Category: DNA

Introduction

Biotechnology is one of the fields of science that offers human beings a brighter future. This is because it presents some of the possible solutions to all the problems that are faced by people today. For example, all processes involved in the production of medicine would be developed through analytical studies in biotechnology and research. This means that there should be efforts that are aimed at the promotion of this field so that we can be in a position of solving most of these problems. In this paper, we shall discuss a number of issues that prove that there is a great deal of biotechnology around us, and the reason why we should ensure that everything is studied with biotechnology so that we may end up improving the living conditions of man.

Extremophiles and Biotechnology

Today, there have been a lot of developments and advancements in the field of biotechnology. This has seen the use of extremophiles being used in biotechnological industries in a number of ways. Extremophiles are smaller microorganisms that have the capability of thriving in an environment, which has extremes of temperatures. This means that all the other creatures living in such conditions would eventually die, even in the shortest time durations. Some of these organisms would be some bacterial organisms, archaea, and some protists. These can live in conditions that are extremely hot. Because of that, there has been their utilization in industrial activities.

For example, since they can thrive in high temperatures, bacterial from the Staphylococcus species have been used in the production of enzymes for effective laboratory application. The Coccus genus has an outer exoskeleton, which is resistive to extreme temperatures. Thermus aquaticus is another species of microbe that has been widely used in the industrial production of medicines through Polymerase Chain Reaction, PCR. Scientists have been spending a lot of money on the study of enzyme characteristics of extremophiles. Many industries have been trying to use their enzymes in the production of products such as artificial sweeteners, some stonewashed for blue jeans, and in the advanced identification of genes make-ups in criminals. Scientists are also optimistic that all enzymes contained in extremophiles can effectively replace all other enzymes that have been used in industries since they would be more effective. The other issues are with some sewage clean-ups through which these thermophiles can be used in the degradation of the waste which generates a lot of heat.

Protein Therapeutic Agents

Today, there have been a lot of improvements in the manner through which protein therapeutic agents are being developed. This has led to the production of vaccines against a number of infections affecting man. The experimental approach applied is quite complex. This includes an invention from the use of genetically improved or modified plants and their progenies. Some of the major derivatives or plant-oriented, and a good example was a mucosal vaccine that was used against SARS, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome. The experimental approach will relate to the recombinant vectors which will transform in a given manner. This would be limited the plastids and nuclei of the plant being used⁶. What this means is that the overall production of the protein therapeutic agents is something that will be achieved through the use of plants that have certain characteristics.

The increased demand for therapeutic proteins has been exceeding the current rate of production and capabilities. The production of therapeutic proteins which is also done from the mammalian systems has been also on the rise. The major way to produce these proteins is through the use of Chinese Hamster Ovary, CHO, cells. There can also be the use of some other types of cells like the myelomas, NSO, and the SP2/0, also Baby Hamster Kidney, BHK, can also be used among others. These cells will have to be cultured and the epithelial tumors will be reacted through the use of laboratory mediums. Some cultivated cells from mammalians have as well been found useful in the clinical production of these recombinant proteins since they can give proper folding of proteins, the assembly as well as with post-translational modes of modification. The major issues associated with this production are either economical or ethical. Some people have been against the practice when animal organs and cells are being used. There are also several theories that may end up having adverse effects on patients upon use. Also, with tobacco being one of the other plants commonly used, there have been issues that it may result in the transmission of nicotine and the reason some religious groups have been against their use. There has been an increase in demand that the rates of production hence calling researchers to improve their production strategies. The other thing is with economic interferences hence reducing their production. The production of vaccines from these therapeutic proteins has also received a number of views from different societies. There have been indications that they may be ineffective and end up having side effects on the user.

Another important thing that should be noted is that there are a number of factors that would influence proteins at both high and low temperatures. The first one is the solubility of the solvent in which the proteins are. As well the nature of solvent would also have greater impacts on proteins. This means that, at both low and high temperatures, the solvent should be greatly influenced. As well, the temperatures themselves also have a greater influence on the proteins in which they function better at optimum temperatures. The so-called induction temperatures would also have adverse impacts on the proteins, the pH in which the cultivation medium has been placed at. The proteolytic level expression and sensitiveness are also known to affect proteins at both low and high temperatures.

RDX, Diesel, and Heavy Metal Remediation

In a given environment where there have been contaminations with residues of the explosive RDX, diesel, and heavy metal lead, there are several techniques that can be applied in reclamation of the place. The RDX contamination is widespread but at low concentrations, the diesel is in a mobile plume spreading over a third of the site and the lead is at high concentration but restricted to a small area. This is something that can be done effectively through biotechnological applications. Soil or water that has been contaminated with Hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine, also known as RDX, can be a great environmental hazard and problem (Seeman, 2001). The best way through which remediation can be done is through the use of valent-zero iron, Fe- 0. This will be applied in the area and integrate the use of inhibitors so as to promote their activity¹¹. The other method that can be applied is the use of nitramine metabolites which can result in the breakdown of the RDX.

Since the area is also contaminated with heavy lead deposition though in a small area, it would be necessary to use bacterial organisms which would effectively transform the lead-heavy depositions ions into insoluble, and lesser toxic forms which would cause great harm or threats on the organisms living there. This would be done over a long duration of time. Diesel contamination is something else that can be so detrimental and the reason a remediation strategy is important. Due to the very small polyaromatics and the complexity known to be posed by diesel oils, the soil that has been contaminated with diesel can be difficult to give remedy through the use of biofuel techniques; therefore, the best technique that can be used here is through the use of Two-Liquid Phase, TLP, system which has been known to be effective in removal and remediation of diesel polluted area. This integrates the use of a liquid to water and which would dissolve all hydrophobic compounds that are in the soil other than the surfactants available.

Materials/Biology Interface

So as to have a successful re-implementation of any biological applications, it is necessary to complete the fundamental knowledge of biology interfaces. These are used as tools in the control and management of common diseases and implantations on human beings. They also help researchers in medical advancements and the designing of disease sensors in the body. One of how interfaces would be designed would be through the use of synthetic organs and structures through the adoption of flexible electronics. This design targets some specific interfaces and interfaces through the employment of suitable strategies.

To address microbial-cellular adhesion in reducing the implantation of infections, the main focus should be in the manner in patterning and the self-assembly of surfaces modified with arrays that can effectively orient the proteins as well as the biological membranes. This way we shall have assembled effective cell component surfaces, which would be tailored with the appropriate receptors in bringing about sensory characteristics hence resulting in the impediment of any form of implantation on the surfaces.

Drug Discovery and Design: Protein Therapeutics

Protein discovery will be known as the very first step towards the discovery of drugs. Over the past years, they have been new technologies as well as methodologies that can give us appropriate imaging of proteins and understanding their functions as a manner of drug development. These include the use of bioinformatics, use of x-ray crystallography as well as protein microarrays. The first stage is research work. During this period, there are thousands of chemicals and substances that have to be developed, screened, and examined. The other one is the development stage, which may take even 3-10 years. Here, substances will be tested, but invitro and invivo. This would determine their efficacy with the human body. From there we have the pre-clinical analysis and testing. This may be done with laboratory animals and later with human beings. Clinical testing can be conducted in a number of three phases. This reduces the number of substances being tested. Finally, the found drug will be registered and introduced into the market.

With the production of therapeutic proteins, the experimental approach will relate to the recombinant vectors, which will transform in a given manner. This would be limited the plastids and nuclei of the plant being used. What this means is that the overall production of the protein therapeutic agents is something that will be achieved through the use of plants, which have certain characteristics. However, the procedure for these substances is quite different since not many phases are used, but a keen analysis of a given protein would later be found effective and be used as a drug.

Bioremediation Strategy: Oil Storage Facility

When an area is used for oil operations, chances are very high that the area would be greatly contaminated with oil compounds. In order to give a remedy, there should be an appropriate application of bio-remedy that would integrate the use of biological substances, which would effectively reduce the volumes of the oil depositions. The first use is to use bio-molecules and microbes that can reduce the toxicity of the compounds. Some kind of biologically derived detergents would also be used, and especially where there are nearby rivers and water contaminations.

The major preliminary investigations would be determining the percentage of contaminants available, some of the causes, and the manner in which the bioremediation would work out. This would look at the possible impacts of the method on the organisms that are in the area. The major factors affecting the success of the strategy would be dependent on issues to do with capital, money, the environment, the cohesiveness of the operational groups, and the environmental characteristics. For example, some cold areas might require complex operations ad different biological techniques. There should also be a great influence on the biological substances and organisms used for the remediation process.

Nanotechnology and DNA

Nanotechnology is a study in which matter is controlled on its molecular or atomic scale. Generally, nanotechnology will be dealing with structures that are about 100 nanometers and even less. This would result in the development of devices and materials of similar sizes. Two major principles would be applied. The first one is known as the top-down. Here, the devices are assembled from entities that are larger and wont use atomic controls. There is also the chemical principle or approach through what is known as molecular recognition. Other principles have been applied in areas such as nanomechanics, nanoelectronics, and nanophotonics. These were the major foundations of this field of nanotechnology.

We cannot talk of nanotechnology without DNA in biotechnology. This would seek in identifying the DNA and properties of all other nucleic substances and acids. The DNA here will be used or applied as the structural material instead of its general role as a carrier for the genetic information. This becomes an exact form of bionanotechnology. DNA bionanotechnology would be applied in the computation of the DNA assemblies so as to come up with controllable structures for advanced medical research.

Conclusion

Through more and more research, we shall be in a position of addressing all the problems faced by man today. We will be in a position of coming up with appropriate results in addressing the majority of the problems faced by man today. For example, the issue of reclaiming land that has been deposited with heavy metals and petroleum products. It can also be easy to come up with vaccines, which can help us in the treatment of all the diseases facing man today. Once that has been effectively done, the living conditions of man would be improved, and this would lead to better performances of the economy. People will be able to address all the deadly diseases and achieve overall human progression. Therefore, it is no doubt that biotechnology is a very important field for humankind today.

References

Bonnarens, Timothy. Production of closed fracture in laboratory animal bone. New York: Orthop Publishers, 1989.

Craig, Herman. Principles and application of bioremediation. London: Sage Publishers, 2008.

DeSilva, Daniel. Allelic variants of ovine prion protein gene (PRNP) in Oklahoma sheep. Cytogentic Resource Center, 102(2004): 98-94.

Doroshov, Smith. Identification of a novel lysine-171 allele in the ovine prion protein (PRNP) gene. Genetics, 334 (2006): 302-318.

Ekani-Nkodo, Arnold,. Design and Characterization of Programmable DNA Nanotubes. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 126 (50): 1634416352.

Gerard, Bryan. Principles of anatomy and physiology. New York: Wiley Publishers, 2005, p24.

Jack, Gilbert. Biotechnology: Plant biotechnology, animal cell culture and immunobiotechnology: Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.

Jefferies, Richard. PCR-RFLP for the detection and differentiation of the canine piroplasm species and its use with filter paper-based technologies. Genetics Journal, 144 (2002): 20  27.

Kumara, Titus. Assembly pathway analysis of DNA nanostructures and the construction of pa853214rallel motifs. Nanoletters, 8 (2007): 19711977.

Mao, Chengde. Emergence of Complexity: Lessons from DNA. PlosBiology, 2, 12 (2004): 20362038.

Mao, Chengde. Designed Two-Dimensional DNA Holliday Junction Arrays Visualized by Atomic Force Microscopy Journal of the American Chemical Society, 126 (2005): 1634416352.

Marison, Hill. Monoclonal antibodies as therapeutic agents for cancer, Monoclonal antibodies in cancer therapy, vol. 5(2008), pp. 292.

Messina, Lawrence. Biotechnology, vol 71. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.

Moses, Vincent. Biotechnology: the science and the business. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1999.

Nadrian, Collins. Construction of a DNA-truncated octahedron. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 116 (2005): 16611669.

Netter, Frank. Musculoskeletal system: anatomy, physiology, and metabolic disorders. New Jersey: Ciba-Geigy Corporation, 1987.
Nill, Kenneth. Glossary of Biotechnology terms: Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.

OGarra, Vieira. Regulatory T cells and mechanisms of immune system control, Nature Medicine, vol. 10(2006), pp. 801-805.

Parmianit, Filippo. Unique Human Tumor Antigens: Immunobiology and Use in Clinical Trials¹, Journal of immunology, vol. 1(2005): pp. 1975-78.

Ranson, Jayson. Targeted antitumour therapy  future perspectives, British Journal of Cancer, Vol. 92(1998), pp. 828-831.

Rothermund, Philip. Folding DNA to create nanoscale shapes and patterns. Nature, 440: 297853214302.

Rubin, Bill. Biotechnology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.

Seeman, Dickson. DNA Nicks and Nodes and Nanotechnology. Nano Letters,1(1999): 2226.

Seeman, Kilbert. DNA Engineering and its Application to Nanotechnology. Trends in Biotechnology, 17 (2002): 437443.

Smith, Emily. Biotechnology: Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.

Tomasi, Timothy. tumour immunity and immunotherapy, Cancer Immunol Immunonther, vol. 55 (2004): pp. 115-118.

Trevan, Mill. Biotechnology: the biological principles: Cengage: Cengage Learning, 2006.

Weiping, James. Regulatory T cells, tumour immunity and immunotherapy, Nature Reviews Immunology 6 (2006): 295.

Winfree, Emily. Design and self-assembly of two-dimensional DNA crystals. Nature, 394(2006): 529544.

Winkel, Jimmy. Immunotherapeutic perspective for bispecific antibodies, Review Immunology Today, 21, 8 (1998): 391.853214

Introduction

Biotechnology is one of the fields of science that offers human beings a brighter future. This is because it presents some of the possible solutions to all the problems that are faced by people today. For example, all processes involved in the production of medicine would be developed through analytical studies in biotechnology and research. This means that there should be efforts that are aimed at the promotion of this field so that we can be in a position of solving most of these problems. In this paper, we shall discuss a number of issues that prove that there is a great deal of biotechnology around us, and the reason why we should ensure that everything is studied with biotechnology so that we may end up improving the living conditions of man.

Extremophiles and Biotechnology

Today, there have been a lot of developments and advancements in the field of biotechnology. This has seen the use of extremophiles being used in biotechnological industries in a number of ways. Extremophiles are smaller microorganisms that have the capability of thriving in an environment, which has extremes of temperatures. This means that all the other creatures living in such conditions would eventually die, even in the shortest time durations. Some of these organisms would be some bacterial organisms, archaea, and some protists. These can live in conditions that are extremely hot. Because of that, there has been their utilization in industrial activities.

For example, since they can thrive in high temperatures, bacterial from the Staphylococcus species have been used in the production of enzymes for effective laboratory application. The Coccus genus has an outer exoskeleton, which is resistive to extreme temperatures. Thermus aquaticus is another species of microbe that has been widely used in the industrial production of medicines through Polymerase Chain Reaction, PCR. Scientists have been spending a lot of money on the study of enzyme characteristics of extremophiles. Many industries have been trying to use their enzymes in the production of products such as artificial sweeteners, some stonewashed for blue jeans, and in the advanced identification of genes make-ups in criminals. Scientists are also optimistic that all enzymes contained in extremophiles can effectively replace all other enzymes that have been used in industries since they would be more effective. The other issues are with some sewage clean-ups through which these thermophiles can be used in the degradation of the waste which generates a lot of heat.

Protein Therapeutic Agents

Today, there have been a lot of improvements in the manner through which protein therapeutic agents are being developed. This has led to the production of vaccines against a number of infections affecting man. The experimental approach applied is quite complex. This includes an invention from the use of genetically improved or modified plants and their progenies. Some of the major derivatives or plant-oriented, and a good example was a mucosal vaccine that was used against SARS, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome. The experimental approach will relate to the recombinant vectors which will transform in a given manner. This would be limited the plastids and nuclei of the plant being used⁶. What this means is that the overall production of the protein therapeutic agents is something that will be achieved through the use of plants that have certain characteristics.

The increased demand for therapeutic proteins has been exceeding the current rate of production and capabilities. The production of therapeutic proteins which is also done from the mammalian systems has been also on the rise. The major way to produce these proteins is through the use of Chinese Hamster Ovary, CHO, cells. There can also be the use of some other types of cells like the myelomas, NSO, and the SP2/0, also Baby Hamster Kidney, BHK, can also be used among others. These cells will have to be cultured and the epithelial tumors will be reacted through the use of laboratory mediums. Some cultivated cells from mammalians have as well been found useful in the clinical production of these recombinant proteins since they can give proper folding of proteins, the assembly as well as with post-translational modes of modification. The major issues associated with this production are either economical or ethical. Some people have been against the practice when animal organs and cells are being used. There are also several theories that may end up having adverse effects on patients upon use. Also, with tobacco being one of the other plants commonly used, there have been issues that it may result in the transmission of nicotine and the reason some religious groups have been against their use. There has been an increase in demand that the rates of production hence calling researchers to improve their production strategies. The other thing is with economic interferences hence reducing their production. The production of vaccines from these therapeutic proteins has also received a number of views from different societies. There have been indications that they may be ineffective and end up having side effects on the user.

Another important thing that should be noted is that there are a number of factors that would influence proteins at both high and low temperatures. The first one is the solubility of the solvent in which the proteins are. As well the nature of solvent would also have greater impacts on proteins. This means that, at both low and high temperatures, the solvent should be greatly influenced. As well, the temperatures themselves also have a greater influence on the proteins in which they function better at optimum temperatures. The so-called induction temperatures would also have adverse impacts on the proteins, the pH in which the cultivation medium has been placed at. The proteolytic level expression and sensitiveness are also known to affect proteins at both low and high temperatures.

RDX, Diesel, and Heavy Metal Remediation

In a given environment where there have been contaminations with residues of the explosive RDX, diesel, and heavy metal lead, there are several techniques that can be applied in reclamation of the place. The RDX contamination is widespread but at low concentrations, the diesel is in a mobile plume spreading over a third of the site and the lead is at high concentration but restricted to a small area. This is something that can be done effectively through biotechnological applications. Soil or water that has been contaminated with Hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine, also known as RDX, can be a great environmental hazard and problem (Seeman, 2001). The best way through which remediation can be done is through the use of valent-zero iron, Fe- 0. This will be applied in the area and integrate the use of inhibitors so as to promote their activity¹¹. The other method that can be applied is the use of nitramine metabolites which can result in the breakdown of the RDX.

Since the area is also contaminated with heavy lead deposition though in a small area, it would be necessary to use bacterial organisms which would effectively transform the lead-heavy depositions ions into insoluble, and lesser toxic forms which would cause great harm or threats on the organisms living there. This would be done over a long duration of time. Diesel contamination is something else that can be so detrimental and the reason a remediation strategy is important. Due to the very small polyaromatics and the complexity known to be posed by diesel oils, the soil that has been contaminated with diesel can be difficult to give remedy through the use of biofuel techniques; therefore, the best technique that can be used here is through the use of Two-Liquid Phase, TLP, system which has been known to be effective in removal and remediation of diesel polluted area. This integrates the use of a liquid to water and which would dissolve all hydrophobic compounds that are in the soil other than the surfactants available.

Materials/Biology Interface

So as to have a successful re-implementation of any biological applications, it is necessary to complete the fundamental knowledge of biology interfaces. These are used as tools in the control and management of common diseases and implantations on human beings. They also help researchers in medical advancements and the designing of disease sensors in the body. One of how interfaces would be designed would be through the use of synthetic organs and structures through the adoption of flexible electronics. This design targets some specific interfaces and interfaces through the employment of suitable strategies.

To address microbial-cellular adhesion in reducing the implantation of infections, the main focus should be in the manner in patterning and the self-assembly of surfaces modified with arrays that can effectively orient the proteins as well as the biological membranes. This way we shall have assembled effective cell component surfaces, which would be tailored with the appropriate receptors in bringing about sensory characteristics hence resulting in the impediment of any form of implantation on the surfaces.

Drug Discovery and Design: Protein Therapeutics

Protein discovery will be known as the very first step towards the discovery of drugs. Over the past years, they have been new technologies as well as methodologies that can give us appropriate imaging of proteins and understanding their functions as a manner of drug development. These include the use of bioinformatics, use of x-ray crystallography as well as protein microarrays. The first stage is research work. During this period, there are thousands of chemicals and substances that have to be developed, screened, and examined. The other one is the development stage, which may take even 3-10 years. Here, substances will be tested, but invitro and invivo. This would determine their efficacy with the human body. From there we have the pre-clinical analysis and testing. This may be done with laboratory animals and later with human beings. Clinical testing can be conducted in a number of three phases. This reduces the number of substances being tested. Finally, the found drug will be registered and introduced into the market.

With the production of therapeutic proteins, the experimental approach will relate to the recombinant vectors, which will transform in a given manner. This would be limited the plastids and nuclei of the plant being used. What this means is that the overall production of the protein therapeutic agents is something that will be achieved through the use of plants, which have certain characteristics. However, the procedure for these substances is quite different since not many phases are used, but a keen analysis of a given protein would later be found effective and be used as a drug.

Bioremediation Strategy: Oil Storage Facility

When an area is used for oil operations, chances are very high that the area would be greatly contaminated with oil compounds. In order to give a remedy, there should be an appropriate application of bio-remedy that would integrate the use of biological substances, which would effectively reduce the volumes of the oil depositions. The first use is to use bio-molecules and microbes that can reduce the toxicity of the compounds. Some kind of biologically derived detergents would also be used, and especially where there are nearby rivers and water contaminations.

The major preliminary investigations would be determining the percentage of contaminants available, some of the causes, and the manner in which the bioremediation would work out. This would look at the possible impacts of the method on the organisms that are in the area. The major factors affecting the success of the strategy would be dependent on issues to do with capital, money, the environment, the cohesiveness of the operational groups, and the environmental characteristics. For example, some cold areas might require complex operations ad different biological techniques. There should also be a great influence on the biological substances and organisms used for the remediation process.

Nanotechnology and DNA

Nanotechnology is a study in which matter is controlled on its molecular or atomic scale. Generally, nanotechnology will be dealing with structures that are about 100 nanometers and even less. This would result in the development of devices and materials of similar sizes. Two major principles would be applied. The first one is known as the top-down. Here, the devices are assembled from entities that are larger and wont use atomic controls. There is also the chemical principle or approach through what is known as molecular recognition. Other principles have been applied in areas such as nanomechanics, nanoelectronics, and nanophotonics. These were the major foundations of this field of nanotechnology.

We cannot talk of nanotechnology without DNA in biotechnology. This would seek in identifying the DNA and properties of all other nucleic substances and acids. The DNA here will be used or applied as the structural material instead of its general role as a carrier for the genetic information. This becomes an exact form of bionanotechnology. DNA bionanotechnology would be applied in the computation of the DNA assemblies so as to come up with controllable structures for advanced medical research.

Conclusion

Through more and more research, we shall be in a position of addressing all the problems faced by man today. We will be in a position of coming up with appropriate results in addressing the majority of the problems faced by man today. For example, the issue of reclaiming land that has been deposited with heavy metals and petroleum products. It can also be easy to come up with vaccines, which can help us in the treatment of all the diseases facing man today. Once that has been effectively done, the living conditions of man would be improved, and this would lead to better performances of the economy. People will be able to address all the deadly diseases and achieve overall human progression. Therefore, it is no doubt that biotechnology is a very important field for humankind today.

References

Bonnarens, Timothy. Production of closed fracture in laboratory animal bone. New York: Orthop Publishers, 1989.

Craig, Herman. Principles and application of bioremediation. London: Sage Publishers, 2008.

DeSilva, Daniel. Allelic variants of ovine prion protein gene (PRNP) in Oklahoma sheep. Cytogentic Resource Center, 102(2004): 98-94.

Doroshov, Smith. Identification of a novel lysine-171 allele in the ovine prion protein (PRNP) gene. Genetics, 334 (2006): 302-318.

Ekani-Nkodo, Arnold,. Design and Characterization of Programmable DNA Nanotubes. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 126 (50): 1634416352.

Gerard, Bryan. Principles of anatomy and physiology. New York: Wiley Publishers, 2005, p24.

Jack, Gilbert. Biotechnology: Plant biotechnology, animal cell culture and immunobiotechnology: Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.

Jefferies, Richard. PCR-RFLP for the detection and differentiation of the canine piroplasm species and its use with filter paper-based technologies. Genetics Journal, 144 (2002): 20  27.

Kumara, Titus. Assembly pathway analysis of DNA nanostructures and the construction of pa853214rallel motifs. Nanoletters, 8 (2007): 19711977.

Mao, Chengde. Emergence of Complexity: Lessons from DNA. PlosBiology, 2, 12 (2004): 20362038.

Mao, Chengde. Designed Two-Dimensional DNA Holliday Junction Arrays Visualized by Atomic Force Microscopy Journal of the American Chemical Society, 126 (2005): 1634416352.

Marison, Hill. Monoclonal antibodies as therapeutic agents for cancer, Monoclonal antibodies in cancer therapy, vol. 5(2008), pp. 292.

Messina, Lawrence. Biotechnology, vol 71. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.

Moses, Vincent. Biotechnology: the science and the business. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1999.

Nadrian, Collins. Construction of a DNA-truncated octahedron. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 116 (2005): 16611669.

Netter, Frank. Musculoskeletal system: anatomy, physiology, and metabolic disorders. New Jersey: Ciba-Geigy Corporation, 1987.
Nill, Kenneth. Glossary of Biotechnology terms: Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.

OGarra, Vieira. Regulatory T cells and mechanisms of immune system control, Nature Medicine, vol. 10(2006), pp. 801-805.

Parmianit, Filippo. Unique Human Tumor Antigens: Immunobiology and Use in Clinical Trials¹, Journal of immunology, vol. 1(2005): pp. 1975-78.

Ranson, Jayson. Targeted antitumour therapy  future perspectives, British Journal of Cancer, Vol. 92(1998), pp. 828-831.

Rothermund, Philip. Folding DNA to create nanoscale shapes and patterns. Nature, 440: 297853214302.

Rubin, Bill. Biotechnology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.

Seeman, Dickson. DNA Nicks and Nodes and Nanotechnology. Nano Letters,1(1999): 2226.

Seeman, Kilbert. DNA Engineering and its Application to Nanotechnology. Trends in Biotechnology, 17 (2002): 437443.

Smith, Emily. Biotechnology: Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.

Tomasi, Timothy. tumour immunity and immunotherapy, Cancer Immunol Immunonther, vol. 55 (2004): pp. 115-118.

Trevan, Mill. Biotechnology: the biological principles: Cengage: Cengage Learning, 2006.

Weiping, James. Regulatory T cells, tumour immunity and immunotherapy, Nature Reviews Immunology 6 (2006): 295.

Winfree, Emily. Design and self-assembly of two-dimensional DNA crystals. Nature, 394(2006): 529544.

Winkel, Jimmy. Immunotherapeutic perspective for bispecific antibodies, Review Immunology Today, 21, 8 (1998): 391.853214

Gene regulatory codes are usually read by certain types of proteins. In fact, it is the transcription factor that is usually assimilated and read by such proteins. Most of these proteins have been discovered. Nonetheless, the sequence followed by the transcription factors has not been vividly understood.

The main purpose of the experiment was to analyze and determine how human transcription factors are specifically bound by DNA. The researchers sought to examine how human TFs undergo the DNA binding process. While there are numerous techniques that may be used in this assessment, the researchers opted to apply both Chip sequencing and SELEX.

In most experimental studies of this nature, each transcription factor has a target gene. The genes should be cataloged in order to comprehend transcriptional networks that regulate the growth and development of animals. In addition, pathological and physiological aspects should be well understood before undertaking such an experiment.

After attaining the stability of an environment, a simple model may be used to determine central transcription factors. For instance, early embryonic development is a typical example of a stable environment. Chromatin immunoprecipitation and classical genetics are well known and effective methods for examining human transcriptional networks.

Genome is the central point of attachment for transcriptional factors. It might be a complex exercise trying to understand the binding system and patterns of transcriptional factors. However, a principled biochemical model that depends on mass action and affinity might be instrumental in comprehending the whole process.

Moreover, the position of binding cannot offer an accurate explanation of why transcriptional factors choose to bond in specific locations. All the likely DNA sequences influence the affinity of a binding specificity model.

Development and disease are directly affected by transcriptional regulation. In spite of this importance, minimal and less conclusive experimental studies have been done in this area. Most human transcriptional factors have been systematically analyzed in the methodology and result sections of this work. In the methodology section, DBDs and the full-length transcriptional factors demonstrated that the basic DNA-binding specificity is defined by DBD in most cases. Besides, individual DNA and transcriptional factors interact on their own without necessarily relying on each other. When it comes to A or T residues, a strong base interdependence is observed.

After carrying out an experiment on the binding nature of mammalian transcription factors, crucial outcomes, or results were obtained. To begin with, an assay of TF-DNA binding specificity in a Genome scale indicated that a total of 303 human DBDs were sufficiently enriched. Similar enrichment results were obtained from the human full-length and mouse experiments. On the other hand, the low success rate was recorded in two of the large transcriptional factors family. For most HMG proteins that were not being bound systematically, consistent results were obtained.

Both the ratio method and SELEX generated similar matrix results. From past studies, homodimers and monomers are bound in a similar way, and eventually, a strong orientation between the two structures is visible. A sum of 830 binding profiles was obtained by the researchers.

Results also indicate that similar sequences are bound by isolated BDBs and full-length transcriptional factors. This implies that TF-binding specificities can be precisely determined by analyzing DBDs. Moreover, 15.6 bits of data were contained in PWMs after assessing the coverage and width of the model.

In conclusion, it is vital to reiterate that binding specifications have unique coverage and outstanding similarities. High confidence human transcriptional factors can be retrieved and used to evaluate the coverage while KL distance analyzes PWMs that contain proteins.

Definition of DNA

DNA denotes deoxyribonucleic acid and is the hereditary material in living organisms and plants. It governs some characteristics such as bone density, hair color, and eye color among others. It is characterized by long narrow string (Rand & Catalano, 2006). The location for most DNA is the nucleus though some may be found in the mitochondria and is called mitochondrial DNA. Entirely all parts of the body are composed of DNA except the red blood cells.

The DNA information is usually in a coded format based on the four chemical bases present in it. Adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) pair with each other to form base pairs (Riley, 2005). The combination of base pair, sugar molecule and a phosphate molecule forms nucleotides. The fact that DNA can replicate is vital especially when cells divide to give new cells identical features from the old cells.

History of DNA

The discovery and implementation of DNA-related projects has indeed come a long way. The onset of DNA related tests date back to 1865 when Gregor Mendel examined the genetic profiles of pea plants. Isolation of DNA initiated by Friedrich Miescher was done in 1869. Advancement of Mendels works was never cemented until 1890 when three scientists namely; Hugo DeVries, Erich Von Tschermak, and Carl Correns embarked on them. Each of the three was involved in a detailed research of DNA for different works (Butler, 2000).

It was Andrei Nikolaevitch Belozersky who first isolated a pure DNA culture in 1935. James Watson and Francis Crick were influential in proposing the double-stranded, helical, complementary, anti-parallel model for DNA and had their work published in a magazine. The discovery and isolation of DNA polymerase was successfully done by Coenberg in 1958.

The polymerase was later to become useful in making test tube DNA. The cracking of the genetic code came in 1966 thanks to Marshall Nirenberg, Heinrich Mathaei, and Severo Ochoa who indeed demonstrated that each of the 20 amino acids is determined by a sequence of three nucleotide base (codon).

The first DNA cloning experiments were done in 1972 in California (Jobling & Gill, 2004). The first recombinant organism was produced in 1973 when Stanley Cohen, Annie Chang and Herbert Boyer successfully transferred DNA from one life form into another. 1976 saw the release of the first recombinant guidelines by the NIH.

Studies by David Botstein and others indeed proved that when a restrictive enzyme is applied to DNA from two genetically different individuals, restriction fragment length Polymorphisms (RFLPs) arises. The invention of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) by Kary Mullis and others at Cetus Corporation in Berkeley, California, was considered the most revolutionary new technique in molecular biology in the 1980s.

A technique for DNA fingerprinting to identify individuals was discovered by English geneticist Dr. Alec Jeffrey in 1984 (Butler, 2000). National Center for Human Genome Research by James Watson, and the Human Genome Project were launched in 1989 and 1990 respectively.

The USA Army started collecting blood and tissue samples in 1992 with an aim of identifying soldiers who died in combat. Daniel Cohen produced sketch of all the 23 pairs of human chromosomes. The cloning of a sheep called Dolly from an adult ewe were efforts by researchers at Scotlands Roslin Institute in 1997. The cracking of the human genetic code came in 2000 when scientists agreed that the invention would be of vital usefulness in addressing incurable diseases.

DNA and their use by the US Police

Bode Technologys forensic casework, data banking and mass disaster teams has played a crucial role in ensuring that law enforcement identify thousands of criminals. The freedom of those who are found to be innocent is also ensured after a DNA test is carried out (Connors, Lundregan & McEwen, 1996).

Identification missions by the police have been successful for the last 12 years courtesy of testing DNA profiles in blood, semen, sweat and skin tissue evident at crime scenes. Comparisons are then made with those already present in government databases. According to Rand and Catalano (2006), police who were trailing the killers of a four year old girl in Kansas City had a big secret that was unknown to the public. Whereas local residents known to the girl said she was black, DNA tests carried out showed that she had a white grandparent.

Advances in DNA testing are making work easier for investigators who need not rely on the profiles which are not captured in the databases. Tests are enabling police get the idea of how a suspect looks like. Louisiana police used ancestry testing to find the suspect in seven rape/murders in 2003.

According to Rand and Catalano (2006), the same approach has been employed by the police in other states such as Missouri, Virginia, Colorado and California to get to the bottom line of about 100 homicide, rape and missing-persons cases. Tests are being developed in order to allow for the determination of a suspects eye color as well as hair color. People who are also interested in knowing their roots are given the opportunity to buy the test.

Due to the difficulty experienced in testing DNA from evidence gathered from scenes of crime, ancestry tests are usually very expensive. Individuals are charged $ 219 for the test (Jobling & Gill, 2004). Though most professionals are of the opinion that DNA tests should be inclined towards knowing the race of the suspects, most police detectives are so far contented with the progress made towards combating crime.

Others are of the opinion that the reliability of the ancestry test is still unverified. Some defense lawyers are of the opinion that they have fears in using the ancestry testing to determine suspects heritage. They share the view that such findings may actually promote the notion that some races are more inclined to crimes than others and at the same time leading to genetic racial profiling (Connors et al., 1996). DNA tests are also used by the police in investigating human trafficking cases.

DNA Testing

The testing of DNA is usually carried out for different purposes ranging from wanting to know ones ancestry to crime scene investigations. The types of DNA tests available are named according to the results expected thereafter. Examples of these tests are forensic tests used by police to investigate crime suspects and paternity tests to understand ones ancestry. Several paternity tests exist namely; simple paternity test, legal paternity test, super paternity test, premium paternity test and secret paternity test (Riley, 2005).

Forensic tests are of two types, RFLP (restriction fragment length Polymorphisms) and PCR (polymerase chain reaction) based testing. The former requires larger amounts of DNA. The DNA must be under graded. The rate of DNA degradation increases if the condition is warm as well as moist and hence difficult to for RFLP procedures.

Also, old and insufficient crime-scene evidence may not be useful in yielding results for a RFLP test. PCR-based testing on the other hand often requires less DNA than RFLP testing. Furthermore, a partially degraded DNA may still find its importance in PCR tests (Riley, 2005). PCR tests are affected by varying concentrations of contaminants at the crime scene or in the laboratory. Proper handling techniques are vital in PCR tests in order to reduce the extreme sensitivity to contaminants.

The fact that PCR is less direct, faster and more sensitive has made it the most preferred option in forensic testing. However it should be noted that PCR is more prone to error than RFLP. The founders of the chain reaction realized that the reaction could be contaminated. They came up with precautionary techniques.

The technique involved in polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is not the same as a sterile one. This because sterilized solutions are capable of inhibiting DNA. DNA has a characteristic feature of surviving heat sterilization. PCR technique is thus far from the sterile technique. Contamination of PCR is normally associated with earlier polymerase chain reactions. It should however be noted that genomic DNA is dangerous and poses more contamination risks (Riley, 2005). Genomic DNA refers to that which is not amplified.

Contamination of PCR can be minimized by using several methods. Both negative and background controls should be run during the whole procedure to facilitate detection of contamination. Although bleach may work effectively in cleaning surfaces and equipments, the use of gas flames is recommended to remove DNA on metal parts/surfaces. In most cases, the reaction takes place in thermal cyclers and should be kept free of contaminants all the time.

Sample tubes may leak DNA due to temperature extremes. In order to avoid this, one may use hot soapy water, a soft wiper as well as a scrub brush which is round in shape when it comes to cleaning the thermal cyclers and their sample tubes. Samples should be stored in proper containers to avoid contamination.

The separation of selected samples is usually recommended particularly those samples which are used as evidence and contain very limited DNA. Overemphasis of the logical value of the proof ought not to be done. The margins of error in the stated probabilities should be within limits of acceptance. Technological advancement, though beneficial has faced criticisms due to the occasional unpopular probabilities.

DNA Policy Implications and Lab Survey

A financial commitment is vital for the support of the police, labs, and courts in making DNA the standard in all crime investigations. The number of suspects will increase if DNA is collected in property crimes. The number of prosecutions is set to rise also (Ritter, 2008).

It is commonly hypothesized by researchers that nurture has influence on the mental health through the alteration of the genome and its physical properties and hence expression (Scott & Hudson, 1998). Researchers have immensely carried out a study of how stress experienced in early life can have long-lasting modifications in physiology and behavior through epigenetics (Connors et al. 1996).

References

Butler, J. (2000). Forensic DNA Typing: Biology, Technology, and Genetics of STR Markers (2^nd ed). National Institute of Standards and Technology, Academic Press, New York.

Connors, E., Lundregan, M. N. & McEwen, T. (1996). Convicted by Juries, Exonerated by science: Case Studies in the Use of DNA Evidence to Establish Innocence after Trial. National Institute of Justice, Jobling, M. A. & Gill, P. (October 2004). Encoded evidence: DNA in forensic analysis. Nature Reviews Genetics 5, 739-752.

Rand, M. & Catalano, S. (2006). Criminal Victimization. Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.

Riley, Donald E. (2005). DNA Testing: An Introduction for Non-Scientists. University of Washington.

Scott, J. A. & Hudson, K. L. (1998). Carrier screening for cystic fibrosis in US genetic testing laboratories: a survey of laboratory directors. Washington.

The article dwells on conservation-based management of aquatic species. In particular, exploited fish types in various ocean waters have been highlighted in the article. There are a number of unprecedented requirements that have been imposed by the various fish species especially when it comes to the need undertake real-time management of assorted fisheries. For instance, the Pacific salmon is known for its complex adaptive nature.

The management process entails several steps one of which is identification of different fish species found in both fishers and sea waters. In order to make informed management decisions, incorporating abundant information is vital. In addition, population-specific timing of the available fish species comes in handy in conservation-based management.

The researchers achieved an extremely accurate approximation of stock make-up for salmons that reside in River sockeye. Attaining such a high degree of accuracy would not have been possible without utilizing qualitative methods such as complex genetic variation which is also a major histocompatibility complex.

The researchers in the article carried out an analysis entailing a total sum of 9300 salmon fish species. The survey was undertaken in Fraser River sockeye within a period of 2 months. In order to obtain an unbiased sample, salmon fish were extracted from mixed stock fisheries. The experiment was instrumental in finding out stock-specific exploitation objectives controlled by conservation needs.

The Fraiser River drainage was the most important sample ground for the salmon fish. Data on geographical locations and key tributaries of the river were used by the researching team. This meant that gathering known samples was a crucial and initial procedure. From the article, 140 operculum punches were obtained in 1999. The latter was followed by mixed stock samples in the lower region of Fraser River and test fisheries. Either fin clips or operculum punches were used to extract DNA samples. After DNA samples had been collected, the process of laboratory analysis followed. It was necessary to analyze the different samples so as to come up with the right evaluation.

The results indicated that timely and accurate information is fundamental in effective fishery management. From the analysis, accurate results were obtained from GSI data.

DNA Fingerprinting

Human identification is an essential part of individual-based assessments. DNA fingerprinting is a sophisticated approach of using the uniqueness of a persons nucleic DNA in order to pragmatically identify him or her. It is stated that mitochondrial DNA can also be used in DNA fingerprinting due to the presence of highly polymorphic regions (Lackey, 2016). The DNA analysis is directly interlinked with DNA fingerprinting because both tackle the sequence features of the molecule. The former is a broader scope of DNA study, which allows researchers to not only understand the unique patterns of the hereditary molecule but also learn about the structural complexity and genetics.

DNA fingerprinting is often needed in the analysis due to the fact that revealing unique repeats and variative regions in both DNA and mitochondrial DNA is important for individual assessment. DNA analysis involves advanced sequencing techniques, such as new generation sequencing (NGS), which is critical for acquiring quick and elaborate data. This allows researchers to construct large databases in order to comparatively observe the regions of high variability, and thus, these fragments can be utilized in human identification. The application can be present not only in forensics but also in personalized medicine and genetic diagnostics.

Human Evolution

Transformation, in molecular genetics, is a change in the hereditary properties of cells as a result of the penetration of foreign DNA into them. It can be considered as an example of horizontal inheritance, which means that genes are pass from one organism to another, not through division or reproduction (Worrall, 2018). As a result, the transformation of the recipient cell can acquire and stably transmit to its offspring a sign that was previously absent from it, but that the donors cell had, for example, the antibiotic resistance gene.

Thus, the given process is highly important to analyze because it is one of the primary factors contributing to drug resistance. It is especially relevant because the current state of global antibiotics uses at the peak, which increases the overall likelihood of bacteria evolving strong resistance genes. The latter can be transferred to other types of bacteria, which are more deadly or pathogenic.

Transformation in many bacteria is a natural process that occurs in populations. At the same time, cells capable of absorbing and incorporating foreign DNA into their chromosome are in a state of transformational competence or readiness, which occurs at a certain period of the life cycle, such as the end of the growth phase. The development of competence can follow a cascade type, where cells that have become competent release a low molecular weight protein into the medium, which, being adsorbed on other cells, also makes them resistant.

The transformation mechanism involves the irreversible adsorption of the DNA of the donor cell on the surface of the recipient cell, and in most bacteria, DNA of any origin can be adsorbed. Since a number of transforming DNA fragments can simultaneously enter a competent cell, the total amount of absorbed DNA can be approximately equal to the size of the chromosome of the host cell. After double-stranded DNA penetrates the cell, one strand breaks down to mononucleotides and oligonucleotides, and the second is inserted into the chromosome of the host cell by its breaks and reunions. Subsequent replication of such a hybrid structure leads to the cleavage of pure clones of transformants, in the offspring of which a trait encoded by the incorporated DNA is fixed.

References

Lackey, A. (2016). Mitochondrial DNA analysis in human identification. ThermoFisher Scientific. Web.

Worrall, S. (2018). What Darwin didnt know about evolution. National Geographic. Web.

Biodiversity is a valuable natural resource for any nation. The first step towards safeguarding and gaining from biodiversity involves sampling, identifying, and studying the biological specimens to identify the extent of the diversity and use that knowledge for the benefit of the country. As a result, the identification and assessment of various species is a vital component of modern biology. Molecular biodiversity and DNA barcoding are used to hasten the process of taxonomic research. DNA barcoding refers to the process of rapid sequencing of one or more genes from multiple representatives of a species. DNA barcoding also allows the comparison of the sequences both within and between species (Hebert, Cywinska, Ball, & deWaard, 2003).

DNA barcoding differs from the traditional methods of classification in that the latter employs obvious similarities to differentiate between species. The use of DNA sequences in barcoding yields more precise estimates than traditional classification, which can only employ visible features. Traditional classification is easily used by the general public for simple tasks like species identification based on key features, or for the management of biological collections (Moritz & Cicero, 2004).

The adoption of DNA barcoding, as a global standard in taxonomic research, is coordinated by the Consortium for the Barcode of Life (CBoL). CBoL is funded by the Sloan Foundation grant, which was launched in May 2004, and is currently affiliated with over 170 member organizations in fifty countries. DNA barcoding is also used in other research areas besides taxonomy such as forensic science, biotechnology and food industries, public health and agricultural inspection, single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and biodiversity assessment from environmental samples like soil and water (Moritz & Cicero, 2004).

The DNA code is a short, standardized DNA sequence in a well-known gene that provides scientists with a means to recognize the species to which an organism belongs. For instance, mitochondrial gene, and cytochrome c-oxidase I (COI) can be used for animal species, while chloroplast genes, matK, and but can be used for land plants identification. The process involves the comparison of an unidentified specimen using reference barcodes from a global and open-access library of reference barcode sequences, in order to find the matching species. The numerous barcoding projects have expanded the database by generating numerous reference barcodes for various species. This has made it easy for everyone, including non-taxonomists, to identify unknown specimens that are of interest to them scientifically, economically, or socially (Hebert, Cywinska, Ball, & deWaard, 2003).

The activities involved in DNA barcoding include working with the organisms, laboratory procedures, and data management. The first activity involves collecting, identifying, and preserving the specimen in a safe storage area. The second activity involves sampling and processing tissue obtained from the specimen to obtain a DNA barcode gene sequence, while the third activity involves sharing that information, as well as, voucher specimen data, in the public database (CBoL, 2011).

The DNA barcode sequence has approximately 650 DNA base pairs. These are represented scientifically using the letters A, C, G, and T. This accounts for a minute fraction of the numerous base pairs that comprise the whole genome of organisms. The genes used to identify specimens using barcoding have to be well-known. Currently, the whole process takes just under 2 hours in a well-equipped laboratory, and the process does not require more than five dollars (CBoL, 2011).

There are numerous uses and benefits of DNA barcoding. For instance, it can be used for agricultural pest control through the easy identification of pests in the larva, pupa, or adult phases of metamorphosis, which leads to increased yields and the elimination of hunger. It also helps in the identification of disease vectors, protection of endangered species by differentiating game meat and other kinds of meat and monitoring water quality, among others (CBoL, 2011).

References

CBoL. (2011). DNA Barcoding: A New Tool for Identifying Biological Specimens and Managing Species Diversity. Washington, DC: Consortium for the Barcode of Life Secretariat Office.

Hebert, P. D., Cywinska, A., Ball, S. L., & deWaard, J. R. (2003). Biological identifications through DNA barcodes. Proc Roy Soc Lond B Biol Sci, 270, 313-321.

Moritz, C., & Cicero, C. (2004). DNA barcoding: Promise and pitfalls. PLoS Biology, 2, 354.

Introduction

I have not yet obtained my DNA profile because I have not experienced a situation that warrants or necessitates obtaining it. However, I anticipate knowing my DNA makeup. For example, it would be necessary if I had a medical situation that would require me to obtain information about my genetic makeup. Even though it has several benefits, I have not yet decided to undergo DNA screening. DNA testing is important. However, few people undergo DNA screening or profiling. Knowing ones genetic makeup has several pros and cons.

Pros

Pros of knowing ones genetic makeup include ease of disease screening, resolution of crimes, and better health and economic decisions (Easteal et al, 2007). Research has revealed that DNA testing is a viable method of resolving criminal cases in the justice department of a government. It helps capture criminals and free innocent individuals who have been accused of committing the crime. If an individual is accused falsely of committing the crime, he or she could be exonerated by comparing his or her DNA profile with DNA obtained from the scene of a crime (Easteal et al, 2007). DNA screening enhances the detection of genetic diseases, which helps eradicate them before they become severe (Easteal et al, 2007). It is possible to get screened for genetic diseases that shorten life expectancy. As such, individuals know which diseases they are likely to contract and ways in which they can avoid contracting or developing them. It is a viable preventive measure against certain diseases. For example, individuals need to know their risk levels of developing genetic diseases (Easteal et al, 2007). This is beneficial to them because they make more informed health and economic decisions.

Cons

At the workplace, employers may use an employees genetic makeup information illegally. Some employers use their employees genetic profiles to obtain insurance or to discriminate against them (Easteal et al, 2007). However, the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008 established rules and regulations that regulate the use of such information by employers. Another disadvantage of finding out ones genetic makeup is stress or depression. DNA profiling has the ability to generate information about diseases that an individual is likely to develop (Easteal et al, 2007). Obtaining information concerning diseases that an individual is likely to develop such as emphysema may cause depression because many genetic diseases are expensive to treat. For example, treatment of alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency costs over $100,000 a year (Easteal et al, 2007). In addition, the knowledge that one might not get a job or insurance because of their genetic makeup is stressful and depressive. If employers get access to such information, it is easy for them to deny the individual a job because of possible health costs likely to be incurred in the future due to health complications.

Conclusion

Knowing ones DNA genetic makeup has both pros and cons. It is important in the resolution of paternity rows, resolution of criminal cases, and beneficial in disease screening. In addition, it aids individuals to make more informed health and economic decisions. On the other hand, it has certain cons. Information regarding ones genetic makeup could be used illegally by employers and insurance companies. Employers may decline to employ individuals whose genetic makeup reveals signs of developing certain genetic diseases such as cancer or emphysema. In addition, it might discourage insurance companies from providing a health cover.

Reference

Easteal, S., Leod, N., & Reed, K. (2007). DNA Profiling: Principles, Pitfalls, and Potential. New York: Hardwood Academic Publishers.

The definition of DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid consisting of genetic instructions needed by all living organisms to function and develop. The only exceptions are the RNA viruses being the exception (Ghosh & Bansal 2003, p. 621).

A brief history about the discovery of DNA

The history of the discovery of DNA dates back to 1865 when Gregory Mendel used theories of heredity in analyzing the genetic profiles of pea plants. Genetic science came into being in 1900 following the discovery of Mendels work by Erich Von Tsechrmark, Carl Correns, and Hugo DeVries. In 1935, Nikolaevitch Belozersky succeeded in his quest to isolate DNA. In 1953, Francis Crick and James Watson proposed the complementary, helical, anti-parallel and double-stranded model of DNA (Dahm 2008). DNA polymerase was discovered and isolated by Coenberg in 1958. In 1966, Marshall Nirenberg, Severo Ochoa and Heinrich Mathei demonstrated that each of the 20 amino acids can be determined by a three nucleotide bases sequence, a move that proved useful in cracking the genetic code.

The first DNA cloning trial was successfully undertaken in California, in 1972. A year later, the first recombinant DNA organism was produced. Four years later, the NIH released guidelines for the first recombinant DNA. The guidelines sought to restrict different types of experiments. In 1980, Kary Mullis, together with his fellow scientists at the Berkeley-based Cetus Corporation, invented the PCR (polymerase chain reaction). The PCR technique allows for in vitro multiplication of DNA sequences. In 1984, Alec Jeffreys was instrumental in helping to introduce the DNA fingerprinting technique. The technique has proved quite useful in the identification of individuals. The technique was used in a court of law for the first time in 1985. The National Center for Human Genome Research was created in 1989, with James Watson as its head. The organization was charged with the responsibility of overseeing the $ 3 billion set aside by the U. S. government to facilitate in human DNA sequencing by 2005.

The Human Genome Project was launched in 1990, at an estimated cost of $ 13 billion. The launch was an international effort aimed at mapping the human genome (Prophase Genetics, 2006). This would facilitate in better and faster identification of U.S. soldier who dies while in combat. In 1993, a map of the human chromosomes (the 23 pairs) was produced by the Daniel Cohen led international research team ( Maddox, 2003). In 1995, DNA fingerprinting and PCR technology were used in a high-profile murder trial case involving O. J. Simpson, a former football player. Using the new techniques, the courts found O. J. Simpson not guilty. In 1997, Dolly the sheep was cloned by researchers from the Roslin Institute in Scotland. Shortly thereafter, Polly was cloned. In 1998, the human genome map appears, albeit as a rough draft. The map reveals over 30,000 gene locations. In 2000, after a decade-long effort, the human genetic code is finally cracked by scientists. This milestone could potentially revolutionise disease diagnosis and treatment of hitherto incurable diseases.

How can DNA be extracted & PCR

The extraction of DNA occurs routinely whenever it is necessary to collect DNA to undertake forensic or molecular analysis. DNA extraction process consists of some basic steps. First, the cells have to be opened up so that the DNA is exposed. This is the cell lysis or cell disruption step. To achieve this, the sample is either sonicated or ground. Next, a detergent is added to the ground sample to facilitate in the removal of membrane lipids. Thereafter, a protease is added to remove the proteins. Adding RNase helps to remove RNA. Next, the DNA is precipitated with an alcohol, either in the form of isopropanol, or an ice-cold ethanol. DNA does not dissolve in alcohols and after centrifugation it aggregates, forming a pellet (Rice, 2010). The alcohol-soluble salts are also removed during this step. A chelating agent can be added to help sequester such divalent cations as Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺. Consequently, the DNA cannot be degraded by the DNase enzyme.

PCR

PCR (polymerase chain reaction) is a technique that helps to amplify a piece of few copies of DNA to generate numerous copies of specific DNA sequence (Saiki et al 1985). Examples include sequencing of DNA for cloning, functional genetic analysis, and DNA-based phylogeny (Saiki et al 1988).

How does DNA different from one person to another

DNA differs from one individual to another, even among monozygotic twins. This is because of the process of mutation observed during the process of gene copy number variation development (Bluder et al. 2008, p. 764). Such techniques as genetic fingerprinting rely on differences between individuals.

DNA linkage in crime

Forensic scientists use blood, skin, saliva, semen, or hair samples while investigating crimes. These samples are likely to be found at the scene of crime and are therefore helpful in identifying the DNA of an individual, in this case, the perpetrator of a crime (Turvey 2008, p. 354). The process is referred to as genetic fingerprinting or DNA profiling.

Advantages of using the DNA analysis

DNA analysis is highly reliable compared with the testimony of eye witnesses. Based on the frequency of the patterns of comparison, there is a1/7000 to 1/1,000,000,000 chance of finding matching DNA between two individuals (Klug & Cummings 2007, p. 87). Also, every small sample sizes of say 10 microliters could be enough for DNA analysis because using the PCR technique, one can amplify the DNA.

Case discussion supporting one of the advantages

Suppose the only item available to exonerate a suspect to a rape for example, is a very minute hair strand found at the crime scene. Using PCR technique, forensic scientist can amplify the DNA millions of time and if it matches the suspect, then this evidence can be presented at the courts to incarcerate him/her.

Disadvantages of using DNA analysis

A consensus has not been reached on what to do with the collected DNA samples. For example, police may use it in the future to solve crimes. DNA analysis may also lead to an overrepresentation of minorities in the DNA bank, at the expense of the majority (Butler 2005).

Cases support miscarriage of justice by discussing one of the disadvantages

The high rate at which minorities are arrested means that DNA samples are taken from this group more than any other group. Consequently, the DNA bank over-represents the minorities. Since the police are more likely to focus their investigation on areas where there is a DNA match, as opposed to investigating all crimes, minorities are more likely to be faced with higher rates of conviction.

The evolution and growth in DNA technology machines and databases

Over the years, DNA technology has evolved and today, machines and databases are used to store the DNA profiles of crime suspects. In future, should the same victim commit another crime, the ensuing profile can be compared with that which has already been stored in the DNA database (Huffine 2008, p. 24). If there is a match, then there is enough evidence to convict the suspect. Hypothetically, this may also act as a crime deterrent strategy for incarcerated convicts. The use of the DNA databases also helps to speed up processing of DNA analysis, thereby reducing case backlogs.

Ways of improving the usage of DNA in crime scene analysis and more ways of using DNA fingerprint

DNA databases facilitate the exchange and storage of DNA profiles at the local, state and national levels through the CODIS (Combined DNA Index System) technique. This ensures that DNA profiles that have been obtained at the local, state, and federal systems are maintained in databases that the law enforcement agencies can access to assist in enforcing the law (Butler, 2005). DNA technology can be improved in a number of ways. For example the use of nanotechnology to develop a DNA chip technology to enhance resolution and speed in DNA evidence analysis. In addition, the use of such advanced DNA analysis techniques as mitochondrial DNA analysis and Short Tandem Repeats is yet another way of improving DNA technology.

Reference List

Bruder, C., et al., 2008. Phenotypically Concordant and Discordant Monozygotic Twins Display Different DNA Copy-Number-Variation Profiles. Am J Hum Genet, Vol. 82, No. 3, pp. 763771.

Butler, J.M., 2005, Forensic DNA Typing: Biology, Technology, and Genetics of STR Markers (2nd Edition). New York: Elsevier Academic Press.

Dahm, R., 2008. Discovering DNA: Friedrich Miescher and the early years of nucleic acid research. Hum. Genet, Vol. 122, No. 6, pp. 56581.

Ghosh, A., & Bansal, M., 2003. A glossary of DNA structures from A to Z. Acta Crystallogr, Vol. 59, No. 4, pp. 6206.

Huffine, E., 2008. International Impact of Forensic DNA Technology. Forensic Magazine, Vol. 5, No. 5, pp. 23-28

Klug, W., & Cummings, M., 2007, Essential of Genetics. 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Maddox, B., 2003. The double helix and the wronged heroine. Nature, Vol. 421, No. 6921, pp. 407- 408.

Prophase Genetics., 2006. History of DNA. Web.

Rice, G., 2010. DNA Extraction. Web.

Saiki, R., Scharf, S., Faloona, F., Mullis, K.,Horn, G., Erlich, H., & Arnheim, N., 1985. Enzymatic amplification of beta-globin genomic sequences and restriction site analysis for diagnosis of sickle cell anemia. Science, Vol. 230, No. 4732, pp. 1350- 1354.

Saiki, R., Gelfand, D., Stoffel, S., Scharf, S., Higuchi, R., Horn, G., Mullis, K., & Erlich, H.,1988. Primer-directed enzymatic amplification of DNA with a thermostable DNA polymerase. Science, Vol. 239, No. 4839, pp. 487- 491.

Turvey, B. E., 2008, Criminal profiling: an introduction to behavioral evidence analysis. Waltham, Mass: Academic Press

A surge of early humans traveled out of Africa over 60,000 years ago, extending across the globe. These explorers encountered a landscape of early humans that was significantly different from the ones they had left behind. Neanderthals inhabited the European and Middle Eastern landscapes. The Denisovans, their sibling group, expanded throughout Asia. Moreover, it appears that when these groups interacted, they mated. The article shares the reasons behind the presence of Denisovans; genetic fingerprints are present in many parts of the world today.

The study, which was released in January 2020, made startling discoveries. The study found that current African people had more Neanderthal DNA than previously considered. More than a third of what the scientists discovered for Asians and Europeans. According to the concept, Neanderthal ancestry among Europeans was also overestimated. The study, conducted by researcher Joshua Akey, a geneticist at Princeton University, was the first skeptic (Wei-Haas 1). However, after another year and a half of intensive testing, the author and his coworkers feel the findings are correct. Approximately 17 million nucleotide bases of African chromosomes are Neanderthal, partly due to contemporary European ancestors returning to Africa and bearing fragments of Neanderthal DNA in the genomes.

Reflection

Akey and his associates were not the first to raise the possibility of Neanderthal ancestry in African people. However, when the initial Neanderthal genome was revealed in 2010, no comparable markers were detected in current African genomes, making these arguments impossible to support. Most genetic research is still done on persons of European heritage, a prejudice that scientifically overlooks large swathes of the contemporary human population (Wei-Haas 1). Geneticists may have inadvertently harmed their findings by making false assumptions because African origins need to be better known. The approach found seventeen million nucleotide sequences in African chromosomes as Neanderthal while identifying 51 million nucleotide sequences in European genomes and 55 million for Asian populations (Shook 412). When the researchers studied the three main groupings, they discovered that the Neanderthal markers in African genomes were more similar to those of Westerners than East Asians.

The overall image emerges from repeated immigration between Eurasia and Africa, with ancient peoples probably crossing the continent several times. Whenever migration from Africa peaked between 10,000 and 60,000 years ago, subgroups of this population flowed back into Africa during the past 20,000 years, contaminating the continents human genomes with Neanderthal DNA. According to Akey, an initial Homo sapiens fled Africa over 200,000 years ago and mingled with Neanderthals whenever they arrived in Europe (Shook 432). As a result, when modern humans returned to the height of migration, Neanderthals had a few Homo Sapiens Genes in their genotype.

Although knowing what more DNA a person has than their Neanderthal ancestors is intriguing, this knowledge does not give helpful information about their present health or risk of getting certain diseases. Other research has yet to discover the same links. The impact of Neanderthal genetic variations on illness risk is still being investigated, and most immediate test results do not yet contain them. Having less or more DNA in commonality with ancient people indicates nothing about a persons evolution, nor does it indicate strength or intellect. The search to understand the distinct genetic variations a person received from Neanderthal ancestors offers very minimal data regarding a few physical features for the time being. Something that was most intriguing about that information in the article was the indication that ancient contemporary humans crossbred with Neanderthals very early, before the major migration out of Africa. Another striking finding was that the degree of genetic variation was comparable to that observed in certain solitary modern human communities, as opposed to the Altai Neandertal, which was highly inbred.

Works Cited

Shook, Beth, Katie Nelson, Kelsie Aguilera, and Lara Braff. Explorations: An Open Invitation to Biological Anthropology. American Anthropological Association, 2019. Web.

Wei-Haas, Maya. You May Have More Neanderthal DNA than You Think. National Geographic, 2020. Web.