic production and hurting US businesses that choose not to outsource. However, trade deficits are purposefully established in specific bilateral agreements based on economic factors such as supply chains and economies of scale. This results in lower prices, reduced market fluctuations, and more variety of goods for consumers.
The policy cannot quickly alter these factors since any redistribution of trade balances would most likely result in shortages and skyrocketing prices. Also, assets spent by the US on imports flow back into the country through domestic investment, which increases productivity and overall growth. Any attempt to eliminate the deficit would result in disrupting the net inflow of investment, lowering market values, and raising interest rates.
One of Trump’s proposed ways to reduce deficits and bring production back to the US is through increasing import tariffs on critical products such as steel. However, as is evident in the history of trade policy, the results would be catastrophic. The purpose of Trump’s policy is to implement tariffs on materials, which could potentially revitalize a domestic industry that has declined steadily due to the availability of cheaper foreign alternatives. However, the tariff attempts to punish other countries and disrupt the process of international trade without addressing the actual issue: a US industry that has fallen behind and become uncompetitive.
Conclusion
Prices will rise as producers will be forced to make up the losses due to paying tariffs or purchasing significantly more expensive materials domestically. Furthermore, firms will have to rapidly cut unnecessary expenditures, causing massive layoffs across the various industries and sectors of the economy that will be impacted by tariffs on raw materials. Various economists and national governments have expressed concern about this policy, predicting the possibility of a trade war. American companies and products will be burdened with higher tariffs abroad. The global economy will shift away from the US, leaving the country with less influence, assets, and GDP, which does not benefit the US population in any form.
The election of Donald Trump has brought numerous changes in the social, political, and economic life of the United States. Despite that the nature of these changes is debatable, it could be hardly doubted that Mr. Trump has vastly influenced modern America. However, it is of high importance to analyze how practices and policies, implemented by the president, has impacted the economy of the nation. This paper aims to answer the question if Mr. Trump’s decisions influenced the economic condition of the United States positively or adversely.
First of all, it is essential to discuss the tax reform and Mr. Trump’s perspective on that question. In several decades prior to the election of the current president, the marginal rates were growing along with the expansion of carve-outs and credits. This process resulted in significantly high tax rates, namely 39,6% for individuals and 35% for corporations. Therefore, when Donald Trump was elected, he proposed a plan for the development and improvement of the current tax system. This plan included two primary aspects: to change both individual and corporate taxes. Concerning the personal level, it was proposed to do the following: (1) to reduce the number of tax brackets from seven to three, (2) to provide more generous deductions, raising them from 6300 dollars to 15000 dollars for single filers. On the corporate level, it was proposed to cut the tax rates for the majority of businesses, corporations, and partnerships. In particular, Mr. Trump suggests that pass-through income should not be a subject to individual taxes and the tax rate for it should be set by 15%.
Concerning the implementation of the discussed tax reform, it is possible to notice that there are numerous procedural hurdles, which put it into question. For example, the proposition to replace the Affordable Care Act (ACA) by passing the American Health Care Act poses significant challenges for the implementation of the tax reform due to the loss in revenue, caused by the repealing of taxes levied by the ACA. Also, it is possible to observe that lowering marginal tax rates by reducing exclusions will create a situation when a small group of people loses tax breaks and a more prominent group of people benefits from the fast economic growth. In overall, it should be noted that Mr. Trump’s tax reform, being a significantly beneficial document for individuals and businesses, is far from completion in its implementation.
Further, it is possible to discuss one of the most controversial policies, which were implemented by Mr. Trump, namely the immigration policy, and its economic impact. After Mr. Trump was elected, he signed several executive orders (EOs), related to the immigration. These EOs included such decisions as the restriction of travel from several Muslim countries (namely, Syria, Iran, Yemen, Sudan, Somalia, Libya, and Iraq), reinforcement of the system for deportation of illegal immigrants, and the strengthening of the border control. In overall effect, it is possible to suggest that these decisions have a purpose of establishing a more restrictive immigration policy, compared to the previous ones. Therefore, the impact of such policy-making in the economy of the United States could be predicted.
One of the principal implications which are caused by the implementation of new immigration policy will be the reduction of foreign workers’ amount. For example, the restriction for traveling from the mentioned Muslim countries has significantly affected the potential students and highly-educated professionals, making them choose for a destination other than the United States. It is evident from numerous studies that foreign scientists and professionals contribute to the development of American scientific innovations along with the productivity level on the local scale. Therefore, it could be concluded that there would be a significant decrease in productivity and salaries of American workers caused by the reduction of foreign specialists.
Concerning the reinforcement of deportation policy, it should be stated that the entire economic sectors of America would be adversely influenced by it. It is evident that the illegal immigrants are holding the workplaces which are not demanded by the native-born American workers, who prefer such jobs as supervisors, managers, and accountants in the same sectors. Therefore, it is evident that the reduction of the unregistered workforce will influence negatively on the current state of the United States economy on large-scale, and it will slow down the development of numerous economic sectors and decrease the number of workplaces for native-born American workers.
However, the positive impact of Mr. Trump’s policies should also be mentioned. First of all, the significant growth in stock market rates appears to be one of the principal positive changes, conducted by the president. It is estimated that since 8 November 2016 the equates increased in value of around 4 trillion dollars. Another positive aspect that should be mentioned is the growth of the U. S. GDP rate, which has averaged 2,5 percent over the first three quarters of 2013. Nevertheless, it is evident that Mr. Trump fails to provide the promised 4 percent growth, and due to the failure of his other economic policies, it is possible to conclude that the current increase of GDP rates is conditioned by the legacy of Obama’s presidency.
In conclusion, it should be stated that, based on the current policies of Mr. Trump, the future of American economy is worrying. This paper investigated several political trends related to new immigration policy that could have a significant adverse impact on the development of the U. S. Also. The positive changes were also investigated; however, they do not appear to be considered beneficial.
Mayda, A. M., & Peri, G. (2017). The economic impact of US immigration policies in the Age of Trump. In C. P. Bown (Ed.), Economics and Policy in the Age of Trump (pp. 69-78). London, UK: CEPR Press.
Business conflicts are inevitable. Conflicts may range from small disagreements to big and costly disagreements. Sometimes, if left unattended, minor conflicts may easily become major conflicts, thereby creating devastating consequences for the parties involved.
Businesses may suffer reputational damage, time and resource wastage, and the loss of future investment opportunities (among other ramifications) from business conflicts (Davis, 2012). To avoid these consequences, many businesses prefer to avoid conflict altogether, as opposed to solving them.
However, some businesses are unsuccessful in doing so. The Trump Organization is one such entity that has failed to avoid conflict in the last decade.
This article delves into the intrigues of a recently concluded dispute between the organization and New York-based licensing firm, ALM Unlimited. This paper explains the details of the conflict, including the cost of the conflict, the resolution of the conflict, and the undertones of the disagreement.
The Case
Informed of its role in helping the flamboyant real estate developer, Donald Trump, to secure a lucrative clothing contract with Phillips-Van Heusen (PVH) Company, ALM Unlimited named the Trump Organization in a lawsuit for unlawful termination of remittances to its organization (Clarke, 2013). In its defense, the Trump Organization claimed it had wrongfully remitted payments to ALM Unlimited.
The company also said its payment to ALM Unlimited was supposed to be a one-off payment (McCoy, 2011). Moreover, according to Donald Trump, ALM Unlimited played a minimal role in helping the Trump Organization to secure the multimillion-dollar contract with PVH.
In his submissions at a New York court, Donald Trump revealed that his company had received above $3,000,000 in royalties from the contentious deal (Clarke, 2013).
Cost of the Conflict
The cost of conflict is the amount of money a party aims to gain or lose from a business conflict. However, Davis (2012) says that when businesses are in conflict, the cost of the conflict often transcends the amount of money quoted in lawsuits, or the fees paid out to the lawyers.
Instead, he says, “The financial and emotional effects, wasted time, and lost productivity of businesses and individuals contribute to the overall costs of conflict” (Davis, 2012, p. 32). An overexposure of conflict may further lead to more damages, especially when the warring parties have to do business with other companies.
Observers have said that the conflict between the Trump Organization and ALM Unlimited transcends the cost of litigation (McCoy, 2011). They argue that the Trump Organization largely bases its success from the strength of the “Trump” brand.
Therefore, an overexposure of the brand to business conflict paints a bad picture for the company because it hurts the business. McCoy (2011) affirms this fact when he says overexposure is bad for business because other organizations will be hesitant to do business with a defamed brand.
Despite the merit of these arguments, this paper acknowledges the importance of understanding conflict on a case-by-case basis. Stated differently, the business conflict between the Trump Organization and ALM Unlimited presents unique dynamics that inform its cost of conflict.
Concisely, based on the arguments advanced by the Trump Organization and ALM Unlimited, the amount of contention was about $75,000 annually. This is the cost of the conflict. This figure comes from the amount of money paid by the Trump organization to ALM Unlimited (since the two parties started business).
In detail, since the Trump organization entered into the clothing business with Phillips-Van Heusen, it has paid about $350,000 to ALM. The organization made these payments between 2004 and 2008 when it stopped the payments (this has been a four-year stretch).
Based on calculations of the amount received by ALM international over the four-year stretch, the company wanted periodical payments of $75,000 annually.
Resolution of Conflict
Businesses choose to resolve conflicts in different ways. Some choose to resolve conflicts through personal agreements (business-to-business agreements); others choose to identify an arbitrator to mediate the conflict, while many businesses seek a legal solution to conflict resolution. The conflict between the Trump Organization and ALM Unlimited ended through a legal solution.
A Supreme Court judge, based in New York, ruled that the Trump Organization had no case to answer in the above-mentioned business conflict (Clarke, 2013). The judge sidestepped a sitting jury, which heard the case for close to a week, by issuing a direct order that dismissed the case because of lack of sufficient evidence to show that the two organizations had a binding contract. This ruling ended the four-year conflict.
Conclusion
It is often difficult to predict the ramifications of business conflicts, or their end. However, for ALM Unlimited and the Trump Organization, their conflict was resolved through legal means, without any serious ramifications for any of the parties. The resolution of conflict through the courts should however be regarded as a last resort for doing so because less expensive and expeditious methods exist for solving such conflicts (outside courts).
Arbitration is one example of an inexpensive and expeditious process for solving business conflicts. Nonetheless, regardless of the nature or magnitude of business conflicts, they should be resolved expeditiously because delaying the conflict resolution process only worsens the outcome.
Donald Trump is a billionaire mainly involved in real estate development and planning. Trump began his career when he was still working at his father’s company, which focused on providing affordable housing to middle-income families. He graduated from the University of Wharton in 1968 with a bachelor’s degree in economics. In 1971, young Trump moved to Manhattan and became involved in a much bigger building, creating a name for self, which gave him an opportunity to acquire the Taj Mahal casino from Merv Griffin and Resorts International in 1988. Donald Trump is “a power-oriented business leader and celebrity with a brusque and autocratic leadership style” (DuBrin, 2010). Trump is the kind of leader who contributes heavily to decision-making and takes into consideration any idea that comes his way.
Over the years, Trump has ventured into different areas, thus expanding the Trump brand in real estate, hospitality, and entertainment industries. He has succeeded in marketing. The Trump brand and products include Trump Financial, Trump Sales and Leasing, and the Trump Entrepreneur, previously Trump University. He has expanded into restaurants and even has his own clothing line, making his Trump brand to be valued by Forbes at $200 million and net worth at $3.2 billion. In 2010, Trump announced he wanted to run for the presidency, but he later retracted in 2011.
After buying the Taj Mahal casino, his expansion led to publicized financial problems that put him into millions of dollars owed to the New York council. During this time, it was believed that New York was going bankrupt; however, he pushed through all the doubt bestowed upon him and moved forward with a never give up attitude. The winning attitude has attributed to his success over the years, even though he suffered a financial setback in the 1990s, which he explained by poor financial backup (Shrimp, 2010). One of his successes is the Trump International Hotel and Tower-Honolulu; this, as he explains, is buyers paid non-refundable deposits purchasing every unit within a day.
His comeback after suffering a financial setback took a lot of souls searching, and this lesson has greatly allowed him to make mistakes and come up with solutions (Peiperl, Arthur, & Anand, 2002). In his book, ‘How I Turned My Biggest Challenge into Success’, Trump encourages his readers that in order to succeed, one must fully understand his/her adversities. Moreover, Trump has supported many charities over the years through fundraising dinners, photo exhibits, and so on (Trump, 2010).
In addition, Donald Trump has revolutionized the world of business; he has captured the essence in which business acumen entails. He motivates by challenging business spirit to achieve more than the desired amount. His extensive business background in commercial real estate transactions and motivation to potential investors has led to his high appraisal in business circles. He has been able to mentor other young businessmen by offering jobs in real estate projects as well as by encouraging them to think like conquerors in business. Donald Trump and his family, especially his daughter, are deeply involved in charitable fundraising programs aimed at contributing to charities worldwide, including the UN. Trump emphasizes the need for work and personal life balance, emphasizing the importance of family and time to relax (Trump, 2010).
His shrewd attitude has propelled him to the achievement of more than many businessmen have succeeded. Donald Trump has a hands-on approach in his work, and in all the building he has raised, most decisions were made by him. His attitude on how he relates to his employees is respectable, and this is reciprocated highly by quality work and productivity. The way he handled the challenges of bankruptcy by putting the interest of his investors before him shows selflessness in his part.
During his time in real estate, Donald Trump lost millions, but through perseverance, he was able to make massive returns on his investments. In my career, perseverance and determination through tough economic situations will contribute to career growth. His story impacts highly on the importance of keeping good relations with my employer and colleagues, thus creating a healthy working environment. Overall, he is one person and a leader that motivates my ambitions about the direction I would like my career to follow.
Reference List
DuBrin, A 2010, Essentials of management, Cengage Learning, Ohio.
Peiperl, M, Arthur, M & Anand, N 2002, Career creativity: explorations in the remaking of work, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Shrimp, T 2010, Advertising Promotion and Other Aspects of Integrated Marketing Communications, Cengage Learning, Ohio.
Trump, D 2010, Think Like a Champion: An Informal Education in Business and Life, Vanguard.
Trump, D 2010, Trump Never Give Up: How I Turned My Biggest Challenges into Success, John Wiley and sons, New Jersey.