Category: Disorders

This paper described an analysis of well-being and health status. The main diagnoses based on screenings and examinations were described. The most key aspects are life stress and related stress, manifestations of PFS, and avitominosis. For each diagnosis, the most effective ways of monitoring and were described. Based on the screening and monitoring modalities studied, detailed work plans with deadlines were drawn up. All stages of treatment are consistent and scientifically substantiated. At the end of the course of necessary therapy within the framework of each disease, repeated diagnostics for objective evaluation of the progress in treatment is supposed. Subjective sensations, which include improvement of general well-being and quality of life of the patient, have an important place in tracking the results of the study. The work performed allowed us to improve our skills in developing a treatment plan and formulating a diagnosis, which contributes to professional growth.

Introduction

The studies devoted to the study of the health status of various categories of medical workers have proved the high value of information on their health collected by anamnestic method. This information allows us to give a full characteristic of the state of health of this contingent, because it includes materials on both acute and chronic morbidity, similar to the complex results of the study of the addressability and the data of in-depth medical examinations.

Sociological surveys explored the opinion of medical workers on the presence of the relationship of their diseases with various external factors. Preferences in preventive measures and methods of treatment of their own diseases, as well as the attitude to the organization of medical care and preventive medical examinations are also among them. In modern socio-demographic conditions, when the total number of able-bodied populations is decreasing, the average age of people is growing and the population is aging, the issues of population health preservation become especially important. Health is one of the essential characteristics of the population. Today, it is of great concern that the health dynamics of the population is on a downward trend, and health problems are moving from older age groups to children and young people.

Demographics

My health is greatly influenced by the climate of where I live, my diet, work and physical activity distribution. Irrational distribution of time affects the improper consumption of food and the lack of necessary micronutrients and nutrients. The diet is dominated by complex carbohydrates, which leads to swelling and discomfort during the day. My work schedule is quite irregular, so sleep often becomes irregular. This affects the onset of headaches and general malaise.

The climatic factor has a favorable effect on my condition. I get enough sunshine, I have the opportunity to be out in nature for most of the year due to the favorable, mild weather. Inseparable from my general well-being is a low level of air pollution in the area in which I live. This is due to the lack of a developed public transport network and the relatively low population density.

Assessment

My general state of health can be assessed as satisfactory, by now there are no chronic diseases or cavity surgeries survived. I do not suffer from acute respiratory infections and other viral infections often, not more than once a year. All respiratory diseases occur without complications. In terms of musculoskeletal system, I have no complaints, because for 10 years of training and jogging, no cases of injuries or concomitant diseases were observed. The most striking manifestations of body disorders are related to the work of the nervous, as well as digestive and excretory systems. Diagnoses related to these areas are due to lifestyle and are not related to hereditary or congenital predispositions.

Avitaminosis

Avitaminosis is a term that has become widely used. Today many people talk about avitaminosis, and almost everyone has heard of it. At the same time, avitaminosis is usually understood more broadly than what is put in this concept by medicine. Medicine distinguishes between two pathological states: avitaminosis  when the body lacks any vitamin (a type of avitaminosis, in which several vitamins are missing at once, called multivitaminosis), and hypovitaminosis  when the body lacks any vitamin. In the popular mind, these two conditions are usually not distinguished, and any lack of vitamins is called avitaminosis. In fact, avitaminosis today is relatively rare, much more often we have to deal with hypovitaminosis.

Vitamins are organic, low molecular weight substances that are essential for humans. Low molecular weight compounds are chemically unstable, so most vitamins are easily destroyed, for example, by heat, or by oxidizing in contact with air. But vitamins are involved in various metabolic processes, and their deficiency or absence leads to metabolic disorders and the development of serious pathologies.

Avitaminosis disease in most cases is caused by poor diet. A poor diet is most likely to lead to the development of this pathology. All this is due to the fact that there is no product that contains all the vitamins at once. The key symptoms are:

1. Skin becomes dry and flabby, and pigment spots appear on it
2. Dental problems, bleeding gums. Plaque builds up on the tongue.
3. Appearance of dandruff, dull and lifeless hair
4. Pimples on the face
5. Swelling of the face, nails, and hands
6. Changes in body odor and sweat, bad breath begins to smell
7. Peeling of the nails
8. Increased sensitivity to sunlight, watery eyes, redness
9. Disorders of normal digestion
10. Deterioration of memory, problems with concentration (Frank, 2020).

The key factors contributing to the development of avitaminosis in this case are:

• Digestive disorders. Malabsorption of vitamins is seen in chronic gastroenteritis, Crohns disease, celiac disease and other diseases. Symptoms occur at different stages  digestion, release of nutrients, absorption of finished bioactive forms.
• Vitamin delivery disorders. With defects in transport proteins, which is most often caused by liver damage, vitamin substances do not travel to the target organs, so symptoms of vitamin deficiency occur even with normal levels of nutrients in the blood. Disorders of the interaction of transport proteins with cell receptors are less common.

Based on symptoms, there is vitamin A avitaminosis, in which retinol deficiency is diagnosed at blood concentrations of less than 0.35 µmol/l, but the first signs of insufficiency occur already at values of 0.7-1.22 µmol/l (Frank, 2020).

Vegetative Disorder

Autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a part of the bodys nervous system that controls the activity of internal organs and metabolism in the entire body. It is located in the cortex and brain stem, hypothalamus area, spinal cord, and consists of peripheral parts. Any pathology of these structures, as well as a disturbance of the relationship with the VSN can cause autonomic disorders. In this case, the most probable cause of the symtomatology is life stress and concomitant psychogenic factors.

The latter include severe and chronic psycho-emotional stresses and other mental and neurotic disorders, which are the main precursors of the disease. IBS is essentially an excessive autonomic response to stress. Often mental disorders  anxiety syndrome depression  are accompanied by vegetative symptoms in parallel with mental symptoms (Pape-Haugaard, 2020). In some patients, mental symptoms prevail, in others somatic complaints are in the foreground, which complicates diagnosis.

Eating Disorder

Eating disorders (ED) reflect psycho-emotional disturbances in the form of abnormal eating habits. With a prolonged course, severe somatic complications develop, since practically all organ systems are involved (Jameson, 2018). In severe cases, the consequences are irreversible, leading to disability (Bartley & Streno, 2020). In this case, bulimia nervosa, in which there are recurrent attacks of overeating on the background of pathological preoccupation with the parameters of ones own body, is relevant (Cook-Cottone, 2020). Episodes of exacerbation are associated with psycho-emotional risk factors. The breakdown ends with the adoption of extreme measures, but it was not necessary to resort to them.

Treatment Plan

Avitaminosis

• Determination of vitamin levels. This is the main test used to confirm the diagnosis. It gives the most accurate results when there is evidence of a deficiency in fat-soluble forms. The deadline is January, 20.
• Other blood tests. A hemogram is performed to evaluate the amount of hemoglobin, number, and shape of red blood cells, which is necessary to detect laboratory symptoms of different types of anemia (Kai Hong Phua, 2018). A coagulogram is mandatory to assess blood clotting. The deadline is January, 20.
• Correction of malabsorption. Specific enzyme preparations, synbiotics normalizing intestinal microflora, and bile acid-based medications are prescribed to stimulate digestion. The deadline is January, 20.

Normalization of electrolyte balance. The physiological level of trace elements is important for the processes of transport, biochemical transformation of vitamins, so if appropriate signs are identified, patients are administered infusions of saline solutions, preparations of calcium, potassium, iron.

Vegetative Disorder

One should collect the patients complaints, which, given the polymorphism of the clinic, can be very diverse. Moreover, researching anamnesis, finding out the presence of acute and chronic stressful situations, because they often serve as a trigger of the diseas, and other predisposing and causative factors is vital for the process. The deadline is January, 20.

The second stage of diagnostics:

• The skin is evaluated, blood pressure and pulse are measured, and the lungs and heart are auscultated. The neurological status with emphasis on the vegetative sphere is investigated (Yang et al., 2020).
• orthostatic test is applied (blood pressure and heart rate  heart rate  are measured in the prone position, and then after transition to the upright position in 1-2 minutes);
• Kerdo index is measured, which is calculated by the formula: index = 100 * (1  diastolic BP HR). If the index is greater than zero, sympathetic predominates, if less than zero, parasympathetic predominates (El-Baz & Suri, 2020). The deadline is January, 20.

The third stage of diagnostics:

Laboratory diagnostics are used: general blood tests (CBC) and urine tests (UMB) are prescribed, which can confirm or refute the presence of a certain disease.

ECG may reveal certain changes: increased amplitude of the T wave in the right thoracic leads combined with an elevated ST segment in the same leads, inversion of the T wave. ECG allows differentiating ischemic heart disease, hypertension, arrhythmic syndromes (Salgado, 2020). A more informative examination for diagnosing heart rhythm disorders is ECG monitoring, which allows for a more accurate determination of the presence of ischemic changes in the heart The deadline is January, 20.

Eating disorder

The action plan includes the following steps:

• Rehabilitation psychotherapy. The deadline is January, 20.
• Working through the diet with a nutritionist. The deadline is January, 20.
• Gastrointestinal examination. The deadline is January, 20.
• Remove foods that are not good for the body, containing so-called empty calories. These are pastries, confectionery, sweets, sausages and semi-finished products, mayonnaise, sauces The deadline is January, 20.
• Watch the water balance; it is necessary to drink no less than 1.5 liters of pure water daily. The approximate norm is calculated by the formula: 30 milliliters per kilogram of ideal weight. The deadline is January, 20.

Evaluation

The results of IBS therapy can be evaluated based on the improvement in your general well-being. Results can also be monitored by blood tests:

• General blood count;
• General urinalysis;
• Indicators of liver and kidney function;
• Thyroid hormone levels;
• Additional tests may be done at your doctors discretion.

Hormone tests will help assess the progress of treatment of avitaminosis. With possible signs of hypovitaminosis D determination of parathormone is shown. Symptoms of impaired fertility in the absence of A and E  reason for an expanded study of sex hormones (estrogens, gestagens, androgens), gonadotropic hormones of the pituitary gland. Instrumental methods are also effective. To find out the cause of vitamin deficiency, gastrointestinal examinations are necessary: fibrogastroduodenoscopy, radiography with barium passage through the intestine, CT or MRI of the abdominal cavity organs. If vitamin D deficiency is suspected, skeletal bone radiography is recommended.

In evaluating the progress of treatment of RPP, it is necessary to:

• Height and weight are measured;
• Blood pressure is measured;
• Heart rate and respiration are assessed;
• !larify the patients complaints;
• Skin, hair, and nails are evaluated.

Conclusion

Self-assessment of health is one of the basic indicators in the study of health, because there is a high degree of correspondence between self-assessment and objective parameters of health. Self-assessment of health allows predicting behavioral acts and forming risk groups. Over the compared 20 years the self-assessment of adolescents health has improved  the share of assessments of good health has increased by 1.7 times  in connection with changes in attitudes and values in the field of health. The importance of the motive to be stronger, healthier and the motive of education doubled. Many diseases are caused by insufficient time of night sleep, unbalanced and incomplete nutrition, a sixth part refers to the lack of time to take care of health. They also attribute their illness to strained relationships in the family, loneliness, and domestic disorder. At the same time low physical activity, bad habits (smoking, alcohol, overeating, abuse of table salt, coffee) as a factor that affects quality of life and health. Expressed critical self-assessment of health in the questionnaires is often combined with inadequate awareness of the reasons that led to the deterioration of health. Most respondents attributed their poor health to external factors that do not depend on their own behavior and lifestyle.

References

Bartley, J., & Streno, M. (2020). What you need to know about eating disorders. ABC-CLIO.

Cook-Cottone, C. (2020). Embodiment and the Treatment of Eating Disorders: The Body as a Resource in Recovery. W. W. Norton & Company.

El-Baz, A. S., & Suri, J. S. (2020). Neurological disorders and imaging physics. Volume 5, Applications in dyslexia, epilepsy and Parkinsons. IOP Publishing.

Frank, R. N. (2020). Of Age-Related Macular Degeneration and Vitamins. JAMA Ophthalmology, 138(12), 1290. Web.

Jameson, J. L. (2018). Harrisons principles of internal medicine (20th ed.). New York Mcgraw-Hill Education.

Kai Hong Phua, (2018). Healthcare. Institute Of Policy Studies.

Melnyk, B., & Fineout-Overholt, E. (2019). Evidence-based practice in nursing & healthcare: A guide to best practice (4th ed.). Wolters Kluwer.

Salgado, A. (2020). Handbook of Innovations in Central Nervous System Regenerative Medicine. Elsevier.

Pape-Haugaard, L. B. (2020). Digital personalized health and medicine : proceedings of MIE 2020. Ios Press.

Yang, Y., Wang, C., Xiang, Y., Penzel, T., & Lu, J. (2020). Mental Disorders Associated With Neurological Diseases. Frontiers Media SA.

Introduction

Eating disorders are mental health diseases in which a persons attitudes toward food, motor activity, physical image, or other self-image hurt their health. They are accompanied by physical hazards and complications that stem from abnormal eating behaviors. Lifelong emotional cycles and low self-esteem, a tendency to ignore feelings and pain, and block out anger are common indicators of an eating disorder. At their core is the attachment of excessively much importance to body shape, whereby the person tries to prevent weight gain using extreme measures.

These hardships are now common among young people because the media creates an image of the ideal figure and eating disorders originate from the desire for the ideal. It is most typically noticed in women, though several men equally suffer. Obsessiveness and ego are two personality qualities that might promote the growth of a negative psychological perception of own physique (Meier et al. 362). An eating disorder is a severe illness that can be fatal, therefore, a comprehensive treatment of such conditions is necessary.

Forms of Eating Disorders

Hardships with food relationships occur in people of all ethnicities, genders, ages, weights, and clothing sizes. However, genes can play a crucial role in developing diseases. Studies indicate that a person whose family has a history of eating disorders is more likely to experience the condition than those whose family members have not experienced PPT (Piran 23). Nevertheless, there can be other reasons, for example, anorexia and bulimia are common in industrialized cultures, where thinness is associated with notions of beauty and is widely replicated in the media. Finally, eating habits acquired in childhood have an important role in shaping relationships with food. Treatment of eating disorders is comprehensive and includes psychotherapy, dietary control, and medications, particularly those that increase serotonin levels (Piran 23). However, each disease has distinct characteristics that should be considered in the treatment process.

Anorexia Nervosa

In anorexia nervosa, the person is seized by a fear of gaining weight and wants to be thin. Such an individual has a distorted perception of physical shape and worries that the weight will increase, even if it does not happen. The person with anorexia weighs himself frequently, eats little, and chooses strictly certain foods (Grogan 38). Some anorexics exercise excessively, induce vomiting, or use laxatives to lose or maintain the current weight  these symptoms are closely related to bulimia nervosa. In this condition, the person loses weight dramatically, and irreversible changes in internal organs may develop.

Anorexia is influenced by biological, genetic, cultural, personality, family, and age factors. Young women or adolescent girls most often have this condition, but men are also at risk (Linardon 914). One crucial factor is the dysfunction of neurotransmitters that regulate eating behavior, such as serotonin, dopamine, and noradrenaline. For example, the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) gene regulates serotonin levels, a decrease that causes depression (Grogan 38). Anorexia is susceptible to the obsessive personality type, characterized by a desire for perfectionism, low self-esteem, and controlling behavior.

Bulimia Nervosa

Bulimia is characterized by recurrent bouts of overeating which the person in fear of gaining weight compensates by inducing vomiting or taking laxatives. A persons self-esteem with bulimia is closely related to figure and weight (Petre). It often develops in people who have experienced anorexia nervosa. Therefore, it was initially described in scientific papers as a syndrome accompanying anorexia nervosa. However, in 1979, diagnostic criteria for bulimia were first identified, and in the 1990s, it began to be treated as a separate disorder (Grogan 38). As with anorexia, bulimia affects people prone to perfectionism and excessive control of their lives.

Psychogenic Overeating

This eating disorder often occurs due to the stress reaction. People who have experienced the death of a loved one, an accident, or severe emotional turmoil begin to binge on their feelings. Psychogenic overeating is characterized by rapidly consuming large amounts of food in a small amount of time, often in the absence of feelings of hunger, loss of control over the amount eaten, feelings of guilt (Petre). It can be caused by environmental factors and the impact of traumatic events. A study showed that women who experienced regular binges had experienced adverse events in the year before the conditions onset (Petre). People with psychogenic overeating were often victims of physical abuse. Other risk factors may include childhood obesity, critical comments about weight, low self-esteem, depression, and childhood physical or sexual abuse.

Orthorexia

This eating disorder is characterized by an obsessive desire for a healthy and proper diet. Individuals with orthorexia choose food not according to their gustatory preferences but based on their ideas about the products nutritional value. They often refuse floury, spicy, fatty, salty, and sweet food and products that contain certain ingredients such as starch, gluten, alcohol, and chemical preservatives (Petre). Derivatives are considered either beneficial or harmful: the former are eaten in large quantities, while the latter, according to the person with orthorexia, should not be ingested, even with an acute feeling of hunger (Petre). If this condition is violated, the individual may subject themselves to sanctions: to tighten their diet or exercise in large quantities. Fears and restrictions extend to the foods themselves and correspondingly to the way they are prepared. It can lead to complications in communicating with family and friends: people with orthorexia find eating at guests, canteens, and cafes challenging.

Orthorexia is not officially recognized as a disease since there are no effective methods of diagnosis. Moreover, the problem is insufficiently researched as there is a version that it is anorexia nervosa, as both anorexics and orthorexics are characterized by anxiety, perfectionism, and a desire to control their lives (Petre). However, people with an obsessive desire to eat properly are far from always striving to be thin. Some researchers regard this behavior as a ritual typical of obsessive-compulsive states or a manifestation of hypochondria. Finally, there is the hypothesis that orthorexia is not a disease, but a social tendency, excessive adherence to which can lead to other eating disorders.

Relationship Between Body Image Issues and Eating Disorders

The perceptions and emotions one has about their body make up their body image. Body image can vary from positive to negative sensations, and an individual may feel positive, negative, or a hybrid of both at distinct intervals. Possessing a positive body image means the ability to embrace, cherish, and esteem ones physique (Derenne et al. 130). This is not the same as body satisfaction because one can be uncomfortable with parts of own body while yet accepting it for all of its imperfections. Positive body image is significant since it is one of the defensive variables that can reduce the risk of thriving in an unhealthy relationship with food (McLean et al. 146). When individuals have consistent negative emotions about their bodies, it is considered body dissatisfaction. Body dissatisfaction is an internal affective and psychological process characterized by a social environment such as expectations to conform to a particular beauty standard.

People who are upset with their bodies are far more prone to participate in negative weight-reduction practices involving anorexia. As a consequence, they have a greater chance of developing the issue. According to research, social networking use has been related to higher body dissatisfaction and poor dieting habits (Uchôa et al. 1508). When users perceive and compare themselves to social networking pictures and read expression posts on social platforms. They may have body dissatisfaction since they think they will never be able to respond positively to the idealized form portrayed.

Body and Soul Theories

The need for food is one of the primary biological necessities. According to A. Maslows theory, such prerequisites related to survival must be satisfied at least minimally for higher-level needs to become relevant (Derenne 133). Nevertheless, food also has a social meaning connected with interpersonal interaction from birth. Eating habits are determined by family and community traditions, religious beliefs, life experiences, doctors advice, and fashion (Derenne 133). The issue of eating disorders is now well-known and even popular, and the terms anorexia and bulimia are no longer strictly medical concepts. Moreover, anorexic girls have become firmly established in the fashion prevalent in societies with a high standard of living.

From ancient Greek philosophy to the emergence of medical science, the notion that the body is a dirty component of man, while the mind is his pure essence, has become entrenched in Western European culture. At the same time, women were considered nearer to the body and men to the rationale. That is why girls became carriers of various diseases, such as anorexia and hysteria, more often. Emancipation only made it more challenging for women to claim the male sphere while retaining former social positions (Smolak 34). It was contesting to combine both, but it was embodied in the figure of the anorexic, whose image became mass in the second half of the 20th century and has not lost its popularity in the 21st century.

Social media allowed girls seeking extreme thinness to unite and develop their system of values. The emergence of such groups and accounts is a reaction to the cultures demands to be both thin and healthy, build a career and take care of a family (Guarda). The obsession with thinness and exhausting weight loss methods are not individual deviations but a characteristic of a culture that has placed numerous demands.

The issue of treating eating disorders is multi-component and complex, for it consists of the need to determine the approach to both body and soul. Spinozas theory of dualism suggests that one body entity has two aspects, the physical and the mental (Shah 113122). When the philosopher speaks of the desirable part of the soul, and the physician tells of the liver, they talk about the same thing, but each in his language. For the practitioner who treats mental illnesses, the question of the properties of the soul should not come first.

It is enough to temporarily recognize the fidelity of physicalist assumptions and work with the psyche as the doctor works with the internal organs. This is the compromise to which another theorist, Galen, is inclined  to recognize the existence of the soul but to treat always only the body. Today, many physicians would agree with this because the soul, which modern people sometimes call consciousness, exists, but it is impossible to describe its properties. The ontological status of consciousness is not defined, and this should concern philosophers-theorists, not doctors-practitioners (Overview Eating Disorders). Doctors need to follow the same scientific paradigm in treating somatic diseases to influence the psyche effectively. The psyche reacts to changes in the body, and issues with the intellect must be corrected in the same way as with the body, which works like a mechanism conditioned by biological laws.

Treatment Features

Concerning the seriousness and complexity of these disorders, patients require comprehensive treatment under the supervision of a diverse group of specialists. During the consultation, the doctor should find out all the details of the patients anamnesis and symptoms. Moreover, it is necessary to ask the patient and his relatives qualifying questions about stressful and traumatic situations, eating habits, and relationship to appearance and weight (Hallward et al. 13). To determine the consequences of eating disorders, consultations with a therapist or pediatrician, nephrologist, gastroenterologist, endocrinologist, neurologist, cardiologist, and other specialized specialists are prescribed (Zam and Ziad 32). A comprehensive approach is the most significant prerequisite of treatment plan, which aims to restore the body after the consequences of eating disorders.

The methods and techniques depend on the type of disease and the patients personality. It is usually conducted with the help of cognitive-behavioral therapy and psychoanalysis. The final goal of treatment is to develop the ability to cope with stress and the correct attitude toward appearance and food, increase self-esteem, stabilize mood, and eliminate apathy, anxiety, depression, or impulsive behavior. Medications can be prescribed only if it is impossible to eliminate the disorders by nonpharmacological means (Uchôa et al. 1508). It is significant that all skills and results of psychotherapy and drug treatment should be reinforced in daily life.

Necessary Changes

One needs to comprehend proper habits to alter the critical situation of the growing incidence of eating disorders. It is necessary to realize that good nutrition in the family should become part of a healthy lifestyle, a good practice, not a temporary diet. It is imperative when raising children because compliance with the principles of good nutrition in the family is the primary way to prevent digestive and endocrine systems diseases. However, the transition to a healthy diet should be wise; it is crucial to gradually change the wrong way of life (Brewerton 447). In the first place, it concerns the correction of eating patterns, reducing the dominant role of food motivation, and eliminating the improper connections between emotional discomfort and food intake.

Furthermore, it is necessary to comprehend that all food restrictions should be extended to the whole family to change the situation. This recommendation allows one to reduce externalized eating behavior. Moreover, it helps avoid unnecessary tension in the family and makes loved ones not passive observers but like-minded and active participants in the transition to a healthy diet. It is vital to eradicate the familys typical stereotype of stress eating (Weinbach et al. 1353). Children should be taught to distinguish between states of hunger and emotional discomfort. These can be physical activity, walks, dancing, breathing exercises, music, knitting, showers, and baths. These principles will contribute to the formation of the proper culture of consumption and, therefore, can affect the reduction of the level of morbidity.

Conclusion

Excessive weight and disordered eating are significant public health issues in America and other western countries. Although therapies are provided for both disorders, prevention is significantly more efficient in lowering risk and expenditure. Their treatment always requires a comprehensive approach, but it is important to remember that the body and the soul are interconnected. Promoting healthy lifestyle is a logical progression toward controlling the increasing trend of weight gain and eating disorders. Therefore, initiatives intended to encourage changes and distributing knowledge are the most prosperous.

Works Cited

Brewerton, Timothy D. An Overview of Trauma-Informed Care and Practice for Eating Disorders. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, vol. 28, no. 4, 2019, pp 445-462.

Derenne, Jennifer, and Eugene Beresin. Body Image, Media, and Eating disordersa 10-year Update. Academic Psychiatry, vol. 42, no. 1, 2018, pp 129-134.

Grogan, Sarah. Body Image: Understanding Body Dissatisfaction in Men, Women, and Children. Routledge, 2021.

Guarda, Angela. What are Eating Disorders? AmericanPschyciatricAssosiation, Web.

Hallward, Laura, Annissa Di Marino, and Lindsay R. Duncan. A Systematic Review of Treatment Approaches for Compulsive Exercise Among Individuals with Eating Disorders. Eating Disorders, 2021, pp 1-26.

Linardon, Jake. A Survey Study of Attitudes Toward, and Preferences for, Etherapy Interventions for Eating Disorder Psychopathology. International Journal of Eating Disorders, vol. 53, no. 6, 2020, pp. 907-916.

Overview Eating Disorders. NHS, 2021, Web.

Petre, Alina. 6 Common Types of Eating Disorders (and their Symptoms). Healthline, 2019, Web.

Piran, Niva. Handbook of Positive Body Image and Embodiment: Constructs, Protective Factors, and Interventions. Oxford University Press, 2019.

Shah, Monica, Muskaan Sachdeva, and Hariclia Johnston. Eating Disorders in the Age of COVID-19. Psychiatry Research, 290, 2020, 113122.

Smolak, Linda, and Michael P. Levine. Critical Issues in the Developmental Psychopathology of Eating Disorders. Taylor & Francis, 2019.

Uchôa, Francisco Nataniel Macedo, et al. Influence of the Mass Media and Body Dissatisfaction on the Risk in Adolescents of Developing Eating Disorders. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol.16, no. 9, 2019, pp 1508.

Weinbach, Noam, Helene Sher, and Cara Bohon. Differences in Emotion Regulation Difficulties Across Types of Eating Disorders During Adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, vol. 46, no. 6, 2018, pp 1351-1358.

Zam, Wissam, Reham Saijari, and Ziad Sijari. Overview on Eating Disorders. Progress in Nutrition, vol. 20, no. 2, 2018, pp 29-35.

Psychosocial disorders are common occurrence in both children and adults. As such, effective treatment needs to be undertaken to combat the disorders. To achieve excellent results, review of pharmacotherapeutic, behavioral and a combination of the two needs to be undertaken. Minimizing the prevalence of psychosocial disorder requires thorough research on treatment options. The existing treatment and new treatment needs to be analyzed to determine whether the existing pharmacotherapeutic and behavioral treatment are effective in treating psychological disorders.

The foremost step in treating any psychosocial problems is accepting the fact that the disorder exists and that when appropriate treatment is administered, significant improvement may be achieved. In most cases, people who have psychological problems deny the fact that they have the disorder and so they fail to seek appropriate remedy.

Regular medical care is essential because it offers healthcare professionals the opportunity of conducting screening tests to evaluate both the symptoms and risks of further complications. Once the problem is assessed and psychological disorder discovered, treatment may be conducted and may be of behavioral or pharmacotherapeutic nature, depending on the type of disorder, severity of the disorder, and the availability of health treatment options.

Often, treatment includes psychotherapy where behavioral and skill development is given a priority and initial hospitalization may be appropriate for serious complications, substance abuse, coexisting medical complications, and severe disorders. Medications may be helpful in some types of psychological disorders (Kozier, 2008).

Cognitive behavioral therapy is a form of psychotherapeutic treatment of psychosocial disorder that addresses behavioral aspects of the patient, dysfunctional emotions, systematic processes, and goal oriented cognition.

Cognitive behavioral therapy offers a remedy for a number of psychosocial disorders like mood disorders, anxiety, depression, and substance abuse thus many treatment options and programs for the specified disorders have been assessed for efficacy and effectiveness based on the contemporary health care trend of evidence based treatment, which involves recommended treatment for diagnoses that are symptom based, and have favored cognitive behavioral therapy over other approaches.

Therapists use Cognitive behavioral therapy to assist patients in challenging their beliefs and behavioral patterns to develop effective and realistic thoughts and behaviors, thus minimizing the impact of self defeating behavioral patterns and emotional distress. Cognitive behavioral therapy includes a number of therapies such as cognitive processing therapy, relaxation training, commitment therapy, stress inoculation training, exposure therapy, and dialectical behavioral therapy.

Cognitive behavioral therapy is an effective treatment of personality disorder because it assists individual in developing adaptive behaviors, cognition and coping skills thus replacing maladaptive ones by challenging the patients to adopt a positive habit (Vaillant, 2002).

Pharmacotherapeutic treatment of personality disorder involves use of drugs in managing personality disorders. There are two major types of medication involved in treating personality disorders and these are antidepressants used in treating clinical depressions and other related conditions and anxiolytics, which are used in managing anxiety.

In most cases, pharmacotherapeutic treatment is administered in severe disorders, serious complications, a combination of complications, and in cases where behavioral therapy has failed to offer a solution to the disorder. Although pharmacotherapeutic treatment may be administered in some cases, there may be problems related to administered drugs especially the problems of adverse effects and dependent problems where a drug may induce addictive effects on a patient.

The effectiveness of pharmacotherapeutic treatment is not fully known and has been marred by conflict of interest of professionals and marketing trends by pharmaceutical companies (Atkinson,2006).

In conclusion, personality disorders can be contained if appropriate medication is administered. Behavioral treatment has been proven as an effective way of managing personality disorder because it assists the patient in changing behavioral pattern from negative habits to positive behaviors. Pharmacotherapy, which involves administering of drugs, is effective in dealing with complicated nature of the disorders although its effectiveness has not been fully understood.

A combination of both behavioral and pharmacotherapeutic treatment offers an effective remedy in handling many cases of disorders especially those that involve a combination of complications. As such, when effective treatment is administered, the prevalence of personality disorder would be minimal.

References

Atkinson, J. (2006) Private and Public Protection: Civil Mental Health Legislation, Edinburgh, Dunedin Academic Press.

Kozier B (2008). Fundamentals of nursing: concepts, process and practice.New York: Pearson Education.

Vaillant, G (2002). The beginning of wisdom is never calling a patient Borderline. Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research 1 (2): 11734.

Introduction

If you have been diagnosed with Binge Eating Disorder BED, it means that your eating behaviors are complicated by the presence of rather frequent episodes of uncontrolled overeating. BED is more widespread compared to other eating disorders. You should know that it may cause susceptible weight gains if not managed properly since the definitive feature of this disorder is the absence of attempts to empty the stomach after eating too much. Unfortunately, many individuals with BED refuse to take their overeating episodes seriously, so the disorder often remains undiagnosed and may lead to morbid obesity.

• Patients with BED have weekly episodes of eating too much for at least three months (Iqbal & Rehman 2019)
• BED is more prevalent compared to anorexia and bulimia nervosa (Brownley et al. 2016; Udo & Grilo 2018)
• Unlike bulimia nervosa, BED does not involve purging after overeating, which is why it leads to weight gains (Iqbal & Rehman 2019)
• BED often remains undiagnosed (Lock & Osipov 2019)

Binge Prevention

• Keep a food diary to keep track of your eating patterns
• Use the diary to single out your triggers
• Make sure that gaps between meals do not exceed 4 hours (Iqbal & Rehman 2019)
• Plan strategies to limit exposure to the identified triggers
• Check your weight on a weekly basis

As of now, you should be aware of the simplest ways to keep track of your binges and reduce the number of such episodes. Firstly, document information about your meals on a regular basis and also pay attention to events or specific factors that result in overeating. For some people, the opportunity to eat a very specific product is an independent trigger, so they should avoid places or situations in which this food is available. It is not uncommon that people engage in binge eating after periods of under-eating, so it is recommended to have a nutrition plan with relatively short gaps between meals.

Available Treatment Options

As a patient diagnosed with BED, you can benefit from multiple evidence-based treatment methods if you turn out to be unable to implement lifestyle modifications without extra assistance. CBT is successfully used to teach patients with BED how to recognize and deal with the triggers of overeating episodes, such as stress or negative body image (Bello & Yeomans 2018). Next, IPT techniques can be helpful if the causes of your unhealthy eating patterns must deal with specific issues with friends, family, romantic partners, or colleagues (Bello & Yeomans 2018). If these options do not help, your eating behaviors can be normalized with the help of Vyvanse, an FDA-approved drug (McElroy et al. 2017).

Complications of BED to Avoid

• Eating disorders increase the risks of suicide and poor quality of life (Hart et al. 2018)
• BED complications: obesity, neck pain, blood pressure abnormalities (Iqbal & Rehman 2019; McCuen-Wurst, Ruggieri & Allison 2018)
• BED complications: respiratory disease, diabetes, sleep apnea, heart failure, hormonal imbalance (Iqbal & Rehman 2019; McCuen-Wurst et al. 2018)

Keep in mind that the absence of timely lifestyle changes and treatment can be devastating for your health if you already have the diagnosis of BED. If not treated, the disorder being discussed increases the risks of a variety of complications, including life-threatening conditions. BED makes a significant contribution to obesity, which leads to the risks of other diseases that you can see on the slide. Apart from these conditions, BED is unlikely to go unnoticed for a persons mental health. Modern research suggests links between BED and other eating disorders and suicidal behaviors (Hart et al. 2018). Considering these possibilities, it is critical to make sure that you will take a responsible approach to your health.

Reference List

Bello, N. T. and Yeomans, B. L. (2018) Safety of pharmacotherapy options for bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder, Expert Opinion on Drug Safety, 17(1), pp. 17-23.

Brownley, K. A. et al. (2016) Binge-eating disorder in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Annals of Internal Medicine, 165(6), pp. 409-420.

Hart, S. et al. (2018) Development of the Recovery from eating disorders for life food guide (REAL food guide)  a food pyramid for adults with an eating disorder, Journal of Eating Disorders, 6(1), pp. 1-11.

Iqbal, A. and Rehman, A. (2019) Binge eating disorder. StatPearls Publishing, Treasure Island. Web.

Linardon, J. et al. (2017) The efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy for eating disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 85(11), pp. 1080-1094.

Lock, J. and Osipov, L. (2019) Eating disorders: the basics, in Lock, J. (ed.) Pocket guide for the assessment and treatment of eating disorders. Washington, American Psychiatric Association Publishing, pp. 1-34.

McCuen-Wurst, C., Ruggieri, M. and Allison, K. C. (2018) Disordered eating and obesity: associations between binge eating-disorder, night-eating syndrome, and weight-related co-morbidities, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1411(1), p. 96.

McElroy, S. (2017) Treatment of binge eating disorder, Biological Psychiatry, 81(10), p. S184.

McElroy, S. et al. (2017) Time course of the effects of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate in two phase 3, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials in adults with binge-eating disorder, International Journal of Eating Disorders, 50(8), pp.884-892.

Udo, T. and Grilo, C. M. (2018) Prevalence and correlates of DSM-5defined eating disorders in a nationally representative sample of US adults, Biological Psychiatry, 84(5), pp. 345-354.

A flight from Minnesota to Sydney lasts about 19,5 hours. When individuals travel by plane, especially during long periods, they remain relatively immobile, which is not the best state for those with CVS diseases. Stasis results in the accumulation of platelets and clotting factors. Moreover, immobility causes a decrease in chemical interactions with inhibitors of coagulation. These factors might lead to increased thrombus formation risk. Speaking about Leonas case, there are several additional risks, including overweight, smoking, and atherosclerosis.

There are diverse data regarding the impact of smoking on DVT. Some research shows that regardless of amount and duration, smoking is not a risk factor. In turn, other studies have proved that heavy cigarette smoking has a secure interconnection with this disease. Mi et al. (2016) conducted research demonstrating the positive correlation between DVT and smoking. Additionally, it is a substantial risk factor for the development of the atherosclerotic disease. There is a possible explanation of such controversies in research results. Some of them might not have used sufficiently detailed data, including previous versus current smoking status, lighter versus heavier smokers, and others. Nevertheless, there is no doubt that smoking increases hypercoagulability, simultaneously associated with increased blood viscosity, inflammation, and reduced fibrinolysis.

Additionally, Leona has atherosclerosis, which is another severe disease to be taken into account. Recent studies claim that DVT and atherosclerosis have common risk factors such as cigarette smoking, obesity, age, and metabolic syndrome. Moreover, atherosclerosis potentially might promote the thrombotic disorders development in a venous system. Nevertheless, according to Mi et al. (2016), the population studies conducted in the USA revealed that atherosclerosis itself is unlikely to be a risk factor for DVT.

Atherosclerosis is defined as a chronic inflammatory illness characterized by different complex processes that contribute to the atherosclerotic plaques development for decades and its pathophysiology. The blood flow is disturbed by atherosclerosis, and the vascular endothelium is damaged, and, hence, platelet adherence increases. Moreover, platelets gain increased sensitivity to factors causing aggregation and adhesiveness. The growth factors enhancing the proliferation of smooth muscle in the vessel wall are released by the adhering platelets. Therefore, platelet aggregation is likely to contribute both to atherosclerosis development and progression.

In terms of atherosclerosis, platelets are responsible for the early stages of this chronic pathology development, including endothelial dysfunction. Nevertheless, they also have an impact on its final consequences, like the vulnerable plaques rupture. For example, platelets take part in cell-cell direct interaction, oxLDL (oxidized low-density lipoprotein) surface association, atherogenesis through chemokine release, inflammatory mediators release, and microparticles release (Nording et al., 2015). Platelets might remain activated within the plaque of atherosclerotic nature for an extended time, hence providing for the production of proinflammatory IL-1².

The primary function of platelets in terms of atherosclerosis is the leukocytes recruitment through the direct interactions between receptors and ligands. Additionally, it might be augmented through released factors like chemokines. Dendritic cells (DCs) play the role of a specific leukocyte subtype. DC is a classical antigen which presents the cells of individuals bodies. Platelets interact with DCs, which function in atherosclerosis development has recently been emphasized in numerous studies (Nording et al., 2015). In practice, the interaction between GPIb (glycoprotein Ib) and Mac-1 (macrophage-1 antigen) is currently viewed as a signaling mechanism in terms of DC- platelet crosstalk modulating atheroprogression (Nording et al., 2015). This factors particular importance is caused by the fact that DC is proposed to affect the different stages of atherosclerosis development significantly.

The impact of atherosclerosis and immobility is a little contradictory. Immobility causes increased pro-coagulation, therefore, contributing to hypercoagulability. In turn, atherosclerosis is able to improve the platelet function through the encouragement of adherence and aggregation. Atherosclerosis progression assumes the active participation of platelets attached to intact endothelium. Moreover, platelets are a vital factor of thrombus formation on atherosclerotic plaque rupture or erosion. The thrombogenic substrates exposure to circulating platelets challenges the recruitment of the last to the vessels injured wall in specific (both in place and time) series of events. They include the so-called arrest of platelet on the exposed subendothelium, the additional platelets recruitment and activation utilizing the local release of primary platelet agonists, and platelet aggregates stabilization. Therefore, at plaque rupture site, thrombus formation starts with the interaction of platelets with the exposure to blood ECM (extracellular matrix) components, including non-collagenic adhesion proteins (fibronectin, VWF (von-Willebrand-factor), and laminin) and fibrillar collagen. Such kinds of adhesive interactions are significantly influenced by the rheological conditions.

In simple words, there is the so-called thrombogenic theory, assuming that the reason for atherogenesis is a local bleeding disorder, causing local thrombosis, followed by the formation of an atherosclerotic plaque. Response-to-injury theory, created in the 1970s, is also associated with it (Pathogenesis, n.d). According to this theory, atherosclerosis occurs due to local damage to cells of the inner surface of the vessel, the cause of which is unknown. Platelets begin to adhere to the damaged vascular wall, and this, in turn, can cause local thrombosis. In addition, during the formation of a thrombus, platelets eject substances into the blood plasma that cause the development of the whole complex of changes in the vessel wall distinctive for atherosclerosis.

Heparin is one of the most efficient treatments encouraging the clotting factors inactivation and, hence, fibrin formation inhibiting. Heparin is never absorbed by the gastrointestinal system; therefore, it is appropriate to administer it only by IV infusion or injection. There is a certain number of patients who might be treated at home. If Leonas doctor insisted that she would stay at the hospital, obviously, she had an extensive blood clot and might have needed more treatment and invasive testing. More medication was likely to include heparin therapy and the elevation of the affected leg and wearing compression stockings. The primary goals of this therapy include the need to stop the growth of clot, prevention of the clots breaking off in the patients vein, and its movement to the lungs. Moreover, it is crucial to reduce the risk of other blood clots formation. The long-term complications from the clots (like chronic venous insufficiency) should be paid special attention.

Heparin is a blood thinner and one of the most commonly used anticoagulants in cases of DVT. It does not break up the existing clot, but it is efficient in preventing it from growing and reducing the risks of developing new blood clots. The best strategy for the treatment of DVT includes the use of injectable blood thinners for several days. After that, the patient can start pills such as dabigatran or warfarin (Deep vein thrombosis, n.d.). Once the patients blood is thinned by warfarin, the treatment by injectable blood thinner (particularly, heparin in Leonas case) might be stopped. It is also noteworthy that bleeding is one of the most common side effects of any anticoagulant (Deep vein thrombosis, n.d.). Hence, the doctor might have preferred to keep the patient at the hospital for at least a few initial days of such therapy to ensure there is no threat to her life.

References

Deep vein thrombosis (DVT). (n.d.). Mayo Clinic. 2020, Web.

Mi, Y., Yan, S., Lu, Y., Liang, Y., & Li, C. (2016). Venous thromboembolism has the same risk factors as atherosclerosis. Medicine (Baltimore), 95(32), 44-95.

Nording, H. M., Seizer, P., & Langer, H. F. (2015). Platelets in Inflammation and Atherogenesis. Front Immunol., 6, 98.

Pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. (n.d.). 2020, Web.

• Postpartum psychological disorders include mild conditions, known as baby blues, postpartum depression, and postpartum psychosis.
• The risks of complications increase due to the history of psychological disorders, labor complications, unintended pregnancy, unmarried status, or marital discord (Perry & Hockenberry, 2018).
• Postpartum psychosis requires significant attention as infanticide and suicide are observed in 4% and 5% of the women suffering from PP , respectively (Sharma, Rai & Pathak, 2015, p. 216). Therefore, it is of utmost importance to scan for the symptoms of postpartum depression, as it poses a threat to the life and well-being of a mother and a newborn baby.

Onset and Duration

• Baby Blues

  • Onset right after the birth.
  • Resolves in several days.
• Postpartum Depression

  • Within 4 weeks of childbirth.
  • Up to 1 year postpartum.
• Postpartum
• Psychosis

  • Within 1 month postpartum.
  • Up to second year postpartum when untreated.

Medical Treatment

Baby Blues

• The condition resolves by itself.

Postpartum Depression

• Mild cases can resolve naturally over 6 months;
• Pharmacologic intervention: antidepressants, mood stabilizers, anti-anxiety agents.
• Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT).
• Alternative therapies: dietary supplements, aromatherapy, massage, acupuncture.
• Psychotherapy.
• Support groups.
• Hospitalization in the most severe cases.

Postpartum Psychosis

• In-hospital treatment is strongly recommended;
• Pharmacologic intervention: mood stabilizers, antidepressants  with caution.
• Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT).
• Psychotherapy after an acute phase.

Nursing Care

Baby Blues

• Observation and screening for more severe complications is needed.
• Educate parents and family members to recognize symptoms.

Postpartum Depression

• Request a mental health consult before discharge in case of concerns.
• Supervision of the mother: routine visits, phone calls.
• Screening for suicide thoughts.
• Referral to a mental health practitioner.
• Patient and family member education about pharmacological treatment and lactation.

Postpartum Psychosis

• Administer pharmacological treatment as prescribed.
• Administer reintroduction to the baby.
• Assess for the severe side effects of psychotropic medications.
• Patient and family member education about pharmacological treatment and lactation.

References

Perry, S. E., & Hockenberry, M. J. (2018). Maternal child nursing care (6th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Elsevier.

Sharma, I., Rai, S., & Pathak, A. (2015). Postpartum psychiatric disorders: Early diagnosis and management. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 57(6), 216.

Introduction

Pyromania, as described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) is an impulse control disorder that is characterized by an abnormal obsession with setting things on fire in order to relieve tension. People with this condition find it difficult to resist the impulse or the urge to set things ablaze. Unlike arson which is done with monetary or retaliatory intentions, pyromania is a psychiatric condition over which victims usually have little control over. According to Palermo (2015), this disorder is very rare, and researchers suggest that as little as 3 percent of psychiatric patients have the condition.

The history of the term can be traced back to 1883; it was majorly viewed as a form of monomania, but this changed with the development of psychoanalytic theory. Research has shown that it is more prevalent among men than women, and is caused by both behavioral and genetic factors

Causes

Scientists have not yet identified the exact cause of pyromania. However, research has suggested that it could be linked with chemical imbalances in the brain, genetics, and stress. Pyromania is associated with impulsivity, which is considered a genetic factor (Geddes, 2020). Moreover, the conditions genetic component could be linked with impulse control due to the influence of genes on neurotransmitters. Intellectual deficits, abuse of drugs and alcohol, and environmental factors such as abuse during childhood have been cited as potential causes (Johnson & Netherton, 2016). Studies have attributed other environmental factors such as stressful situations, parental neglect, and peer pressure as causes of pyromania (Lochman & Matthys, 2018). The disorder can also result from the habit of seeking sensation and adventure, poor social skills, and antisocial behaviors and attitudes.

Signs and Symptoms

Signs of pyromania include a propensity to start fires, a fascination with fires and associated paraphernalia, and heightened tension around fire-setting. These signs may be observed forts in childhood and extend to adulthood if untreated. Another sign is the expression of pleasure or relief when around fires or when setting a fire (Geddes, 2020). According to Palermo (2015), individuals with the disorder also report experiencing an overpowering impulse to start fires. In many instances, individuals experience emotional release from setting fires (Johnson & Netherton, 2016). However, feelings of guilt and regret are also common in people who have resisted the urge for protracted periods. Care should be taken not to make hasty conclusions that the propensity to start fires is a sign of pyromania. The habit can be associated with other mental health conditions such as substance use disorders, conduct disorders, and mood disorders.

Diagnosis

According to DSM-5, several criteria should be followed in order to diagnose pyromania in an individual. The act of setting things on fire should be purposeful and intentional, and it should have occurred on several occasions. The act should be preceded by tension or arousal of some kind, such as anger or restlessness that they wish to alleviate (Geddes, 2020). The individual must also show an abnormal fascination with fire and anything related to it such as its uses, its potential for destruction, and the associated paraphernalia (Lochman & Matthys, 2018). The individual must also derive pleasure from the acts of setting things ablaze, watching them burn, and the aftermath of their actions (Johnson & Netherton, 2016). Finally, the fire setting should not have a monetary, reprisal, or criminal component, and it should not be connected with impaired judgment.

Epidemiology

Research shows that pyromania is more common among men than women, and it affects less than 1 percent of the population. It is a rare disorder, and limited research has been conducted regarding its epidemiology. Approximately 10 percent of the global population suffers from impulse control problems that include pyromania (Geddes, 2020). The majority of the studies that have been conducted on this disorder have focused mainly on children and adolescents. Their findings suggest that the prevalence rates range between 2.4 percent and 3.5 percent (Lochman & Matthys, 2018). A study published by the National Epidemiological Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions revealed the prevalence of pyromania was 3.4 percent among adults admitted to psychiatric institutions.

Treatment

A single treatment for pyromania is nonexistent, and the mode used depends on the age of the patient and the severity of the disorders manifestation. The two most effective treatment remedies for pyromania are counseling and medication (Johnson & Netherton, 2016). Behavior modification through cognitive behavior therapy has been shown to work because it helps patients deal with their triggers and impulses. Moreover, it is used to help individuals develop coping techniques that are useful in dealing with the impulses to start fires. Among children and adolescents, the disease can be treated using joint therapy in which the parents are involved.

Aversion therapy, parent training, behavior reinforcement, and covert sensitization are also used by some physicians for treatment purposes (Geddes, 2020). Medications used to treat pyromania include antidepressants, anti-anxiety drugs, atypical antipsychotics, anti-androgens, lithium, and antiepileptic drugs (Lochman & Matthys, 2018). The choice is determined by the physician based on the patients history and severity of symptoms.

The treatment procedures followed among children and adults are based on the signs and symptoms and medical history. In children, treatment commences with a thorough assessment of their relationships with parents or guardians, and the presence of stressors in their lives. The evaluation is followed by a case-management approach that involves training on how to manage anger and develop social skills (Johnson & Netherton, 2016).

Research has shown that these methods are highly effective among children. On the contrary, the treatment of adults incorporates both medication and psychotherapy for better outcomes (Lochman & Matthys, 2018). The drugs are used for impulse control, and include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and tricyclic antidepressants, depending on the disorders manifestation in the patient.

Conclusion

Pyromania is a mental disorder that is characterized by an uncontrollable impulse to start fires for purposes of tension alleviation. Unlike arson which is done for monetary, criminal, or retaliatory purposes, it is due to overpowering urges. It is accused of both genetic and environmental factors such as childhood neglect and life stressors. According to DSM-5, diagnosis can only be conclusive if an individual is fascinated with fire and related appliances, sets fires purposefully on several occasions, and derives pleasure or relief from seeing things burn. Common symptoms include a fascination with fires, uncontrollable impulses to start fires, and the propensity to start fires on a regular basis.

Pyromania affects less than 1% of the global population, and it is more prevalent in men than in women. Treatment is dependent on the severity of the disorder and the age of the patient. The most effective remedy involves a combination of medication and psychotherapy, especially among adults. In children, treatment mainly involves training that aims to develop social skills and promote anger management.

References

Geddes, J. R., Andreasen, N. C., & Goodwin, G. M. (Eds.). (2020). New Oxford textbook of psychiatry (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press.

Johnson, S., & Netherton, E. (2016). Firesetting and the impulse-control disorders of pyromania. The American Journal of Psychiatry Residents Journal, 11(7), 14-16. Web.

Lochman, J. E., & Matthys, W. (2018). The Wiley handbook of disruptive and impulse-control disorders. John Wiley & Sons.

Palermo, G. B. (2015). A look at fire setting, arson, and pyromania. International Journal of offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 59(7), 683-684. Web.

Introduction

The endocrine system combines hormone-generating and releasing glands that help control many essential functions of the body, such as the capability to convert nutrients into energy which supplies cells and organs. The endocrine system plays a significant role in determining whether or not the body would develop diabetes, thyroid disease, growth conditions, hormonal imbalances, and various other hormone-associated disorders.

Causes of Endocrine Disorder

The endocrine disorder is classified into two classes: First, the complication arises when a gland generates more or less of some hormone which is called hormone imbalance (Espirito et al., 2016). Second, the disorder is caused by tumor formation in the endocrine system, which may or may not impair hormone levels.

Where the Disorder Occurs and the Target Organ

Thyroid cancer develops in the thyroid cells, which are found at the base of the neck, below Adams Apple. The thyroid releases hormones that regulate heart rate, the temperature in the body, blood pressure, and weight. The disease occurs when the thyroid cells are subjected to a genetic mutation, causing them to expand and multiply rapidly. The cells also lose the capability of dying, just as normal cells would do. The impaired thyroid cells then accumulate and form a tumor (Espirito et al., 2016). The altered cells may invade adjacent tissues and then spread to other parts of the body (metastasize).

Symptoms of Thyroid Cancer

Symptoms of thyroid cancer include enlarged lymph nodes found in the neck, experiencing difficulties when swallowing or sore throat, feeling pain in the neck or throat, the appearance of a lump which is usually felt through the skin of the neck, and an alteration in speech (hoarseness) which can last for weeks.

Possible Medications

Treatment will depend on various factors including the kind of cancer and its level or degree of advancement. However, many differentiated thyroid cancers, papillary carcinomas, including follicular carcinomas, and other medullary thyroid carcinomas, have a fair chance of being cured. They are therefore treated by utilizing the following procedures; First, the removal of the thyroid gland through surgery, whose practice is known as a thyroidectomy. Second, through Radioactive iodine treatment, which is a form of radiotherapy intended to kill any remaining cancerous cells and prevent the re-emergence of the disease (Dansinger, 2019). Third, several thyroid cancers might be treatable by using targeted therapy, which is a new treatment procedure, whereby the infected cells are directly targeted.

References

Dansinger, M. (2019). Endocrine disorders: Types, causes, symptoms, and treatments. WebMD. Web.

Espirito, S., Sabino, T., Filipe, E., Mario, C., Vasiljevic, A., & Agapito, A. (2016). Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1: An underdiagnosed disorder. Endocrine Abstracts, 41, ep643. Web.

Etiology

Cystic fibrosis, also referred to as CF, is a genetic disorder that can affect the respiratory and digestive systems. This health condition is caused by mutations in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator gene that regulates the corresponding protein (National Heart, Lungs, and Blood Institute [NIH], n.d.). This type of protein is found in organs making mucus, including but not confined to the lungs, sweat glands, liver, and pancreas. The development of the condition occurs when a person has a mutation in both copies of the CFTR gene, meaning that both parents have to have such mutations. The development of CF can also be associated with ethnicity. It has been estimated that individuals of northern European heritage are more likely to be affected than African Americans or Hispanics. This disease is comparatively uncommon among Asian Americans (NIH, n.d.). Oates and Schechter (2016) state that although CF is a genetic condition, socioeconomic factors also influence the progression of the disorder.

Demographics

It has been estimated that approximately 35,000 people in the USA have CF (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2020). At that, over ten million people in the USA are careers of the mutation. As mentioned above, the white population is predominantly affected. For example, in the country, one in 2,500-3,500 of white newborns are diagnosed with CF. It affects one in 17,000 African Americans and one in 31,000 Asian Americans (U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2020). People with CF tend to develop other health conditions such as diabetes or obesity, as well as other disorders such as arthritis, hypersplenism, cirrhosis, osteoporosis, and reflux (CDC, 2020). People can display the symptoms of this illness at any age, but children are the most affected population, and the severity of the disorder often depends on the patients age.

Anatomy

As mentioned above, CF can damage different organs and systems that produce mucus that becomes thick and sticky. The progression of the illness in the respiratory system is associated with the blockage of airways (U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2020). Patients have recurrent respiratory infections due to the clots in the lungs and may also develop nasal polyps (McConnell & Hull, 2020). In the course of the disorder, the lungs are damaged considerably, including the development of scar tissue and cysts (U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2020). When the disease develops in the pancreas, the mucus clogs the ducts of this organ, which decreases enzyme secretion. The mucus blockages may result in the destruction of pancreas cells. If the liver is affected, this organ enlarges, and patients often have a swollen belly. As far as the reproduction system, CF leads to the blockage of sperm canals, so sperms cannot travel out, which leads to infertility in men.

Physiology and Symptoms

The symptoms and signs of the disorder depend on the affected organ, but often have common traits such as frequent infections in the affected organs and chronic conditions, as well as malnutrition and poor growth (CDC, 2020). With affected lungs, people have prolonged cough with thick mucus in many cases, shortness of breath and wheezing, as well as nasal polyps (CDC, 2020). The symptoms of CF in the digestive systems are displayed in the following way: diarrhea or constipation, weight loss, malnutrition, inadequate growth, diabetes, weight gain, greasy stools. When the reproductive system is damaged, infertility is the major symptom of the disease. With other organs and systems affected, people may have joint and muscle pain, salty skin, yellow skin, fever, and toes or fingers clubbing due to insufficient transportation of oxygen to feet and hands (NIH, n.d.). As mentioned above, CF symptoms tend to occur in childhood, but milder forms become apparent in adulthood.

Diagnosis and Treatment

Physicians concentrate on the symptoms and signs mentioned above, as well as screening and tests when diagnosing and developing a treatment plan. The examination and identification of CF symptoms are followed by genetic testing and sweat tests (CDC, 2020). The treatment of this condition focuses on airway clearance, preventing complications, improving the function of the corresponding proteins (NIH, n.d.). Surgery may be needed in case of complications and such outcomes as polyps.

As for clearing airways and addressing breathing problems, diverse techniques can be employed: the use of devices and therapy vests to loosen mucus, training patients to breathe and cough in specific ways, and chest physical therapy (NIH, n.d.). Pharmacological treatment involves the utilization of anti-inflammatory medication to reduce inflammation, antibiotics to treat or prevent infections, bronchodilators to open and relax airways. Mucus thinners to easier the clearance of mucus and CFTR modulators to manage protein functioning are also utilized. In addition, treatment involves healthy lifestyle changes if necessary (NIH, n.d.). Patients diagnosed with CF must quit smoking if they have this habit. Being physically active and having a healthy diet are also important to manage the health condition of CF patients. Physical activity will ensure proper air clearance, muscle strength, mineral density, and lung functioning. The diet will encompass consuming high-energy foods, high-sodium products, and the corresponding supplementation. Clearly, each treatment plan is unique due to the peculiarities of the course of the disorder in a particular case.

References

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020). Cystic fibrosis. 

McConnell, T. H., & Hull, K. L. (2020). Human form, human function: Essentials of anatomy & physiology. Jones & Bartlett Learning.

National Heart, Lungs, and Blood Institute. (n.d.). Cystic fibrosis. 

Oates, G. R., & Schechter, M. S. (2016). Socioeconomic status and health outcomes: Cystic fibrosis as a model. Expert Review of Respiratory Medicine, 10(9), 967-977. 

U.S. National Library of Medicine. (2020). Cystic fibrosis. 

Introduction

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders aims to classify the disorders according to certain criteria that are essential for reliable diagnoses (Paris, 2013, p. 70). Clinicians and researchers use the book as the guide for the essential characteristics of any type of mental disorder. The cultural background, gender, personal biases and of the healthcare professional may influence the diagnosis; however, it is significant to take into account the personal experience of the client as well.

The overall classification of the system

The consideration of the lifespan is essential for the relevant diagnosis (Stein et al., 2010, p. 1763). It is significant to point out that the structure of the DSM-5 became more flexible and improved in terms of diagnostic concepts and criteria (Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 2013, p. 48). The book provides detailed information concerning the impact of cultural background and gender differences while the diagnostic process.

Strengths and Limitations of the DSM

The major goal of the DSM-5 is to concentrate on the improvement of the system of the criteria and stress the differences in their characteristic. One of the most significant strengths is that the multiaxial system was not addressed (Ginter, 2014, para. 12). There were a couple of reasons to abandon the previously used system. It should be pointed out that the multiaxial system was complicated in usage as it has almost no similarities with the ICD configuration. Moreover, it supported the outdated vision on mental disorders concerning the connection between body and mind. Although DSM-5 provides a deeper understanding of the process of the harmonization of the criteria, the created system has some disadvantages. First and foremost, not all the disparities are addressed. The changing in the diagnostic net makes the understandable behavior seems like the disorder (an individual in grief has only a couple of months not to be diagnosed with the psychiatric disorder) (Shedler et al., 2010, p. 1027).

The Contribution of the Clients Background to the Personal Biases and Diagnosis

Cultural and social values are connected to the development of mental disorders. Culture provides a better understanding of the actions and symptoms. The index of normality is not the same in every culture, and that is, should be taken into account. In the study case, Marvin has some features of depressive disorder that influence his life and communication with the family. Marvin is sure that the cultural biases caused his firing. The loss of interest in daily and favorite activities, pessimistic mood during a long period, anger, and aggressiveness are the signs of depressive disorder.

The Possible Ways to Reduce the Appearance of Biases in Diagnosis

The affective and personal biases may affect the process of decision-making and the evaluation of the diagnosis. The biases commonly occur unconsciously, and the health care specialist should be aware of ways how to omit the prejudice. The information concerning the problems in patient groups provides a deeper understanding of the biases (Mcgee et al., 2015, p. 7). It will be useful to take into account different factors, such as culture, religious beliefs, or sexual preference. Discrimination based on gender, age, or culture should not occur in healthcare. The cognitive biases involve focusing on one symptom and ignoring the other and can be omitted if the physician is concentrated, implies critical thinking, and pays attention to the diagnosis. The relationship between the healthcare provider and the patient based on trust and respect will eliminate every type of biases.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it should be stated that cultural background and experience play a significant role during the diagnosing period. The DSM helps to get better involved in the understanding of the main criteria for the evaluation of the issue.

References

Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5. (5th ed.). (2013). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.

Ginter, G. (2014). DSM-5 Conceptual Changes: Innovations, Limitations and Clinical Implications. Web.

Mcgee, S., Bagby, M., Goodwin, B., Burchett, D., Sellbom, M., & Ayearst, L. (2015). The Effect of Response Bias on the Personality Inventory for DSM5 (PID5). Journal of Personality Assessment, 6(2), 1-11.

Paris, J. (2013). The intelligent clinicians guide to the DSM-5 (2nd ed.). Oxford, U. K.: Oxford University Press.

Shedler, J., Beck, A., Fonagy, P., Gabbard, G., Gunderson, J., Kernberg, O., & Westen, D. (2010). Personality Disorders in DSM-5. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 167(9), 1026-1028.

Stein, D., Phillips, K., Bolton, D., Fulford, K., Sadler, J., & Kendler, K. (2010). What is a mental/psychiatric disorder? From DSM-IV to DSM-V. Psychological Medicine, 40(11), 1759-1765.