Category: DNA

The incidence of malaria has been increasing at an alarming rate. Nearly 3000 million people are reported to be affected annually and 1/3 of them die. Confronting malaria has achieved good progress in the elimination of mosquito species that would carry Plasmodium parasites by eradiation of breeding grounds and using DDT (Crampton et al., 1992). But, the problem is not yet solved due to the emerging new incident cases. The control of malaria has been a daunting task for health care professionals. This could be due to the resistance potential acquired by the wide range of mosquitoes that may act as vectors. With the advancements in science and technology, much emphasis was given to molecular biology approaches. Earlier, a synthetic, non-radioactive-based DNA probe has been a choice for the efficient management of vector, Anopheles gambiae complex. Similarly, gene manipulation was preferred to disrupt the disease transmittance (Crampton et al., 1992).

Carlson et al (1995) have developed tools and methods for genetic alteration of mosquitoes, and RNA and DNA virus gene-targeting vehicles, and potential antiviral gene constructs, as they appear promising for the transformation of mosquitoes that show resistance to pathogens. Hence, arthropod genomes have become favorite targets for genetic manipulation of malaria control. However, literature is still limited on the strategies intended for exploring the genetic aspects/ control of mosquitoes.

• Aims and Objectives: The aims and objectives of the proposal are 1. To apply the modern biotechnology tools to understand the key molecular machinery /mechanisms that may be contributing to the development of disease 2. To develop and establish a standardized inexpensive protocol that could address the problem.
• Approaches: Boete and Koella (2002) described a theory based on genetic modification where encapsulation was the strategy to control malaria. Here, genes connected to the encapsulation process were studied as their distribution remained unknown in the natural populations. So, a model needs to be developed based on population genetical and epidemiological processes as this would facilitate to assess gene transmission intensity, resistance obtained through evolution, and tools driving the genes (Boete & Koella, 2002). Genetic markers, sexing and genetic sterilization need to be employed to better understand the epidemiology of malaria vectors and pathogens. Initially, the genome sequence of arthropods needs to be understood to gain insights into the key gene pathways responsible for disease transmission. Here, the transposon sequence will be deciphered to design suitable probes for gene silencing or elimination (Sparagano & De Luna, 2009). This is to ensure the method of post-integration elimination of transposon sequences that would stabilize any insertion in genetically-modified insects (Sparagano & De Luna, 2009). This is nothing but the Sterile Insect Technique where certain metabolic pathways would be altered to better sidestep or block the development of offspring released from the parent insect (Sparagano & De Luna, 2009). The next strategy is the use of bee venom phospholipase A2 (PLA2) which would inhibit ookinete invasion of the mosquito midgut.

Here, the protein-coding sequence would be mutated to deactivate the PLA2. The DNA sequence specific to the mutated PLA2 (mPLA2) would be finally placed in the downstream region of a mosquito midgut-specific promoter (Anopheles gambiae peritrophic protein 1 promoter, AgPer1) (Sparagano & De Luna, 2009). This manipulated gene construct would be used to transform mosquitoes. Transgenic cell lines would be developed and checked whether they would circumvent Plasmodium gallinaceum oocyst development (Rodrigues et al., 2008).

The other methods to be followed are that we would be altering the non-structural genes 2A and 4B and the 3non-coding region of the yellow fever virus to determine the role of genetic markers of viral dissemination from the mosquitoes, Aedes aegypti midgut (McElroy et al., 2006). For this purpose, we would be obtaining the clones of disseminating (Asibi) and non-disseminating (17D) yellow fever viruses (YFV), to develop chimeric viruses for testing the attenuation process of YFV and its dissemination (McElroy et al., 2006). Sexing lines harboring novel genes would be produced for the mosquito under investigation, for example, Anopheles stephensi, the most important human vector (Catteruccia, Benton & Crisanti, 2005). Male mosquitoes, at their 3rd instar larval stage, with green fluorescent protein (EGFP) expression under the control region of beta2-tubulin promoter would be recognized by their fluorescent gonads (Catteruccia, Benton & Crisanti, 2005). These would be sorted out from females both manually and through machines. To better understand the microbial diversity of midgut, a conventional culture method would be applied followed by an analysis of a 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene sequence library (Pidiyar et al., 2004). This strategy would be to identify the microbiota that may serve as important targets for the genetic control of malaria about disease transmission (Pidiyar et al., 2004). Gene expression would be controlled by removing certain DNA sequences from the integrated transgenes in insects (Jasinskiene et al., 2003). This is to allow the analysis of vital structural elements that could regulate gene expression (Jasinskiene et al., 2003). Similarly, control elements would be manipulated along with the single integration such that the overall genome would be benefitted (Jasinskiene et al., 2003). Here, a recombination system matching with a location of the core-lox site would be employed to excise a gene from transgenic mosquitoes (Jasinskiene et al., 2003). Next, to check the influence of the incorporated foreign genes on the development of new alleles, the spread rate of introduced genes would be determined (Zhong et al.,2006).

For this purpose, the kinetics of gene incorporation between two different geographical populations of mosquitoes would be determined with techniques like microsatellite markers and amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs). This could better help us to gain insights into the role of genetic markers in the development of a large genetic differentiation between the two populations (Zhong et al., 2006). A phage display library would be constructed to detect peptide SM1-sequences that would bind to the midgut surfaces and salivary glands of mosquitoes (Jacobs-Lorena, 2003). The transgenic mosquitoes thus obtained would be checked to determine the expression of an SM1 tetramer that is specific to the region of the gut-specific promoter (Jacobs-Lorena, 2003). This result would be correlated with the determination of phospholipase A2 that acts as another effector region (Jacobs-Lorena, 2003). This would be followed by another experiment described earlier. According to this method, certain secreted factors and putative receptors would be isolated from the salivary glands of mosquitoes (Arcà et al., 1999). By employing the Signal Sequence Trap technique, the expression of cDNAs in the salivary gland region would be identified. Similarly, the expression of certain homologs of genes namely the apyrase and D7 would be determined in parallel with cDNAs (Arcà et al., 1999). Finally, to better dissect the connection between the digestive system pathways and the storage of feed in the midgut of mosquitoes, factors that control the digestion physiology would be focused on. This will be done by the introduction of Soy trypsin inhibitor(STI) to a protein meal.To assess whether this method inhibited digestion or not, SDS PAGE analysis of feces would be carried out to check for the expression of indigested proteins.

The period required for carrying out this project would three years. The first year for data and sample collection.The subsequent years for laboratory analysis. The estimated cost would be nearly 10,000 USD.

References

Crampton, J,M., Comley, I., Eggleston, P., Hill, S., Hughes, M., Knapp, T., Lycett, G., Urwin, R., Warren, A. (1992).Molecular biological approaches to the study of vectors in relation to malariacontrol. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz, 87, 43-9.

Carlson, J., Olson, K., Higgs, S., Beaty, B. (1995). Molecular genetic manipulation of mosquito vectors. Annu Rev Entomol, 40, 359-88.

Boëte, C., Koella, J,C. (2002). A theoretical approach to predicting the success of genetic manipulation ofmalaria mosquitoes in malaria control. Malar J, 1, 3.

Sparagano, O, A., De Luna, C,J. (2008). From population structure to genetically- engineered vectors: new ways to control vector-borne diseases. Infect Genet Evol, 8, 520- 525.

Rodrigues, F,G,, Santos, M,N., de Carvalho, T,X., Rocha, B,C., Riehle, M,A., Pimenta, P,F., Abraham,E,G., Jacobs-Lorena, M., Alves de Brito, C,F., Moreira, L,A (2008). Expression of a mutated phospholipase A2 in transgenic Aedes fluviatilis mosquitoes impacts Plasmodium gallinaceum development. Insect Mol Biol, 17,175-83.

McElroy, K, L., Tsetsarkin, K,A., Vanlandingham, D.L., Higgs, S. (2006). Manipulation of the yellow fever virus non-structural genes 2A and 4B and the3non-coding region to evaluate genetic determinants of viral dissemination from the Aedes aegypti midgut. Am J Trop Med Hyg, 75, 1158-64.

Catteruccia, F., Benton, J,P., Crisanti, A. (2005). An Anopheles transgenic sexing strain for vector control. Nat Biotechnol, 23, 1414-7.

Pidiyar, V,J., Jangid, K., Patole, M,S., Shouche, Y.S.(2004). Studies on cultured and uncultured microbiota of wild culex quinquefasciatus mosquito midgut based on 16s ribosomal RNA gene analysis. Am J Trop Med Hyg, 70, 597-603.

Jasinskiene, N., Coates, C,J., Ashikyan, A., James, A,A. (2003). High efficiency, site-specific excision of a marker gene by the phage P1 cre-loxP system in the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti. Nucleic Acids Res, 31, e147.

Zhong, D,, Temu, E,A., Guda, T., Gouagna, L., Menge, D., Pai, A., Githure, J., Beier, J,C., Yan, G. (2006). Dynamics of gene introgression in the African malaria vector Anopheles gambiae. Genetics, 172(4):2359-65.

Jacobs-Lorena, M (2003). Interrupting malaria transmission by genetic manipulation of anopheline mosquitoes. J Vector Borne Dis, 40, 73-7.

Arcà, B., Lombardo,.F, Capurro, M., della Torre, A., Spanos, L., Dimopoulos, G., Louis, C.,James, A,A., Coluzzi, M. (1999). Salivary gland-specific gene expression in the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae. Parassitologia, 41, 483-7.

Factors controlling the retention or elimination of protein meals by the midgut of Aedes aegypti females.Abstracts of the Fourth International Symposium on Molecular Insect Science. Journal of Insect Science, 2:17,70. Web.

A study conducted at Paul Sabatier University found that societal shifts caused ancient hunter-gatherers to prefer male horses. The research used DNA from the remains of ancient horses to determine alterations in animal husbandry preferences. The study of DNA, starting with the human genome, has broadened to allow researchers to explore changes in various animal patterns throughout history and has expanded the scope of research in fields as varied as criminology and marine biology.

History

Ancient DNA can be stored in archaeological, paleontological, and historical exhibits, allowing scientists to examine the genome before, during, and after various historical periods and events. DNA is described as the biomolecule that encodes the instructions to produce polypeptides and functional RNAs (ribonucleic acids) (Tuross & Campana, 2018, p. 205). Overall, it helps to determine biological characteristics transferred from ancestors to descendants. Two scholars Watson and Crick were the first to introduce the structure of DNA, although the concept started to develop a century before that (Watson & Crick, 1953). This finding is essential for the investigation of early epigenomics as it is able to give data on evolution, nutritional state, and overall wellness of living objects throughout history. Furthermore, in 1984, Russell Higuchi and other contributors presented findings of endogenous DNA bits stored in a hundred and forty years old skin of the extinct quagga, a subspecies of zebra (Tuross & Campana, 2018). This research confirmed the durability of ancient DNA.

Moreover, Kary Mullis and his associates discovered the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in the mid-1980s. Thus, the well-organized examination of this biomolecule became feasible. The utilization of PCR to answer various historical questions contributed to an outburst of ancient DNA (aDNA) studies in the 1990s (Tuross & Campana, 2018). Most of the aDNA analysis concentrated on mitochondrial DNA because of its significant copy amount per cell that helped increase PCR. Thus, its ancestral heritage made phylogenetic study simpler. However, the science continued to evolve, and in 2005 high throughput sequencing was fully developed (Tuross & Campana, 2018). These new technologies were able to present a sequence of ancient genomes in their entirety.

Current Event

DNA research has expanded to cover nearly every living organism, as well as being used to uncover more information about long-dead animals and beings. The study by Antoine Fages on ancient horses displays how DNA can be used to track changes that have been taking place in human horse-breeding preferences for nearly 4000 years (Chambers, 2020). The implications of such findings go beyond a simple understanding of what proportion of ancient horses were male or female. The study indicates a societal shift among human hunter-gatherers and allows scientists to understand better when the first selective horse breeding programs started. The findings could also allow for a better understanding of changes in the labor division among early human groups.

DNA research, in general, has become a household term and appears in many facets of life. DNA databases raise questions of cybersecurity and ethics among crime scene investigators as more, and more often, humans submit DNA for various tests and procedures (Edwards et al., 2020). On a macro level, DNA has helped scientists understand genetic differences in marine species in geographically adjacent ecosystems. A 2019 study of changes in marine species allowed for a better comprehension of the genetic map of fish on the North American West Coast (Palumbi et al., 2019). Along with expanding the data on marine biology, this study has implications in climate change research, showing that marine populations may be able to survive changes in their environment. However, the rate of adaption is still unclear (Palumbi et al., 2019). Overall, DNA research, while originating as merely the mapping of the human genome, has expanded to cover fields as wide-ranging as the biodiversity of the ocean and criminology.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Chamberss article on the DNA of ancient horses and horse breeding is but one in a vast pool of work utilizing DNA. Since the human genome was mapped in the 1950s, understanding DNA has allowed researchers to conduct detailed studies of humans and other organisms.

References

Chambers, J. (2020). Ancient DNA reveals a Bronze Age bias for male horses. American Association for the Advancement of Science. 

Edwards, L., Schafer, B., & Harbinja, E. (2020). Future Law: Emerging Technology, Regulation, and Ethics. Edinburgh University Press.

Palumbi, S. R., Evans, T. G., Pespeni, M. H., & Somero, G. N. (2019). Present and future adaptation of marine species assemblages: DNA-based insights into climate change from studies of physiology, genomics, and evolution. Oceanography 32(3): 8293.

Tuross, N., & Campana, M. (2018). Ancient DNA. The Science of Roman History (pp. 205-223). Princeton University Press.

Watson, J. D., & Crick, F. H. (1953). Molecular structure of nucleic acids; A structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid. Nature, 171(4356), 737738. 

Mutation versus polymorphism

Although both mutations and polymorphism occur due to changes in DNA sequence, mutations are rare and lead to abnormal alleles. In other words, a mutation can best be understood and defined as a change in the DNA sequence that occurs in a small portion of the gene population i.e. less than 1% and is normally induced by an external factor outside the cell (Weatherbee et. al., 2005). Conversely, polymorphism is a change in the DNA sequence that occurs in a wider portion of the population i.e. more than 1%. Usually, polymorphisms are associated with healthy species while mutations are often disease-causing (Pfohl-Leszkowicz & Manderville, 2007). Since diseases compromise a persons ability to survive then they will often be rare and hence will be classified as mutations. Therefore, the main distinction between these two terms is in their prevalence.

Types of mutations

Mutations are classified based on different premises. Sometimes this can be based on a structure where they can be: gene point mutations (nucleotides exchanged for others) (Ira et. al., 2009), gene insertions ( nucleotides are added onto DNA through frameshifts or alteration of the splice mutation site), gene deletions(nucleotides are removed DNA) (Thornton & Orengo, 2005), chromosomal amplification (increased numbers of genes caused by greater duplication of genes at different parts of the chromosome) (Wang et. al., 2003), chromosomal translocations (exchange of gene parts between chromosomes which are not homologous), chromosomal deletions (loss of chromosomal parts hence gene loss), chromosomal inversions (a part of a chromosome gets reversed), interstitial deletions (A chromosome loses a part of its DNA thus bringing together different genes). Sometimes mutations may be classified based on function such that anti morphic mutations refer to mutations that go against natural alleles (Coluzzi & Ayala, 2005). Lethal mutations cause death, reversion mutations restore original phenotypes, amorphic mutations lead to loss of functions in the allele but are recessive and neomorphic mutations cause abnormal functions but are dominant (Keightley & EyreWalker, 2007), (Whitcomb & Pfutzer, 1999).

Causes of mutations

Mutations occur when mistakes occur in DNA duplication. All cells need to divide and this can only occur when the DNA sequence is replicated into the new cell. Since all DNA is double-stranded, then cell division starts by the separation of the two strands. A DNA polymerase will copy the sequences and thus create two separate DNA molecules. However, when the polymerase goes wrong then a mutation can occur (Howand & Drake, 1999), (Hurles, 2004). The other major cause of mutations is environmental. Chemicals and ultraviolet radiations can change nucleotide bases so that they resemble other nucleotides thus pairing with wrong bases and causing mutations. These external agents can also lead to the breakage of phosphate bonds which lead to different proteins. Examples of such environmental agents include excessive sunlight, smoking, chemicals, and other radiation-emitting sources (Bertam, 2000).

Somatic versus germline cells and clinical significance

Germinal mutations occur in germ cells and are not expressed phenotypically in the person that has the mutation but is passed to the next generation through reproduction. Somatic cell mutations occur in body tissues and are not perpetuated to the next generation (Shibata et. al., 1993). In this case, they may lead to the development of daughter cells with the same mutations thus leading to the appearance of an extension of the concerned individual. One such instance is cancerous tumors. Clinically, this will illustrate whether the mutation will be carried forward or will die with the individual who had the mutation (Royal et. al., 1986).

Importance of phenotypic mutations

It is crucial to know the phenotypic expression of mutation because this determines the prevalence of disease or variation in appearance. It is usually through the phenotypic expression that one can see that genetic mutations have taken place (Sawyer et. al., 2007). Furthermore, these phenotypic expressions allow one to predict inheritance patterns since individuals with mutations may not phenotypically express changes in their genotype but these may be seen in their offspring. The clinical significance allows practitioners to trace inherited diseases such as Huntingtington disease which is inherited and dominant and others like cystic fibrosis which are recessive (Gerstein & Harrison, 2002). Therefore offspring can receive medical assistance easily if a family history of diseases is well known. Suspected diseases can be detected more accurately if such phenotypic information is known about parents.

References

Bertam, J. (2000). Molecular biology of cancer. Molecular Aspects Medical Journal, 21(6), 167-223.

Coluzzi, M. & Ayala, F. (2005). Chromosome speciation: humans, mosquitoes and drosophila. Proc Natl Acad Sci, 102(1), 6535-42.

Gerstein, M. & Harrison, P. (2002). Studying genomes through the aeons: protein families and pseudogenes. Molecular biology Journal, 318(5), 1155-1174.

Keightley, P. & EyreWalker, A. (2007). The distribution of fitness effects of new mutations. Genetics, 8(8), 610-618.

Howand, J. & Drake, J. (1999). Mutation rates among RNA viruses. Proc Natl Acad Sci, 96(24), 13910-3.

Hurles, M. (2004). Gene duplication: the genomic trade in spare parts. PLOS biology, 2(7), 206.

Ira, G., Rosenberg, S., Lupski, J., Hastings, P. (2009). Mechanisms of change in gene copy number. Nature reviews genetics, 10(8), 551-564.

Pfohl-Leszkowicz, A. & Manderville, R. (2007). An overview on toxicity and carcinogenicity in animals and humans. Mol Nutr Food Jnl, 51(1), 61-99.

Royal, A., Langelier, Y. & Pilon, L. (1986). Herpes simplex virus type 2 mutagenesis. Molecular Cell Biology, 6(8), 2977-2983.

Sawyer, S., Zhang, Z., Hartl, D. & Parsch, J. (2007). Prevalence of positive selection among neutral amino acid replacements in Drosophila. Proc Natl Acad Sci, 104(16), 6504-6510.

Shibata, D., Perucho, M., Malkhosyan, S., Peinado, M. & Ionov, Y. (1993). Ubiquitous somatic mutations in simple repeated sequences reveal colonical carcinogenesis. Nature Journal, 363(6429), 558-561.

Thornton, J. & Orengo, C. (2005). Protein families and their evolution. Annual Review Biochemistry, 74(867-900).

Weatherbee, S., Genier, J., Carroll, S. (2005). From DNA to diversity: molecular genetics and the evolution of animal design. Oxford: Blackwell.

Wang, W., Thornton, K., Betran, E. & Long, M. (2003). The origin of new genes. Natural Review Genetics, 4(11), 865-875.

Whitcomb, D. & Pfutzer, R. (1999). Trypsinogen mutations in chronic pancreatitis gastroenterology, Mol Biol,117, 1507-1508.

Introduction

The depth of studies increases alongside the technological progress of humanity. Genetics is one of the scientific fields that benefit greatly from these advancements, as many of its aspects rely on the analysis of massive data sets. However, when scientists began working with human DNA, it became apparent that its immense complexity covers highly personal information, which falls under the protection of privacy laws of many countries (Bonomi et al., 2020). Nowadays, disputes over additional measures of genome sequence cyphering remain open. This essay will review the presented issue from the position of the scientific community and lawmakers.

Main body

There are several challenges that lie ahead of security specialists when dealing with genome sequences. First of all, it is impossible to anonymize this information and keep it useable at the same time since depersonalized genome loses many aspects that are crucial for researchers (Mahdi et al., 2017). Second, DNA data must remain accessible from numerous locations across the globe, meaning that it must be shared via the Internet. Moreover, healthcare data laws require different handling methods depending on the country of an individual who provided their DNA (Bonomi et al., 2020). The dangers of data sharing are apparent, yet there is no unified solution that could be applied to this case.

Sharing genomic information is essential for many types of research in this field of study. However, data leaks are inevitable, especially when the security measures among companies that handle genome sequences vary depending on financing (Bonomi et al., 2020). One of the most vulnerable spots in data security is the transfer of information. Privacy during sharing can be achieved through cryptographic algorithms, although they impose additional expenditures and slow down the working process (Bonomi et al., 2020). Several healthcare institutions work closely with cybersecurity organizations to develop a complex set of data protection measures to ensure that these uniquely individual sequences will remain undecipherable in case of a leakage (Bonomi et al., 2020). IT-security companies must cooperate with researchers closely to alleviate this problem.

For a proper resolution of this issue, all parties must be involved in the process. Collaboration of governmental entities, cryptographers, and geneticists is essential for ensuring that a chosen method of data protection will be both secure and keep information usable for scientific purposes (Yakubu & Chen, 2019). The ability to trace identities through DNA sequences may become more accessible in the nearest future, which would open opportunities for criminals to utilize this knowledge for their benefit (Yakubu & Chen, 2019). While it is in the best interests of the scientific community to have more open access to DNA banks, governments would want to avoid providing more opportunities for fraudulent activities.

Conclusion

In conclusion, additional layers of data protection for genome sequences are essential, as there is a great deal of personal information hidden within DNA. Since these security measures may hamper scientific advantages, companies should work on creating algorithms that will be easy to use by researchers and next to indecipherable by unauthorized parties. It is understandable that governments would want to create additional restrictive policies that may harm the ability of scientists to freely share their studies related to the human genome with the spread of related technologies. I believe that security must take a higher position in this discussion, although policymakers must also ensure that scientists will be included in these laws as primary stakeholders.

References

Bonomi, L., Huang, Y., & Ohno-Machado, L. (2020). Privacy challenges and research opportunities for genomic data sharing. Nature Genetics, 52(7), 646-654. 

Mahdi, M. S., Hasan, M. Z., & Mohammed, N. (2017). Secure sequence similarity search on encrypted Genomic data. 2017 IEEE/ACM International Conference on Connected Health: Applications, Systems and Engineering Technologies (CHASE). 

Yakubu, A. M., & Chen, Y. P. (2019). Ensuring privacy and security of genomic data and functionalities. Briefings in Bioinformatics, 21(2), 511-526. 

The sphere of biology is constantly developing as researchers and scientists around the world make new discoveries and create new technological solutions which benefit the entire humanity. One of the most notable breakthroughs of the past decades was the creation of genetic fingerprinting, which enabled biotechnology to make considerable progress. Invented in 1984, DNA fingerprinting still remains relevant to this day, and it is used in many fields, including criminology.

DNA fingerprinting has been a dominant technology for several decades now, but its discovery was, to a large extent, accidental. In 1984, Dr. Alec Jeffreys studied patterns of inheritance of different genetic diseases and decided to conduct an experiment to trace a certain type of DNA repeating in family members (Bryant & la Velle, 2018). The experiment performed by Dr. Jeffreys failed to attain its goal; instead, it demonstrated that DNA patterns varied among all of the samples. Thus, it was discovered that every person was likely to have their own DNA unless they had a twin brother or sister. Soon, Dr. Jeffreys understood that his discovery could be used for identifying individuals using their DNA, a technique which today is known as genetic fingerprinting. Dr. Alec Jeffreys said that the discovery was a moment that completely changed his career and made him distance himself from the field of genetic disease research (Bryant & la Velle, 2018). Thus, DNA fingerprinting became an invention that was unexpected yet still made a considerable impact on the sphere of biology.

It is clear that DNA fingerprinting substantially influenced society, but its creation was possible only because of preceding discoveries. One of them is the research into the structure of DNA by Francis Crick and James Watson, which then allowed scientists to establish how DNA could duplicate (Phelan, 2021). Only based on the previous research Dr. Alec Jeffreys was able to make a breakthrough. DNA fingerprinting had a massive influence on society and especially in the field of criminology since it enabled criminal justice agencies to enhance their expertise. For instance, DNA fingerprinting analysis became the main factor behind the acquittal of 200 falsely imprisoned in the United States (Phelan, 2021). Basically, genetic fingerprinting made it possible to determine the real criminals based on their genetic material.

Apart from being used for the purpose of forensics, DNA fingerprinting is also utilized in other important spheres. For instance, the technique is used in the analysis of the genetic diversity of plants, the results of which allow environmentalists and biologists to detect areas in need of new species (Sharma et al., 2018). Moreover, genetic fingerprinting is also successfully used for the establishment of kinship between people. For example, companies 23andMe and MyHeritage, at some point, provided free DNA analysis services to immigrants who wanted to reunite with their families (Kofman, 2018). Thus, DNA fingerprinting is a technique which is used successfully across different spheres and assists professionals in their work.

DNA fingerprinting was invented by Dr. Alec Jeffreys, who made an accidental discovery that revolutionized numerous fields, including criminology, and had a considerable impact on society. Dr. Alec Jeffreys studied the inheritance of genetic diseases when he found that DNA patterns were unique to all people. As a result of the breakthrough finding, DNA fingerprinting was invented, which is used to this day in forensics and other areas. Genetic fingerprinting contributed to the improvement of the criminal justice system enabling state agencies to be more equipped to determine real perpetrators. Additionally, DNA fingerprinting is used for studying the genetic diversity of plants and establishing kinship in people.

References

Bryant, J., & la Velle, L. (2018). Introduction to bioethics. John Wiley & Sons.

Kofman, A. (2018). DNA testing might help reunite families separated by trump. But it could create a privacy nightmare. The Intercept. Web.

Phelan, J. (2021). What is life? A guide to biology with physiology (5th ed.). W.H.Freeman.

Sharma, S., Negi, M., & Tripathi, S. (2018). DNA fingerprinting of plants: Applications for conservation and utilisation of bio-resources. The Energy and Resource Institute. Web.

1. The role of DNA is extremely important as it carries genetic information related to basic processes for organisms. Therefore, DNA has to be stable. In general, its stability becomes possible due to a large number of hydrogen bonds which make DNA strands more stable (Bugaut & Alberti, 2015). Apart from that, its shape (a double spiral) also minimizes the risk of damage to DNA.

2. Considering that 5-ATTCGACC-3 is the DNA sequence, the sequence of the complementary strand would be GCCTAGTT because of nitrogenous bases such as guanine with adenine and thymine with cytosine form complementary pairs.

3. If we take into account that 30 percent of the bases of DNA in a new species of bacteria is presented by adenine, it means that there is 20 percent of cytosine in the DNA of this organism.

4. About the way that chromosomes are formed, it needs to be said that it happens due to the interaction of four nitrogenous bases such as adenine, cytosine, thymine, and guanine which are paired by the specific rule (A+G and T+C). Chromosomes are formed gradually; there are five stages of this process.

5. Speaking of the proteins and enzymes which take an active part in the process of DNA replication, it is possible to single out such groups of proteins and enzymes as initiator proteins encouraging the start of the replication, SSB-proteins which stabilize the single-stranded parts of DNA, topoisomerases which facilitate DNA unwinding, three types of polymerizing ferments encouraging aging of the replicated DNA, and enzymes which help to finish the replication process such as DNA ligase and telomerase (Nowak, Olszewski, Zpibida, & Kur, 2014).

6. As for its primary structure, DNA has leading and lagging strands which help to synthesize the new information in different ways; thus, the leading strand conducts the synthesis without any delays, and the synthesis has the same direction with the replicative fork. As for the lagging strand of DNA, it replicates the information with a certain time lag, using the direction which is opposite to the movement of the replicative fork. More than that, the lagging strand of the DNA is replicated in short fragments.

7. It is known that viruses can have RNA in their genetic structure, and it can be beneficial for them because RNA is believed to be weaker when it comes to structural changes (Turner et al., 2015). Thus, it is common knowledge that RNA is a structure that is more susceptible to mutations than DNA which is used in the majority of organisms living on the planet. Considering that the primary role of viruses is related to weakening other organisms, the changeability of RNA and its ability to reflect the external changes make viruses more revivable. As for DNA, considering that its structure is rather stable, it would be a better genetic material for the majority of living organisms.

8. As is clear from the question, there could be discussions about the possibility to genetically engineer living Neanderthals, knowing the structure of their genome. Despite that, certain ethical issues are arising from this idea. To begin with, if it was possible to create a Neanderthal, the creature would be a human deserving to be given all the basic rights. At the same time, all people are supposed to give their permission to be studied by scientists which means that this Neanderthal would be a person whose rights were violated (Berry, 2013).

References

Berry, R. M. (2013). The ethics of genetic engineering. New York, NY: Routledge.

Bugaut, A., & Alberti, P. (2015). Understanding the stability of DNA G-quadruplex units in long human telomeric strands. Biochimie, 113(1), 125-133.

Nowak, M., Olszewski, M., Zpibida, M., & Kur, J. (2014). Characterization of single-stranded DNA-binding proteins from the psychrophilic bacteria Desulfotalea psychrophila, Flavobacterium psychrophilum, Psychrobacter arcticus, Psychrobacter cryohalolentis, Psychromonas ingrahamii, Psychroflexus torquis, and Photobacterium profundum. BMC Microbiology, 14(1), 91.

Turner, A. J., Aggarwal, P., Miller, H. E., Waukau, J., Routes, J. M., Broeckel, U., & Robinson, R. T. (2015). The introduction of RNA-DNA differences underlies interindividual variation in the human IL12RB1 mRNA repertoire. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(50), 15414-15419.

Introduction

The study of the structure of DNA is important not only to biologist, but to every inquisitive mind and every person that is interested in knowing how this life we live is recreated. Many researchers have come up with findings which have contributed greatly to the body of knowledge, and to the understanding of the buildup of living organisms. The structure and functioning of the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) has a vital and important role to play in the transfers of traits from parents to their offsprings and in the subsequent portrayal of these characteristics in the offspring.

The Structure of DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a very large and elongated polymer consisting of sub units referred to as nucleotide monomers. Every single monomer consists of a base which is nitrogenous in nature, a sugar that is made up of basically five carbons, and a collection of phosphates. Deoxyribonucleic acid contains nucleotide bases, when the bases are collectively mixed, they are able to relate in a particular manner in accordance with their chemical composition: adenine interacting with thymine and cytosine interacting with guanine (Judson, 1996, pp.67).

Molecules of deoxyribonucleic acid consist of a couple of strands of nucleotide polymer, which are collectively twisted in to a helix orientation. The hydrogen bond provides the stability for the double helix pattern. This hydrogen bond is located in between the bases, as it is being programmed by their chemical similarity: adenine bonded by the hydrogen bond to thymine and in like manner, cytosine to guanine. This arrangement greatly enhances the strength of the molecule. As a result of this arrangement the subsequent folding and compression of the deoxyribonucleic acid molecule to form chromosomes is made possible.

The Structure and Function of DNA as the Molecule of Inheritance

The basic and most important function or role of the deoxyribonucleic acid in the body of an organism is to act as a store house of all forms of genetic information. The Deoxyribonucleic acid molecule is made up of genes, the function of the gene within the DNA is that of coding information, for instance a particular gene, will be responsible for coding a particular protein that will perform a designed duty in the multifaceted network of cells biochemical metabolism. Every activity that an organism is required to carry out is indicated in the deoxyribonucleic acid molecule: the time for the cell to build up, which cell will be built, and all informations patterning to the life, and death of the organism are all embedded in the DNA.

Another important function performed by the deoxyribonucleic acid, is its ability to act as a medium of transferring information from a particular generation to another. When it is time for the cell to replicate the deoxyribonucleic acid helix divides, and each of the new divisions acts as a guide to make or produce a corresponding strand of the original cell. As a result of this, informations in the parents deoxyribonucleic acid are transferred to the new offspring or cell. There are about forty-six chromosomes in humans; twenty three are inherited from the father and twenty three from the mother.

How DNA Structure Allows it Serve as a Molecule of Inheritance

Deoxyribonucleic acid is a helix of nucleotides which is made up of two strands. Each of the distinct pair of the nucleotide connects to a particular compliment. This arrangement gives way for inheritance because, each of the deoxyribonucleic strands has all that is required for a new strand to be produced. Or to simply put Deoxyribonucleic acid is a very big molecule, made of up of nucleotides. Each of the nucleotide consists of a phosphate collection. This set up documents information with respect to the structure of the subsequent generation that will evolve. This information is then transferred in the gametes, which is the source of inheritance. It is important to see the relevance of having two copies of a gene in ones genome and that these two copies can either be the same or vary slightly. Cecil, (1994,pp.55) stated that the combination of the two copies we inherit determines not only our own life, but also the life of our children.

The Examination of how meiosis allows DNA to be divided into gametes

The separation of cells into two halves is made possible by meiosis. The new cells that are produced from the separation of the parent contain basically half the parent cells chromosomes (Rafael, 2010). The creation of new cells is made possible by the gametes, which must as a matter of necessity contain half of the original DNA strands, and again this must be through meiosis.

Mendelian genetics

Mendels findings are anchored on the observation that each characteristic that an organism posses, has a link with two basic types of genes referred to as alleles. In most cases the genes look similar, but at time they differ. If the two genes dont look alike, they tend to influence the characteristics of the organism differently, these is because the genes have the capability of making donations in different ways, or one of the two might be dominant, overshadowing the other( Judson,1996,pp.25). The gene or allele that has been overshadowed is referred to as a recessive gene. And in a situation where there is dominance of a particular gene then only the characteristic of the dominant allele is noticed. And in this case the organism is referred to as been heterozygous, because there is a difference in the genes. In case of similar genes, the organism is referred to as homozygous. A mixture of two genes in organisms is known as the genotype. The genotype is also a major determinant of the characteristics of an organism. The achievement of Gregor Mendel is based on choosing appropriate traits, which make providence for him to arrive at the inheritance of personality with precisely two traits, with one of the traits overshadowing the other.

Conclusion

The findings on the structure, nature and function of deoxyribonucleic acid have enhanced the understanding of the procedure through which living organism develop. It has thrown light on the mystery of while human beings look and act the way they do. This has been made possible through the understanding of the principle of the transfer of genes and the structure of the DNA. Which is been described as being a very big molecule, made of up of nucleotides and each of the nucleotide consists of a phosphate collection. This set-up it is believed, documents information with respect to the structure of the subsequent generations or the unborn generation.

Reference List

Cecil, R. (1994). The Path to the Double Helix. Mineola, NY: Dover.

Judson, H. (1996). The Eighth Day of Creation. Plainview, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Press.

Rafael, B. (2010). The Structure and Function of DNA as the Molecule of Inheritance. Web.

Homosexuality has turned as significant issue in our community abundant argument. The choice to be transparently homosexual is stiff for some due to the uncommon approval that they get. Society undergo made it so difficult for homosexual people to be approved, given the bias against them. The justice that have extract from homosexual, have prompted a pursuit for understanding on the inquiry of whether homosexuality is genetics or a possibility.

Each body cell accommodates forty-six chromosomes, twenty-three inherited from the mother and twenty-three from the dad. Complex behavior’s, alike, homosexuality possibility includes different genes that are influenced by atmosphere occasion. A few qualities impact sexual orientation; at that event we call homosexuality is polygenic. Studies have recognized one gene on the X chromosome that might be compromised in homosexuality in men. Nonetheless, the number, an area of genes influencing sexual orientation has. In some psychopathological orders, for example, autism and unhappiness, more advancement has been made in recognizing various genes and their implements on biochemistry. In Dependency to the conceivable polygenic nature of homosexuality, this quality or condition is likewise multifactorial as such, it has numerous viewpoints or components, including physical, mental, social, and even political.

Each element or aspect of homosexuality may have a different genetic and environmental basis. In summary, homosexuality appears to be a polygenic and multifactorial phenomenon composed of several elements, and each element is probably influenced by many genes. There are basically three kinds of inquiry used to demonstrate a genetic basis for homosexuality family studies also called gene linkage studies, twin studies, and adoption studies. The simple idea behind all these studies is that if relatives of homosexuals report same-sex attraction or homosexual behavior at a higher rate than a comparison sample, then homosexuality must have a genetic component. To prove that genes cause homosexuality, scientists would first have to isolate candidate genes and then determine what proteins these genes manufacture. The action of these proteins on brain tissue, brain chemistry, or on some part of the endocrine system would then have to be established.

Finally, if differences in brain or endocrine chemistry are consistently found between homosexuals and heterosexuals, then the potency of those changes to predict homosexuality would need to be determined. Two genetic concepts help explain gene potency: penetrance and expressivity. Gene penetrance is the probability that a gene will be expressed in a recognizable phenotype in the population. In other words, penetrance refers to how often a trait is expressed in people who have the gene for that trait. Gene expressivity is how much of a trait will be expressed in a particular person whether the person is greatly, moderately, or only mildly affected by the gene.

If genes for homosexuality were ever identified; these genes would probably demonstrate incomplete penetrance and mild expressivity. This means that some individuals who carry the suspected homosexual alleles would not become homosexual; others would show only minor to moderate symptoms of homosexual thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. In either case, the influence of environmental events and self-determination would also be needed to explain the development and expression of homosexuality. If homosexuality were a result of biological or genetic factors, one might expect that it would be fairly evenly distributed both geographically and sociologically among all types of people.

New technology is being used and integrated into society in the area of forensics using DNA. A profile of an individual is created when any physical traces are left behind at a crime scene, like blood, tissues, hair, or anything else harboring DNA. All of this information gets compiled, organized, and stored on computers to be cross-checked with the profiles of other individuals. Other techniques like “dusting for finger prints” (prints that are lifted from objects that have been touched) are still used, but genetic information that’s been put together and stored has a pretty wide range of possible effects on the general public that can be both positive and negative.

Crimes such as assault or murder are among the most serious, so this is where creating a genetic profile of persons that were present when the crime was committed would have probably the largest application. This information that’s been put together and stored could be compared to the genetic information that’s been collected from others, such as the victim or the person who is suspected of having actually done the crime. This technology is very useful in how efficient it is in mapping out the all of the unique properties in a person’s DNA, which makes it significantly easier to accurately identify offenders. This in turn could greatly help in quickly apprehending suspects and preventing them from harming other people, which would benefit the rest of society by the removal of such criminals.

Using DNA technology to solve crimes is a positive thing for members of society. It makes it possible to identify victims who are otherwise unrecognizable in the aftermath of a crime (in the instance of a violent murder or cold case), which then gives members of law enforcement a starting point in identifying what happened and finding the person responsible. It also makes it possible to exonerate a person who has been wrongly imprisoned, or wrongly accused of a crime they did not commit. In the past, innocent people have been accused of crimes based solely on their blood type and faulty “eye-witness” accounts. A unique DNA profile would make it much more difficult for the wrong person to be condemned.

While these are positive aspects of the use of this type of DNA collection, there is some controversy and possible negative side effects of its usage. At the center of this controversy is the issue of privacy. Our genetic profile is a hugely personal thing. It can tell things about an individual that they may wish to keep to themselves. Certainly, there is tons of information already in the public domain about members of society, including personal pictures that are posted on social media and the like, but usually this appears to be a voluntary thing. While stored genetic information isn’t open to the public and needs authorization for access, there is still the possibility of misuse. If someone has a DNA profile already in a computer database, which is possible even if the person did not commit a crime, officials could potentially abuse this system and scan it for any person even remotely similar to a suspect to save time and wrap up a case more quickly.

I support this form of genetic technology, but only if more protections are put in place against abuse of the system and basic human error. If this system is used properly, and genetic information (which can show things like race or ethnicity, and health of a person) remains confidential, then I believe this technology is hugely beneficial. The potential help society is significant and seems to overshadow most of the negative possibilities.

Citations

1. National Research Council; Division on Earth and Life Studies; Commission on Life Sciences; Committee on DNA Technology in Forensic Science. (2019). DNA Technology in Forensic Science. (Ch. 7, pg 152-163). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Retrieved March 3, 2019, from https://www.nap.edu/read/1866/chapter/9. (Original work published in 1992).

Intro

A person’s behavior is determined by a combination of inherited traits, experience, and the environment. Some are innate and some are learned. Inherited traits can control or manipulate one’s behavior. For example, a person who is born to parents who had anger issues may act highly violent/aggressive in a stressful situation. People don’t think of them as controlling our behavior because most of our behaviors are learned, rather than inherited. However, some behaviors are so beneficial to the human species, that the ancient ancestors that mastered them are the ones that survived long enough to pass those traits down to their offspring and so on. These are inherited behaviors. While most scientists agree that some behaviors are controlled by genetics, which ones and to what degrees is an ongoing debate (Jon jaehnig, 2019).

Research Methods

One of the major research methods on Inherited behavior is Quantitative behavioral genetics method. This is a very controversial research approach to the field of genetics and behaviors, its a study of phenotypic variation in a population which aims to distinguish the biologically heritable portion of the non-heritable/non-biological portion of a person. It involves decomposing the observed variance of a trait into genetic and environmental variance components (Saudino,2005) and then evaluating them.

There is also another method known as Behavioral Genetics studies of temperament method. It is by far the most dominating study in the field, no single theory dominates it. It’s not as controversial as Quantitative behavioral genetics method but both their goals are slightly similar. The goal of using the Behavioral Genetics studies of temperament is to estimate the extent to which genetic and environmental factors contribute to behavioral variability in the population (Saudino, 2005).

Significance

Genetical Inheritance research is important because it helps to answer some of the major questions in the field of medical science, “how does genes affect human-body creation” and “what happens when they go wrong”. Scientists use these information hoping to diagnose, treat and cure illness which is currently impossible. Genetics can uncover instructions on how to make a cure ‘tailor made’ for a person. By identifying and understanding each protein in genes as well as their usage, scientists try to understand the human body and behavior better. In short, Genetical inheritance is important because it helps to treat medical illness.

Personal discussion

In my understanding, genetics is a really big topic which requires a lot of research to get a good understanding of genetic and inherited behavior. If we know how genetical behavior works, we might be able to create people with really high intellectual abilities and can improve our goal as humans. Genetics combined with psychology can be used to discover MORE solutions to unidentified/uncured psychological problems.

In my understanding, Genetics is a really big topic which requires a lot of research to get a good understanding of genetic and inherited behavior. However, Understanding our genes and its codes of usage is not easy and we are nowhere near understanding. As a personal thought, I don’t think scientists consider genetics as a controversial topic anymore due to its complexity. I think scientists are not ready to devote their time and energy into something, which might create a revolution in our society. Our ways of living could be impacted in a good way that our future will be saved and extended that what it is now. We need to focus more on genetics rather than, for example, space travel which has no impact on the development of the human race.

Application

Genetics affects us all in many ways. It helps us to understand why people look the way they do and why some people are more prone to certain diseases than others, to identify certain conditions in babies before they are born using techniques such as prenatal testing and etc. In addition to its use in health care, genetics has a range of other applications. For example, the police can use genetic fingerprinting to catch criminals. Genetic fingerprinting was invented and developed by Sir Alec Jeffreys at the University of Leicester in 1984. This technique can identify individuals on the basis of their genetic information. Criminals often leave evidence of their identity at a crime scene: for example, hair follicles, blood or skin cells. The police can use the genetic information to demonstrate whether or not an individual was present at the scene of a crime. Genetic information can prove innocence and help to identify and convict the guilty

Previously known

It is already known that it requires two different people’s DNA to make a new person with a mix of both of their traits, include both physically and mentally. Moreover, behavior works the same way as physical traits. They both are equally inheritable. The difference is that behaviors can be influenced by both heredity and environment, when physical traits can only be affected by heredity. For example: if both parents of a person have blue eyes, the person (offspring) has a higher chance of having blue eyes than brown eyes. It won’t be the same case if both parents are “GOOD” at a certain thing. Suppose both parents of a person are good at a sport, their offspring is likely to be good at it. However, environmental influence can result you being not likely too.

Limitations

One of the major limitations in Inherited behavior research is that there is no satisfactory explanation on the biochemical mechanisms of genetics. Scientists won’t have a better understanding of anything in genetics until we are able to identify how DNA works and how it is coded. There’s a major doubt on how actions is affected by genes in fairly generalized ways. Some individuals who are born to introverted families are born with a propensity to be outgoing, happy, emotionally reactive, sociable, creative, or intelligent and some are the opposite. Although it is hard to deny the genetic influence on human behavior, anyone who tries to explain what a person does in terms of simple biochemical differences is likely to be disappointed.

Relevance

In the early days of psychology, debate over nature v .nurture motivated theorists to determine personality and the combination of each other. So scientists came up with genetic psychology. Genetic psychology, also known as behavioral psychology, is a field of studying and exploring how genes influence personality. People in this field work to advance understanding of how genes affect personality and behavior. Researchers don’t believe genes directly determine behavior, instead they agree that genes influence the brain functions and cognitive process.

Understanding how genetics and cognitive ability works will open doors for many mental problems and disorders. It can also be used to improve lives and communities. For instance, scientists say understanding how genetics and cognitive ability works can be used to determine what kind of environment a person needs to thrive in to make that person more successful in life, this applies to improving communities with low productiveness.