Category: DNA

Introduction

Biotechnology is one of the fastest-growing scientific disciplines, providing society with answers and opportunities to improve the quality of life. The fundamental essence of biotechnology is the integration of physical, chemical, and biological processes to create products or solutions for specific applications. One such area in which biotechnology allows us to solve real-world problems is forensics. This essay studies the biotechnology application to forensics, examining specific methods and identifying stakeholders.

Summary of Technology

The basis for performing biotechnology techniques is DNA, a genetic molecule that contains hereditary information. Modern laboratory technologies allow us to analyze this DNA and identify its identity. In phylogenetic studies, the analysis of DNA from fossil remains allows one to determine the taxonomic identity of a species, while in forensics, one can find the connection between traces and the perpetrator or the victim. For this purpose, traces of DNA found  blood, saliva, semen, hair, skin  are sent for sequencing, which aims to decode the nucleotide sequence of the molecule and detect specific markers (Krawczka & Schmidtke, 2020). Comparison of the decrypted data with the library data allows a level of match to be determined, which may be evidence of involvement in the crime.

Stakeholders

The stakeholders of such a biotechnology application are forensic scientists, experts, and law enforcement. For them, this method allows them to optimize the process of finding criminals and victims and obtain data-driven conclusions. Society can also be seen as a stakeholder, as crime rates in communities are expected to decrease from the mass diffusion of DNA technology, as catching perpetrators will be more streamlined. The academic community of biotechnologists may also be interested in developing progress in this field since these technologies are similar to phylogenetic and bioethical research, including determining the degree of relatedness and progress from one discipline can be extrapolated.

Research Questions

An essential parameter for criminal sciences is the quality of detectable evidence: biological fluids and materials are not preserved for a long time, so special requirements are placed on their storage methods. Developing solutions that allow the preservation of DNA without damaging its structure or affecting the reliability of the results is a high-priority problem for biotechnological forensics. In addition, there is an ongoing debate about which DNA sequencing methods are the most accurate: capillary and gel electrophoresis, whole exome sequencing, targeted sequencing, or hybridization capture (Types of DNA, 2021). The method chosen must be highly accurate and dependable but not redundant, conserving law enforcement resources and finances. A serious issue is the use of databases, specifically the ethics of filling them. Ideally, DNA law enforcement databases should contain records on all members of society, but this creates ethical dilemmas and problems of government control.

Progress Already Made

Although there are issues to address, biotechnology forensics has already made serious progress. DNA fingerprinting is widely used to recognize an identity using DNA fragments, and the method is highly accurate and relatively easy to use (Krawczka & Schmidtke, 2020). In addition, DNA profiling and sequencing technologies are used, simplifying identification in criminal disciplines. A real-life example of the use of available technology was the case of Colin Pitchfork, who committed the murder and rape of a fifteen-year-old girl from the UK (Kumar, 2020). Pitchfork was the first perpetrator to be identified by DNA forensic analysis of detected semen when classical methods of finding the killer were no longer successful.

Ultimate Goal

The ultimate goal of biotech forensics is to create a tool that will streamline and establish law enforcement procedures and thus ensure complete public safety. Under such conditions, criminals would be identified instantly, all information about them would be available in databases, and the number of crimes would be significantly reduced. Wide establishment of such technologies will make them cheaper and more accessible, and judicial errors will be meaningfully minimized.

Conclusion

Biotechnology has promising applications in forensics. Biological traces can be used to identify criminals accurately and reliably, allowing sequencing techniques to determine matches. Stakeholders for this are law enforcement authorities, society, and the academic community, as not only will public safety be improved, but scientific progress will be tangible. The technology has already shown that it can be used effectively, but issues, including ethical ones, still need to be addressed.

References

Types of DNA and RNA sequencing. (2021). IDT. Web.

Kumar, V. (2020). Evaluation of the autosomal STR markers and kits. In H. R. Dash, P. Shrivastava, & J. A. Lorente (Eds.), Handbook of DNA profiling (pp. 1-34). Springer Singapore.

Krawczka, M., & Schmidtke, J. (2020). DNA fingerprinting. Taylor & Francis.

Introduction

The amplification of DNA samples before their sequencing is a crucial step that has become routine. The isothermal amplification of nucleic acids represents a simplified process that allows for the quick and efficient accumulation of nucleic acid sequences in an environment of constant temperatures.

Discussion

Since the beginning of the 1990s, different approaches to isothermal amplification have emerged as alternative methods to PCR (Zanoli & Spoto, 2012). This technique has been implemented for biosensing targets which include DNA, RNA, various cells, as well as proteins, ions, and small molecules. The core difference between PCR and isothermal amplification lies in the temperature changes. When it comes to PCR, a thermal cycler facilitates a shift in reaction temperatures repeatedly to affect the actions of temperature-reliant reagents. However, isothermal amplification takes place in an environment of a single temperature. Such a method provides the ability to amplify DNA at a static temperature and use strand-displacing polymerases of DNA for unzipping strands as they go through double-stranded DNA instead of using heat denatures as in PCR; this allows for primers access to templates.

Conclusion

Overall, choosing either PCR or isothermal amplification varies depending on the individual application and the equipment that is available. Without a thermal cycler, PCR cannot be implemented, which could be a disadvantage for diagnostic applications and point-of-care settings. Isothermal amplification is perfect for situations in which a thermal cycler is unavailable, such as clinics or home testing kits. This method can be quicker, less complicated, and more cost-effective. To conclude, there could be various reasons for using either method for the amplification of DNA samples, which is why it is important to note their differences in usage.

References

Zanoli, L. M., & Spoto, G. (2012). Isothermal amplification methods for the detection of nucleic acids in microfluidic devices. Biosensors, 3(1), 1843. Web.

Introduction

Modern biology is characterized by the development of instrumental methods of scientific analysis, which allow us to obtain qualitative answers to the questions posed by the discipline. Thus, a significant area of interest in the biological sciences is phylogeny, which aims at a profound study of the relationship between taxa in the light of the evolutionary transformations of life on Earth. For these studies, there is a set of developed instrumental methods of analysis, among which DNA barcoding deserves special attention. In general, such a procedure should be understood as a method of molecular biology that allows one to make accurate judgments about the membership of a species in a taxon, using short fragments of a DNA sample as evidence (DeSalle and Goldstein, 2019). To put it another way, DNA barcoding should be seen as a method that greatly accelerates species identification processes using a minimal sequence of genetic material. The efficiency of this instrumental method is built on the idea of close similarity in the structure of DNA molecules  to be more precise, the arrangement of nucleotides in it  between closely related species: the closer the classification relatedness, the higher the percentage of similarity in alignment. As a consequence, if one has the DNA sequence of some suspected species as a reference point, it becomes possible to determine, using DNA barcoding, how closely the sample under study is evolutionarily related to them.

The use of benchmarks of the genetic material of already studied species is a necessary measure for the present study. More specifically, to determine the classification position of an unknown specimen in a taxon sequenced DNA sequences for Corn poaceae, Pine pinaceae, Magnolia magnoliaceae, and Grape vitaceae were used. The gene of the Unknown specimen was selected for use in the present work, which turned out to be Hibiscus punaluuensis at the end of the study. The high confidence in the correspondence between the given unknown specimen and Hibiscus punaluuensis is justified by the use of digital phylogeny tools and the study of the Hibiscus punaluuensis genome separately. The working hypothesis of the experiment was that it was expected that plants with closer relatedness should be more strongly related to each other. In practice, this is expressed by the proximity of species on the phylogenetic tree, which means a higher percentage of DNA overlap in their alignment. The present study aims to qualitatively summarize the results obtained in order to establish the Unknown specimen.

Procedure

Carolina Biological Supply Company: Using DNA Barcodes to Identify and Classify Living Things (211385P) was used as the methodological guide for this report, so the test steps became largely a repeat of the laboratory measures described. The first phase was sample preparation, in which a DNA sequence was isolated from an Unknown specimen given by the instructor for academic purposes. This was done using standard PCR methods for DNA multiplication and gel electrophoresis for qualitative identification. These methods are widely used to isolate a fragment of DNA and quantify it to simplify subsequent manipulations, including the quality study of DNA composition through differences in the movement of molecules in the gel electrophoresis chamber. Upon receipt of the genetic material, the sample was delivered to Genewiz DNA Sequencing Service by mail.

Sequencing was performed through the use of a digital tool, namely the Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST), to collect the DNA sequences of an unknown plant into a single test database. Using the known number identifier of the unknown planet, a long nucleotide sequence was found that was stored and sent to the next stage of the test. As a result of using BLAST, a digital copy of the gene sequence for the plant being analyzed was obtained. Then, the DNA Subway tool was the second product that was used for the assay. Using DNA Subway, the previously obtained DNA copy of the unknown plant was loaded into the field for work, where the results were compared, aligned, and processed. Through analytical comparison of the order of nucleotides in the DNA sequence between the Unknown sample and the most similar species, the program determined the degree of their classification proximity. In other words, DNA Subway produced a phylogenetic tree that is used to make a descriptive comparison of the proximity of the species under study.

Results

Because the central result of the test is the construction of a phylogenetic tree to determine classification proximity between organisms, an unknown specimen was prepared for study. In more detail, identification numbers were given by the instructor for study. The unknown plant specimen obtained had the number #30-358425317 (AJ233121.1). This number was used to work with the BLAST and DNA Subway platforms. In more detail, a summary alignment statistic was obtained using DNA Subway, shown in Table 1. In addition, a phylogenetic tree model was constructed using the built-in DNA Subway functionality, as shown in Figure 2.

Table 1. Alignment results for the unknown specimen.

Based on the results obtained, it is possible to state with great confidence that the unknown plant was Hibiscus punaluuensis, the classification structure of which is shown in Table 2. More specifically, the Hibiscus punaluuensis chloroplast rbcL gene, partial, was most likely taken as the DNA sequence. Figure 1 and Figure 3 show the appearance of this plant: flower, leaves, and approximately reproductive organs.

Table 2. Classification structure of Hibiscus punaluuensis from clade to species name.

Discussion

In the present laboratory work, the critical research interest was to critically test the efficacy of the DNA barcoding method to identify the species name for an unknown specimen accurately. A DNA sequence apparently isolated from the Hibiscus punaluuensis chloroplast rbcL gene, partial, was given by the instructor. This gene is located in the chloroplasts inside the plant cell, which means that the DNA in which it is included should be considered semi-autonomous. This assumption is justified by the study of the Hibiscus punaluuensis genome in terms of searching for correspondence between the given sequence and the reference. Based on the data in Table 1, it is clear that with 99% probability, the obtained alignment has reliability or, in other words, the qualitative definition of Hibiscus punaluuensis is very accurate. At the same time, an error of 1% can be justified by the presence of mutational processes that distinguish species and genera from each other. This includes point mutations and single-nucleotide polymorphisms, as well as deletions and duplications that eventually led to polynucleotide chain changes (Mehmood et al., 2020). In turn, such changes caused the evolutionary divergence of plant organisms. At the same time, the phylogenetic tree constructed unambiguously identifies the studied specimen as related to those plants that were used for the alignment. The numbers on the tree show how closely related species are to each other in light of the comparison of their genetic material.

Conclusion

Since BLAST and DNA Subway digital tools were used to search for the DNA fragment, align it with the sequences already stored in the database, and model the phylogenetic tree, one can postulate with great confidence the high efficiency of the DNA barcoding method. In the context of assessing the validity of the working hypothesis, it should be labeled as confirmed since it was empirically proven that closely related plant organisms had a higher percentage of similarity. As a result, DNA barcoding has proven to be an excellent tool of analytical biology for phylogenetic studies.

References

DeSalle, Rob, and Paul Goldstein. 2019. Review and interpretation of trends in DNA barcoding. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 7: 302-310.

Eickhoff, D. 2009. Hibiscus arnottianus subsp. Punaluuensis. Flickr. Web.

Kolev, N. 2010. Macro of the flower of Hibiscus arnottianus subsp. Flickr. Web.

Mehmood, F., Shahzadi, I., Ali, Z., Islam, M., Naeem, M., Mirza, B., Lockhart, P.J., Ahmed, I. and Waheed, M.T., 2020. Correlations among oligonucleotide repeats, nucleotide substitutions, and insertion-deletion mutations in chloroplast genomes of plant family Malvaceae. Journal of Systematics and Evolution 59(2): 388-402.

The article by Miller and Sweatt (2007) examines the possible role of DNA methylation as an epigenetic mechanism in the regulation of memory in the adult central nervous system. The authors sought to know whether memory regulation, in this case, occurs through the control of transcription in a gene-specific manner in the hippocampus. The specific methylation process under examination was the cytosine-5 methylation which is a covalent modification aided by the enzyme DNA (cytosine-5) methyltransferases (DNMTs).

The study utilized adult male Sprague-Dawley rats as animal models and the rats were placed under contextual fear conditioning. Cannula implantation and administration of DNMT inhibitors were done on the animals while real-time RT-PCR and DNA methylation assays were used to quantify RNA as a way of assessing gene transcription. Several statistical tests were used including a one-sample t-test, one-way ANOVA, and Tukey-Kramer test as a post-doc test with all tests being performed at a significance level of.05.

The study revealed that for memory to be built, the activity of the enzyme DNA methyltransferase is necessary. This conclusion was arrived at by infusing some animals with 5-AZA, a DNMT inhibitor while the comparison group animals were vehicle-treated whereby DNMT-inhibited animals had less freezing compared to the vehicle-treated animals. It was evident that memory consolidation is blocked by DNMT inhibition in a plastic manner as evidenced by the ability to form fear in the test animals later in the experimentation.

From this study, Miller and Sweatt (2007) were able to identify that contextual fear conditioning leads to an increase in DNA methylation of a memory suppressor gene, and this process is enhanced as training progresses. It was observed that silencing of a memory suppressor gene was prevented by DNMT inhibition since the increase in gene methylation that would lead to fear conditionings are inhibited.

Another finding from this study was that the process of memory promoting gene transcription is controlled by rapid demethylation. This was determined using the reelin gene since it enhances LTP induction. Further, the study revealed that continued demethylation of reelin is brought about by DNMT inhibition in a fear conditioning situation. The c-fos, as well as DNMT1, confirmed the gene-specificity of DNA methylation. The c-fos was identified as a good example of demonstrating interactions that occur in the hippocampus during DNA methylation thus adding to reelin. Finally, Miller and Sweatt (2007) confirmed that the changes in the process of DNA methylation occurring in the hippocampus are usually highly dynamic.

It was confirmed that the adult CNS experiences changes in DNA methylation but the changes are not permanent and instead they can be both reversible as well as dynamic. This was confirmed by looking at the levels of methylation of reelin and PP1 24 hours post-training followed with euthanizing of the animals after 24 hours where the levels of both genes went back to baseline.

References

Miller, C. A. and Sweatt, J. D. (2007). Covalent modification of DNA regulates memory formation. Neuron, 53:857869. Web.

In the case of the Golden State Killer, the arrest of a suspect increased the publics attention to advanced DNA technologies that could be used now to solve crimes that happened almost half a century ago. However, the future use of advanced technologies like this implies the widespread submission of DNA. The question of whether all persons or only arrestees and convicted persons should be required to provide their DNA counts numerous different opinions.

According to Gill (2018), due to forensic laboratory contamination, the use of DNA evidence might result in a miscarriage of justice. Gill (2018) emphasizes that forensic DNA techniques need to be improved before being widely used and acknowledged as profiling evidence. As arguments, the author uses four cases where people were wrongly accused of different crimes due to contamination of samples within the lab. For example, in the first case in 2011 in Manchester, Adam Scott was wrongly accused of rape because of a matching DNA profile. In his defense, Scott claimed that he was in his hometown in Plymouth at the moment of a crime.

In addition, Meintjes-Van der Walt and Dhliwayo (2021) emphasize that every possible precaution should be taken to maintain the quality of DNA samples and avoid contamination. The authors emphasize that because the DNA database includes compulsory sources from arrestees and convicts and voluntary contributions, the DNA evidence should be used in combination with other pieces of evidence. In an article by Ahuriri-Driscoll et al. (2020), authors noted concerns that Maori expressed over collection of samples for forensic use, as Maori people share multiple familial relations and similar DNA.

In my opinion, the DNA submissions should include arrestees and convicted persons before the technology is improved, and there is a risk of contamination of DNA samples. For example, currently, the use of multiple layers and sets of hand gloves helps prevent the samples contamination (National Forensic Academy, 2016). However, in cases of biological stains which are small in nature, the risk of contamination and wrong interpretation of DNA is always present.

Thus, DNA evidence should be used in combination with other pieces of evidence only to narrow the circle of suspects to avoid possible miscarriages of justice. If an individual voluntarily submitted their DNA samples, they should not be punished for that action with a false accusation just because of a DNA match. Thus, DNA evidence should be used to narrow the circle of suspects before the technology is improved and other people could safely submit their DNA samples.

References

Ahuriri-Driscoll, A., Tauri, J., & Veth, J. (2020). M
ori views of forensic DNA evidence: an instrument of justice or criminalizing technology. New Genetics and Society, 1-18. Web.

Gill, P. (2018). DNA evidence and miscarriages of justice. Forensic Science International, 294, 1-3. Web.

Meintjes-Van der Walt, L., & Dhliwayo, P. (2021). DNA Evidence as the Basis for Conviction. Potchefstroom Electronic Law Journal, 24, 1  35. Web.

National Forensic Academy. (2016). How to properly swab DNA evidence at a crime scene [Video]. YouTube. Web.

Introduction

This year, Kuwait is going to begin the collection of DNA samples from all its citizens and visitors for the sake of national security (Lee, 2016). Before that, only the UAE had the policy of collecting the DNA of its entire population, although the complete coverage is not achieved yet (Wallace et al., 2014, p. 4). The dilemma of universal DNA retention is being contemplated by governments all over the world, but for the time being, only two countries consider the security benefits offered by the method to be more important than its potential negative consequences and the right for privacy. In the US, the applicability of DNA retention and use is limited, even though suggestions for their expansion proceed to be voiced (James, 2012). In this paper, both the advantages and disadvantages of the method are considered, which allows me to argue that any changes to the legislation that regulates DNA retention needs to be considered with utmost care, and it is best not to remove too many restrictions as long as the negative consequences of such a decision cannot be severely limited.

The paper uses credible and relevant sources: recent peer-reviewed articles, a report for Congress, current legislation on DNA retention from the FBI website, and news articles.

DNA Retention: Advantages and Disadvantages

DNA

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is is the fundamental building block for an individuals entire genetic makeup (James, 2012, p. 1). It is unique for every person with the exception of twins, and it can be extracted for examination from a number of sources, including saliva, blood, and hair.

Since the 1980s, the states of the US have been introducing legislation that required the collection of DNA samples from the people who had committed violent crimes, and in 1994, the national database of DNA was created (James, 2012, p. 2). The specific legislation on state databases are regulated by states; the national US database is regulated by the federal law. The retention of the DNA of innocent people is not included in the current federal legislation; if a person is proved innocent, his or her DNA is to be expunged from the national database (FBI, 2016). However, the situation may be different for individual states (Wallace et al., 2014, p. 4).

The experiences of Kuwait and the UAE are yet to demonstrate the consequences of the extreme expansion of DNA retention system, but another country has also provided some information for the consideration in the worldwide debate on the subject. The UK practice of retention of the DNA of minor offenders (including children who had been damaging trees or the people who were proven innocent) has been raising criticism. In 2008, the European Court of Human Rights requested the deletion of innocent peoples DNA from forensic databases. The UK responded with the Protection of Freedoms Act of 2012, which decreased the years of innocents DNA retention and imposed certain limitations on it, but did not eliminate it (Wallace, Jackson, Gruber, & Thibedeau, 2014, pp. 1-2). It appears necessary to discuss the pluses of DNA retention in an attempt to understand this course of actions.

Advantages

The advantage of DNA use in justice systems is apparent: it provides forensics with a powerful tool for detecting offenders and exonerating the innocent. The first case that was resolved with the help of DNA proved its potential. Thirty years ago, a 17-year-old boy with learning difficulties, who appeared to demonstrate the knowledge of some undisclosed details of another crime committed by a serial killer, was arrested but eventually proved innocent since his DNA was completely different from the one found on the dead bodies of the raped girls. The test was carried out by Alec Jeffreys, the geneticist who had discovered the technique of checking the DNA of a person and comparing it to others with the help of photographic film; the police used his discovery in finding the killer (Cobain, 2016). Nowadays, the system is much more sophisticated, computerized and improved (James, 2012), and DNA is a very important tool that can help in crimes resolution, but it still has some major flaws.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of DNA retention include those related to technology, legislation, and human rights. The latter involve the breaches of the presumption of innocence and the Fourth Amendment (in the US), which are typically regarded as justified when offenders are concerned (Wallace et al., 2014), although some critics protest against such discriminatory approach as well (Crook, 2011). The technology issues are primarily concerned with the possibility of error (and false accusation based on it) that can originate from a mistake, mishandling or deliberate misuse by the officers or the government, the possibility of loss of data, and the chance of its seizure by criminals (Wallace et al., 2014, p. 2). In order to avoid mistakes, accreditation and regulation are required, but, unfortunately, the legislation that is supposed to fulfill these functions also tends to have some flaws (James, 2012). James (2012), for example, attracts the attention of the US Congress to the issue of accreditation and standardization of procedures in state laboratories (which would improve the efficiency of data handling). Similarly, Iyengar (2014) points out the conflicts of state legislations that complicate the operation of the national database. Both the technology and the law are being improved, but, as James (2012) states, these improvements can only reduce the likelihood of flawed results; they are extremely unlikely to eliminate errors completely (p. 41).

Finally, it should be pointed out that the UK experience of including innocents DNA in the database did not affect the percentage of resolved crimes while increasing the resources consumed by the project; also, the amplified database size increases the chances of false matches and errors (Wallace et al., 2014, p. 2).

Conclusion

To sum up, DNA retention has both flaws and benefits, and the modern world attempts to find a balance that would allow enjoying maximum advantages while minimizing the possibility of errors. In the US, for example, it is believed that the in the case of offenders (specific for every state), the potential benefits outweigh the potential harm. In other words, it is assumed that the actions of offenders and the possibility of repeated offense explain and justify the danger that the DNA retention holds for them. However, the US government and those of all other countries with the exception of Kuwait and the UAE do not believe that the potential benefits of a universal DNA database can balance out its potential harm. The future experience of Kuwait and the UAE will show if this decision is a wise one. For the time being, I would say that I agree with the very careful way, in which DNA is being treated by the majority of the world. Given the imperfections of the justice system and DNA analysis, it appears logical to be very cautious in removing the limitations related to DNA retention. Such expansions of legislation need to be justified by their practical benefits and complemented by improvements in efficiency and reduction of flaws and errors. Given the fact that continuous improvement in the technology and legislation is not an option but a requirement, I believe that changes will occur, and DNA retention will become a better tool for the justice system.

References

Cobain, I. (2016). Killer breakthrough  the day DNA evidence first nailed a murderer.The Guardian. Web.

Crook, M. J. (2011). Sacrificing Liberty for Security: North Carolinas Unconstitutional Search and Seizure of Arrestee DNA. Campbell Law Review, 34, 473-515. Web.

FBI. (2016). Legislation Affecting the Federal DNA Database Unit. Web.

Iyengar, V. (2014). Maryland v. King: the case for uniform, nationwide DNA collection and DNA database laws in the United States. Information & Communications Technology Law, 23(1), 77-80. Web.

James, N. (2012). DNA Testing in Criminal Justice: Background, Current Law, Grants, and Issues. Web.

Lee, S. (2016). Kuwait becomes first country to collect DNA samples from all citizens and visitors: Report. Newsweek. Web.

Wallace, H., Jackson, A., Gruber, J., & Thibedeau, A. (2014). Forensic DNA databasesEthical and legal standards: A global review. Egyptian Journal Of Forensic Sciences, 4(3), 57-63. Web.

The technological advancement in DNA testing technologies and its admission in the US judicial system has led to an increase in appeal cases by the criminals seeking to overturn their sentences. For instance, the Innocence Project highlights Habib Wahirs case, a criminal who served a wrongful conviction of 16 years after a young rape victim wrongfully identified him as her rapist (Habib Wahir Abdal). According to the organization, the sufferer identified Habib as the attacker, despite him being a foot taller than her alleged aggressor (Habib Wahir Abdal). Moreover, Habib did not have a gap between his teeth, another primary description of the victims sex-offender given to the police by the abused woman. Since DNA testing was not advanced at the time, Habib was sentenced to 20 years to life, a judgment which he later appealed against. During the appeal, the court found that the semen left in the lady by the culprit did not match Habibs DNA (Habib Wahir Abdal). Thus, it meant that he was not the rapist.

Habibs case is an excellent example of situations in which DNA testing should be admitted in court when reexamining the cases determined before the technology was developed. I suggest that all the cases where DNA evidence was collected, or can still be obtained, should be retried. It would help free the suspects such as Habib, who were wrongfully convicted, and lead to the correct sentencing of suspects, who might have been released due to lack of enough evidence. However, there is a worry that the redetermination of these cases might overwhelm the court system with numerous appeals by the criminals seeking a way out of serving their full sentences. I suggest that it should not be a concern because it is better to listen to numerous appeals than have innocent people incarcerated for offenses they did not perpetrate.

Work Cited

Habib Wahir Abdal.Innocence Project, Web.

Introduction

Threadless is a company that deals with the manufacture of T-shirts worn by all individuals in the society. Since its inception in the year 2000, the company has witnessed tremendous growth that has led to its expansion from a small apartment of about 900 square feet to an area that covers extensive parts of North America. The growth attracted firms and persuaded them to request for collaborations and partnerships.

To elucidate the growth of Threadless, it is imperative to analyze it using organizational DNA. Organizational DNA has four bases that include information, decision rights, structure, and motivators, which are useful in the growth of a company.

Therefore, the essay analyzes Threadless from the perspective of motivators, a component of the organizational DNA band, using the evidence, challenges, opportunities, as well as leverage of the opportunities.

Evidence of Band Element Present from the Focus Case

The unique strategy that Threadless presents to its target consumers is a brilliant strategy that facilitates consumer involvement in the design and manufacture of its products. Since the organization uses a social networking platform that is easily accessible to all members of the society from all demographics, it is able to be at par with what consumers expect in the market.

According to Parsons and Maclaran, an understanding of clients expectations is very crucial for the growth and progress of an organization (22). As opposed to other organizations that employ extensive market surveys, researches, and promotions to identify consumer expectations in the market, the organization employs a strategy that incorporates marketing and presentation of customer needs through a social platform.

Thus, it is evident from the case of Threadless that it does not only emphasize on achievement of customer expectations, but it also strives to keep abreast with consumer trends and dynamics in the clothing industry.

Through the social networking platform, which the organization uses, several clients are able to present their proposed designs and have them converted into finished products. The act of involving consumers in decision-making process and using their proposals to manufacture finished T-shirts makes the organization build trust among its target consumers.

The social networking creates an avenue of sharing ideas and art works; hence, provides an environment where consumers and employees listen to one another while exchanging their ideas concerning improvement of product quality. When employees and clients interact and exchange their ideas, the organization acquires the ability to deliver products of good quality, and hence, derive satisfaction from the achievement.

Moreover, satisfaction expressed by consumers after receiving products of their perceived quality compounds the level of satisfaction that employees of Threadless hold.

Motivation occasions from the achievement of organizational goals and acquisition of a corresponding appreciation from the subject organization (Podmoroff 16). It is imperative to understand that employee and consumer satisfaction is a key ingredient that catalyzes employee motivation and commitment, and thus sustain delivery of products required by potential clients.

Organizational Challenges and Opportunities in this Band Area

Some of the challenges associated with the Threadless relates to the limited capacity of its staff to make decisions that can propel it to a higher level. Moreover, due to the spontaneous growth of the organization that took a snowball design, it experienced a challenge in supplying its products to the target consumers.

From the case, it is clear that the organization has inadequate financial ability to meet the spiraling demand for its products, which was about 30 million in the year 2008 (Daft 427). When it commenced its activities in the year 2000, the Threadless expected to witness a gradual growth and steady revenue base.

Conversely, soon after its introduction, the strategy occasioned a spontaneous growth that spiraled out of its control. Merger with other organizations that are bigger than the organization can be a practical strategy in the quest to amplify the market share and supply of products that the organization manufactures and supplies in the market.

The main opportunity that the organization enjoys is its ability to engage its employees and potential customers through a social networking platform. From the platform, employees identify consumer needs, preferences, and expectations, whereas clients get the chance to relay their suggestions. As a result, the organization reduces the costs associated with promotion and marketing.

Interaction between employees and potential consumers is a rare opportunity and a very practical platform that does not only lead to manufacture of products that match client expectations, but also initiate employee motivation. Remarkably, the platform facilities an environment where the organization easily accesses feedback from customers and use it in bridging any present knowledge gaps related to product quality.

According to McMeekin, some factors dictate consumers to purchase products in line with their preferences (12). Therefore, development of a platform where consumers interact with employees enables the organization to understand and cope with the ever-changing consumer needs.

Leverage of Opportunities to Meet Organizational Aims

The act of social networking that employees and potential consumers in the organization practice is among the measures that the organization can utilize in the resolution of its challenges. Since social networking results in quick and efficient conveyance of feedback concerning product quality, organizations can identify the needs of clients and quickly bridge the gaps that affect product quality (Zarrella 3).

Furthermore, the culture of hard work, transparency, good relationship, and communication that the organization nurtures among its employees facilitates resolution of its challenges in terms of production, supply, and delivery of its products.

The culture also promotes productivity and enhances employee motivation and commitment. The ability to interact and exchange ideas with its potential consumers is a very vital opportunity that helps the organization to control and manage its challenges.

Works Cited

Daft, Richard. Organization Theory and Design. New York: Cengage Learning, 2010. Print.

McMeekin, Andrew. Innovation by Demand: An Interdisciplinary Approach to the Study of Demand and Its Role in Innovation. Manchester : Manchester University Press, 2002. Print.

Parsons, Elizabeth, and Pauline Maclaran. Contemporary Issues in Marketing and Consumer Behaviour. New York: Routledge, 2009. Print.

Podmoroff, Dianna. 365 Ways to Motivate and Reward Your Employees Every Day- with Little Or No Money. Atlantic: Atlantic Publishing Company, 2005. Print.

Zarrella, Dan. The Social Media Marketing Book. London: OReilly Media, Inc, 2009. Print.

The mission of the Wildlife Forensic DNA Laboratory is to provide evidence to governmental and non-governmental organizations to ensure the protection of the wildlife in the country. The company provides such services as species identification, individual identification, population identification, expert testimony and consultation (Trent University Wildlife Forensic DNA Laboratory Services, n.d.).

As regards the services provided, it is possible to identify a number of threats. Equipment and software failures can prevent the company from providing high-quality services in a timely manner. Power failure can be a common threat during various risk events (natural disasters, fire, terroristic attack and so on). The samples cannot be examined as equipment needs power. Moreover, some data can be lost. Sabotage can pose a significant threat as the services provided may often result in considerable fines for people or organizations (Appendix C: Internal and external threats, n.d.). The cyber attack can also be a possible threat (Risk assessment, n.d.).

The organization is located in Peterborough, Ontario. This geographic location can be associated with a number of threats. Some of the most probable threats are natural disasters or severe weather conditions. During the past decade, the area was affected significantly by floods, heavy snow, ice storm (Mortillaro, 2013). These weather conditions can disrupt the organizations operations.

It is necessary to note that many organizations have faced the threats mentioned above irrespective of the services and products provided. When it comes to laboratories and similar facilities, it is necessary to consider the risk of contamination. Trevan (2015) notes that biosafety is one of the most important concerns for laboratories, and the recent events associated with laboratories operations with anthrax can be a good illustration. Clearly, the company in question does not have the hazardous specimen. However, the samples examined can be contaminated, which brings biosafety cautions to the fore.

As for general threats that any company can face, it is possible to name the following: natural disasters, severe weather conditions, pandemic disease, fire, mechanical breakdown, software failure, power failure, workplace violence, sabotage, terrorism. These threats are placed in terms of their likelihood where natural disasters are highly likely to occur, and terroristic attacks are characterized by low likelihood.

When it comes to company-specific threats, it is possible to point out the following. Since the company is located in Ontario, severe weather conditions are likely to happen. These can be ice storms, heavy snow, rain, floods.

Equipment and software failures can disrupt the work of the company and cause the loss of data. Contamination is another probable risk event that can occur and affect the companys functions as well as its reputation. Sabotage is the threat specific to the organization in question as the results of the research are often use in the court, and significant fines can be imposed. Cyber attack is also a possible threat associated with the companys operations. Again, it can lead to the loss of data, disruption of work, and inappropriate analysis.

The relative likelihood of each threat is provided in the table below (see Table 1). The analysis is implemented on the basis of the historical perspective. The data on geographic location and services provided were primary for this investigation. Notably, although some risks are not characterized by high likelihood, they should be considered to avoid any disruption in the companys operations.

Table 1: Likelihood of Threats Identified.

The process of risk assessment is implemented quite properly. Of course, more details and data are necessary to assess risks and prioritize them. However, I tried to use a variety of sources, which increases the validity of my analysis. I still feel I could improve the risk assessment process by improving my research skills. I think I could have collected more data. This may be important for my skills in BCM. I would also like to practice assessing risks in numerical (and graphical) terms. This will help me prioritize risks more effectively and provide the rationale to the stakeholders involved.

Reference List

Appendix C: Internal and external threats. (n.d.). Web.

Mortillaro, N. (2013). Worst natural disasters in Torontos history: How they compare. Global News. Web.

Risk assessment. (n.d.). Web.

Trent University Wildlife Forensic DNA Laboratory Services. (n.d.). Web.

Trevan, T. (2015). Biological research: Rethink biosafety. Nature. Web.

Introduction

DNA profiling is an odd identification genetic passport that carries information about several dozen genome regions belonging to one person. DNA profiling analyzes the number of repeating elements in a selected area of the genome. The repeating part is called a tandem repeat, and the amount is variable. The control sample is analyzed to create a DNA profile of the person using one of the methods described below. The paper aims to determine the importance of genetic variation in sequences in DNA profiling using specific techniques.

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)

The primary strategy for elucidating hereditary qualities utilized for DNA profiling is RFLP analysis. The DNA fragments have different sizes due to varieties between the DNA sequences of diverse individuals, and these particles are isolated based on estimates utilizing gel electrophoresis. One large piece will be detected, corresponding in length to the DNA sequence between two adjacent constant restriction sites for the same endonuclease (Moustafa et al., 2017). The primary identification of polymorphic restriction sites linked to specific genes is possible only if appropriate DNA probes are available. For this purpose, a wide range of endonucleases is used to restrict genomic DNA isolated from a group of unrelated individuals.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

The PCR, as the DNA replication, restricts it to the specific DNA sequence. PCR is a technique for copying particular regions of DNA, and isolating DNA from cells occurs for the sample to proceed (Alamoudi et al., 2018). Double-stranded DNA fragments equal in length to the distance between the two primers begin to accumulate after the third cycle. Their number is doubled after each period until the synthesized particles correspond to the original piece, limited by primers. Besides, PCR is carried out in an amplifier, a device that provides periodic cooling and heating of tubes, usually with an accuracy of at least 0.1 ° C. A high-boiling oil was added to the test tube to avoid evaporation of the reaction mixture.

Short Tandem Repeats (STR)

This method analyzes regions with a high degree of polymorphism, which has short repetitive DNA sequences. Since different people have different numbers of repeating units, these pieces of DNA can be used to differentiate between individuals. Specific oligonucleotide primers are selected to the genome regions, and the corresponding DNA fragments are amplified using PCR (Byard & Payne-James, 2015). Therefore, for human identification purposes, it is essential to have DNA markers that exhibit the most significant possible variation, or the number of less polymorphic markers that can be combined to obtain the ability to distinguish between samples.

References

Alamoudi, E., Mehmood, R., Albeshri, A., & Gojobori, T. (2018). DNA profiling methods and tools: A review. In International Conference on Smart Cities, Infrastructure, Technologies and Applications. Springer, 216-231. 

Byard, R., & Payne-James, J. (2015). Encyclopedia of forensic and legal medicine. Academic Press.

Moustafa, G. G., Abd-Elhakim, Y. M., & El Sharkawy, N. I. (2017). Genetic profiling of equid hybrids using PCR-RFLP and Partial Sequence Analysis of cytochrome b gene: Forensic implication. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, 54, 3741.