Category: Disorders

Abstract

People often experience situations that make them feel worried or suffer emotional tension. The human body reacts to such situations with a fight or flight response. Examples of experiences that can lead to such responses include rape, child abuse, bombing, torture, mugging, and natural disasters among others. People who fail to manage the trauma caused by these activities suffer from Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).

PTSD is classified under anxiety disorders, whose symptoms are not visible until one is exposed to danger. Symptoms of PTSD are identifiable in people with an inability to address the memories and emotions of a traumatic event. There are three categories of PTSD symptoms. PTSD develops when an individual experiences or witnesses a traumatic event. There are numerous treatment options for treating PTSD patients.

According to experts, the treatment offered for this illness helps to do away with the symptoms brought about by trauma. Friends and family members can help a traumatized individual through their challenges by being patient, understanding, and avoiding pressuring one to talk when not ready.

Introduction

Under normal circumstances, people often experience situations that make them feel worried or suffer emotional tension. These situations put someone in a state of mental and emotional strain because of the natural feeling of fear that accompanies them (Ford, 2009).

The human body has its own mechanisms of managing or addressing such feelings of fear so as to avoid danger. This is commonly called the fight or flight response. The body reacts in a manner that it can either fight the danger or take off to avoid any harm (Wolf & Mosnaim, 1990). In some circumstances, people lack the ability to fabricate this kind of response when they have a traumatic experience. Examples of experiences that can cause trauma include rape, child abuse, a terror campaign, torture, mugging, and natural disasters among others (Georgiou, 2008).

The inability to generate a fight or flight reaction when an individual goes through a traumatic experience is caused by changes in the body. PTSD is defined as a mental condition triggered in an individual who experiences or witnesses a traumatic incident (Oliver, 1993). According to experts, the prevalence rate of PTSD is higher in women compared to men. The reason for this is that men experience events that impact them in a lesser way. In addition, most people who experience traumatic events are less likely to develop PTSD if they receive the support of family and friends in time (Ford, 2009).

Discussion

Studies have established that PTSD can develop through direct or indirect means. The direct impact is felt by people who experience a traumatic event, while the indirect impact is felt by people who relate to the victims. People who suffer indirect impacts include family members, friends, colleagues, emergency workers, and security officers among others (Dixon, Browne & Hamilton-Giachritsis, 2005).

PTSD is classified under anxiety disorders, whose symptoms are identifiable when one goes through a traumatic event. According to experts, someone suffering from this disorder is always anxious (Oliver, 1993).

The anxiety is mainly caused by anything that brings back memories of the distress they went through. Studies have established that there are a number of symptoms and features associated with PTSD. In addition, there are several factors that cause this disorder (Georgiou, 2008). Various models explain the manner in which PTSD develops and the various treatment options available.

Symptoms and associated features of PTSD

According to experts, an individual who has experienced a traumatic event often displays certain symptoms that indicate mental instability. This instability is caused by feelings of anxiety, fear, sadness, and disconnection from reality (Oliver, 1993). Symptoms of PTSD are visible in people who fail to release memories and emotions of a traumatic event they went through. Both the body and the mind suffer from shock (Ford, 2009).

According to experts, the symptoms of this disorder show at different times depending on the degree to which an individual has been affected. Some individuals show the symptoms immediately after an event, while in others it happens gradually (Stein, Friedman & Blanco, 1994). Studies have established that there are three categories of PTSD symptoms.

The first category involves symptoms of an individual re-experiencing a traumatic event (Penk, 1989). Re-experiencing a traumatic event happens when someone encounters things, people, or hear stories that remind them of what they went through.

According to experts, some of the common red flags that indicate an individual is re-experiencing a traumatic event include flashbacks, bitter memories, nightmares, tension due to reminders, and strong bodily rejoinders. Traumatized individuals often have flashbacks that make them feel and act as if the distress they went through is happening again (Penk, 1989). This leads to shocks similar to those they suffered when the event occurred for the first time.

Some people experience deeply upsetting dreams of frightening things similar to the trauma they went through. Individuals re-experiencing a traumatic event have strong bodily rejoinders such as heavy breathing, exertion, queasiness, and a throbbing heartbeat whenever they are reminded of the distress they went through (Oliver, 1993).

The second category involves avoidance and numbing symptoms. These symptoms are common in individuals who try to avoid anything that reminds them of the trauma they experienced (Wolf & Mosnaim, 1990). Some of the symptoms under this category include avoidance, poor memory, emotional detachment, and a feeling of having limitations in life.

Someone who has experienced a traumatic event will try to avoid engaging in activities, visiting places, or having thoughts that bring back any memories. Loss of memory, especially on aspects that relate to the trauma is also common among people suffering from PTSD (Wolf & Mosnaim, 1990).

Studies have established that people suffering from PTSD tend to feel emotionally detached from those around them because they consider their case to be an isolated one (Oliver, 1993). Once the sensation of isolation starts to overwhelm a traumatized individual, feelings of life limitations also start to develop. According to experts, one starts to feel like their life is stagnant and cannot manage to achieve their life goals (Penk, 1989).

The third category involves symptoms that indicate increased nervousness and distressing provocation. According to experts, some of the PTSD symptoms under this category include irregular sleep patterns, irritability, concentration lapses, and increased jumpiness. Others include being easily worried and highly vigilant (Wolf & Mosnaim, 1990). Irregular sleeping patterns are characterized by difficulties in either falling or staying asleep for longer periods.

Studies have also established that individuals suffering from PTSD tend to exhibit uncontrolled anger. They are quickly irritated by anyone or anything that brings back the memories of the distress they went through. PTSD patients are also very jumpy and easily startled by anything related to their traumatic experience (Peterson & Biggs, 1997).

Other common symptoms of PTSD include depression, hopelessness, drug abuse, low self-esteem, guilt, and suicidal thoughts among others. Studies have established that the symptoms of PTSD differ depending on factors such as age, nature of trauma, and gender (Oliver, 1993). Children and adolescents are likely to struggle with the reality of a traumatic event in comparison to adults because of their insecure nature and emotional instability (Wolf & Mosnaim, 1990).

Causes of PTSD and its development

According to experts, PTSD develops when an individual experiences trauma. Some of the events that cause PTSD include neglect, sexual abuse, accidents, bullying, military combat, terrorism, and natural disasters among others (Simpson & Simpson, 2000). Studies have established that PTSD can also develop among secondary parties that include people who were not directly involved in a traumatic event.

Although there are not specified causes of PTSD, experts have identified a number of factors that have a higher chance of making someone to develop the illness (Peterson & Biggs, 1997). The disorder develops when two or more predisposing factors combine. Some of these factors include genetic history, life experiences, brain processes, and individual traits, among others (Simpson & Simpson, 2000).

People inherit certain conditions from their parents, which make them vulnerable to illnesses such as PTSD. Life experiences can also lead to people developing this disorder. This is dependent on factors such as the nature of the event, its severity, and amount of trauma it causes. The events can happen during childhood, adolescence, or even in adulthood (Thornberry, Knight & Lovegrove, 2012).

Although the effects of a traumatic event are similar across various age groups, the severity of the trauma suffered varies (Simpson & Simpson, 2000). Statistics from a study conducted to determine the severity of PTSD established that one in every three people who experience severe trauma in their life end up developing this illness. Personality traits such as short temper can lead to someone suffering from PTSD (Wolf & Mosnaim, 1990).

Anger predisposes an individual to this illness because any form of action such as teasing or bullying makes one re-experience a trauma. Studies have established that PTSD develops differently depending on the causative factor, predisposing elements, the severity of the trauma, as well as age and emotional stability of the affected individual (Geist, 1988).

A number of theoretical frameworks have been used to explain this concept, although none has given a reliable argument. The common one that most people tend to associate with easily is one about chronic pain (Wolf & Mosnaim, 1990). The theory defines pain as a somatic sensation of acute discomfort that often causes emotional distress. In normal circumstances, someone should feel pain for some time before it disappears.

However, it might take longer for this to happen in some people where it becomes recurrent (Thomas & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2012). Such pain lasts for longer periods than expected until someone starts to develop adaptive mechanisms.

The survival mechanisms are chosen by an individual often have effects such as depression, inactivity, fear, nervousness, and irritability, among others. At this point, an individual is always struggling to contain the trauma suffered after an event. This is results in the development of PTSD (Thomas & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2012).

Treatment of PTSD

There are numerous treatment options for dealing with this disorder. According to experts, the treatment offered for this illness helps to address various symptoms brought about by trauma (Wolf & Mosnaim, 1990).

Treatment helps a traumatized individual because it offers an outlet to wipe out all the negative emotions that build up in the body (Adshead, 2000). Studies have established that timely treatment of PTSD helps a traumatized individual regain control of their life and achieve emotional stability. Treatment for this disorder helps a patient to achieve four crucial things (Simpson & Simpson, 2000).

First, treatment helps one to examine their thoughts and feelings regarding the distress they went through. Secondly, treatment helps a patient to deal with the feelings of culpability, self-blame, suspicion, and failure (England, 2009).

Thirdly, the treatment helps a patient in learning the best way of surviving and managing the disturbing memories of the distress they go through (Adshead, 2000). Finally, treatment helps an individual to attend to all the challenges that the illness brings in terms of ones normal routines and relationships (Adshead, 2000).

Types of treatment for PTSD

Studies have established that there are four major types of treatment options available to PTSD patients. The first type of treatment is called cognitive behavioral therapy (McLean, Deblinger, Atkins, Foa & Ralphe, 1988). This treatment helps a patient to do away with thoughts and feelings regarding the trauma experienced. Once someone experiences a distressing situation, the effects of the trauma are likely to influence his or her behavior in a negative way.

A therapist helps a traumatized individual to identify and deal with fuzzy and absurd thoughts (Griffiths, Wolke & Harwood, 2006). The main focus of a therapist offering this kind of treatment is to help a patient to replace such thoughts with positive ones that can help restore balance in normal routines.

The second type of treatment is called family therapy. According to experts, this treatment plays a crucial role in helping traumatized individuals heal faster because people close to them will be aware of their needs (Peterson & Biggs, 1997).

This form of treatment focuses on secondary parties in a traumatic event such as close friends, family members, and even emergency workers. These are people who are affected by the trauma in an indirect manner (Adshead, 2000). It is important for family members to understand the things that a traumatized individual goes through for the sake of achieving effective communication. Good communication with family members helps a patient to avoid challenges such as poor social skills and feelings of inadequacy (Wolf & Mosnaim, 1990).

The third type of treatment is medication. According to experts, this treatment is good for people who show secondary symptoms of despair (Geist, 1988). Individuals suffering from PTSD are given antidepressants, which help in relieving stress, anxiety, sadness, and nervousness.

However, experts argue that antidepressants are only used to relieve anxiety and cannot be used to treat or eliminate any of the factors that cause PTSD (Geist, 1988). The final type of treatment available to PTSD patients is called eye movement desensitization and reprocessing. According to experts, this type of treatment focuses on restoring cognitive balance in a traumatized individual by using their eye movement (England, 2009). It focuses on helping a patient create a rhythm to help in balancing the brain process.

Studies have established that PTSD patients can apply several tips as a way of dealing with the illness. First, they should ensure that they reach out to other people for moral support and guidance (Corales, 2006). Second, they should restrain from using alcohol and any other drug, especially when under medication.

Third, PTSD patients should always focus on challenging themselves into overcoming negative feelings of helplessness and inadequacy (Simpson & Simpson, 2000). Other tips that PTSD patients can use include engaging in outdoor activities, joining support groups, staying around people with positive energy, and confiding in someone trustworthy among others (Corales, 2006).

Conclusion

PTSD is one of the main challenges that people deal with after a traumatizing event. There are numerous causes of PTSD such as accidents, sexual abuse, bullying, mobbing, neglect, and natural disasters among others. There are numerous symptoms of PTSD that someone ought to look at for in order to establish if a friend or family member is suffering from this disorder. Studies have established that PTSD should be treated as soon as any of the symptoms start to be recognized.

Numerous treatment options are available for patients. Individuals suffering from PTSD are given antidepressants, which help in relieving stress, anxiety, sadness, and nervousness. Friends and family members can help a traumatized individual through their challenges by being patient, understanding, and avoiding pressuring one to talk when not ready. Family members should also avoid taking anything personally and anticipating any PTSD triggers such as anniversaries, which can lead to someone re-experiencing the trauma.

References

Adshead, G. (2000). Psychological therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 177(3), 144-148.

Corales, T.A. (2006). Trends in posttraumatic stress disorder research. Journal of Traumatic Stress Disorders & Treatment, 10(6), 5-67.

Dixon, L., Browne, K., & Hamilton-Giachritsis, C. (2005). Child psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(1), 47-57.

England, D. (2009). The post traumatic stress disorder relationship: How to support your partner and keep your relationship healthy. Journal of Traumatic Stress Disorder & Treatment, 12(2), 10-46.

Ford, J.D. (2009). Posttraumatic stress disorder: Scientific and professional dimensions. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(5), 123-145.

Geist, R.F. (1988). Sexually related trauma. Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America, 6(3), 439-466.

Georgiou, S.N. (2008). Bullying and victimization at school: The role of mothers. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 78(1), 109-125.

Griffiths, L.J., Wolke, D., & Harwood, J.P. (2006). Obesity and bullying: Different effects for boys and girls. Archives of Disease in Children, 91(1), 121-125.

McLean, S.V., Deblinger, E., Atkins, M.S., Foa, E.B., & Ralphe, D.L. (1988). Post-

Traumatic stress disorder in sexually abused children. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 27(5), 650-654.

Oliver, J.E. (1993). Intergenerational transmission of child abuse: Rates, research, and clinical implications. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 150(9), 1315-1324.

Penk, W.E. (1989). Post-traumatic stress disorder: Selected issues. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 45(5), 688-832.

Peterson, C., & Biggs, M. (1997). Interviewing children about trauma: Problems with specific questions. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 10(2), 279-290.

Simpson, C., & Simpson, D. (2000). Coping with post-traumatic stress disorder: Dealing with tragedy. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 12(8), 100-125.

Stein, D.J., Friedman, M., & Blanco, C. (1994). Posttraumatic stress disorder: Diagnosis and assessment. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 152(3), 56-112.

Thomas, R. & Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J. (2012). ParentChild Interaction Therapy: An evidence-based treatment for child maltreatment. Child Maltreatment, 17(3), 253-266.

Thornberry. P., Knight, K. E., & Lovegrove, P. J. (2012). Supporting children with post-traumatic stress disorder. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, 13(3), 135-152.

Wolf, M.E., & Mosnaim, A.D. (1990). Posttraumatic stress disorder: Etiology, phenomenology, and treatment. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 149(2), 340-367.

The migration crisis associated with the US-Mexico border in 2019 was a significant dramatic event in United States history. The Trump administration was concerned with the negative consequences of migration and tried to reduce the number of migrants. The economic and political conditions caused severe conflict between Mexico and US. This crisis had a significant impact on the US citizens perception of the ruling power. The violent attitude toward migrants and their children questioned the policy of Trump. Moreover, those events caused psychological trauma to children separated from their parents.

When the problem was at its peak, the Mexican authorities sent military personnel to guard the border. It happened because the US authorities announced that they intended to stop providing financial assistance to different cities in Mexico (Alvarez, 2021). Those actions were taken since the authorities of Mexico, from the point of view of the Washington government, were not taking the necessary measures to prevent the migration crisis.

In May 2019, US border guards detained more than one hundred people on the borders. Children were put in inappropriate conditions, being separated from their parents until getting the official migration permit. When following a complaint by a group of lawyers, the US authorities have provided better conditions for hundreds of children of illegal immigrants who have been deprived of emergency supplies. Some of the children were transferred to a US Department of Health center (Alvarez, 2021). Such a harmful experience can cause negative psychological consequences in the developing immigrants childrens brains. Psychopathology caused by the humiliation and separation from parents may have contributed to the development of post-traumatic stress disorder.

Psychological trauma is the condition when the human brain experiences negative influences. Usually, it is caused by life-threatening events which are correlated with different disasters or humiliating human activities. According to practical research, intentional harmful human activities have the most severe impacts on the brain (Cohen, 2016). As a result of such an attitude, people are at significant risk of developing post-traumatic stress disorder (Cohen, 2016). It is especially dangerous when children are exposed to such traumatic events. This negative experience can affect their psychology in adulthood and cause personality disorders and other severe problems.

The horrifying events on the border in 2019 affected the psychological state of the children and their parents. As far as intentional violence from people is the most dangerous experience children can witness, they are likely to have post-traumatic stress disorder. It will affect their lives in adulthood and change the worlds perception completely. The most apparent symptom of psychological trauma is abrupt anxiety (Cohen, 2016). Migrants believed that they would be protected in the US. However, contrary to their expectations, the government violated primitive moral laws depriving people of food and water as a regulating measure. Moreover, children were separated from their parents, who were supposed to protect them (Cohen, 2016). As a result, the psychological harm is aggravated by delusional expectations.

Children experienced the emotions of betrayal accompanied by adverse living conditions. They were left without knowing what to expect from the world around them. As a result, under the pressure of post-traumatic syndrome, children may have difficulties communicating and building trustful relations push with friends and family in adulthood. The uncontrollable anxiety and fear of betrayal will hurt the process of self-identification. Such adverse conditions can negatively influence the childrens particular brain regions (Teicher, 2018). Due to unstable emotions and impulse control, children are highly exposed to psychological damage. Such symptoms as anxiety, panic attacks, depression, fear of communication, and disturbing world perception may result from the violence experienced in childhood.

Children should never be separated from their parents, especially during difficult periods of their lives. The separation alone provokes a high-stress level in the childs psychology. The discussed situation was aggravated by the fact that children were in life-threatening conditions. Thus, the level of stress was maximized and might have disturbed the normal functioning of the brain. These conditions and stress experiences might have caused psychological problems in the unstable childrens minds. They will likely face difficulties with socialization and communication in the future. There is a high chance of other dangerous psychological illnesses development, such as multiple or personality disorders, caused by the traumatic experience. Forcible separation from children is likely to affect the parents psychology too. Even though adults brains are more stable, they are also exposed to the stress of being separated from their children (Teicher, 2018). If they had the traumatic experience earlier, they are at a higher risk of developing mental problems such as depression and anxiety (Cohen, 2016). The events on the US-Mexico border were traumatic for both migrants and their children.

Therefore, Trumps anti-migration actions have significantly affected the psychological state of the people striving to get protection from the US. Violent and humiliating conditions harmed adult immigrants and, what is more dangerous, childrens psychology. Being separated from their parents, children were exposed to a high level of stress. Such a disturbance of unstable brain functioning can lead to significant mental problems in adulthood, causing dangerous trauma. It is essential to analyze these incidents and try to prevent a similar situation in the future to ensure the solid mental health of the next generation.

References

Alvarez, P. (2021). How the current US-Mexico border crisis compares with the peak of the Trump era in 2019? CNN politics. Web.

Cohen, L. (2016). The psychology of trauma: The psychological impact of trauma. In L., Cohen (Ed.), Handy Answer: The handy psychology: Answer book (pp. 287-295). Visible Ink Press.

Teicher, M. (2018). Childhood trauma and the enduring consequences of forcibly separating children from parents at the United States border. BMC Medicine, 45(7), 13. Web.

Brain aneurism, also known as cerebral aneurism is a localized swelling condition of the brains blood vessels. The affected vessel is dilated at a localized point and may go unnoticed for a long time. People suffering from this condition experience symptoms such as sudden headaches and general discomfort. Severe aneurism may rupture a blood vessel at the point of dilation. Aneurism occurs randomly among patients with a history of heart disease (Milunsky 8). This is because the genetic causes of heart ailments are also likely to result in brain vessels disorders. The relationship between the heart conditions and brain aneurism is an issue under research and the suggested links are a result of probabilistic analysis. Since the term aneurism refers to dilation of any blood vessel, the cerebral aneurism is also referred to as intracranial aneurism.

A receptor gene in the human chromosome 9 is the causative agent of most blood vessel disorders (Milunsky 9). Moreover, blood vessel disorders are the major cause of heart ailments. The endothelin receptor gene controls the ability of the vessels tissue to stretch, the diameter of the blood vessels and reconstructive activity of the endothelium. Due to constant movement of the human body and blood, abrasion to the inner surface of blood vessels is inevitable. The gene, which controls the reconstruction of the inner layer, the endothelium, may inhibit quick recovery. The vessels then slowly stretch with the weak points swelling or bulging into aneurism. This condition of the blood vessels may occur in all parts of the body, but might go unnoticed in most of the cases. The body organs that are sensitive to the deformation of blood vessels such as the brain and the heart may become significantly affected. Aneurism in the cardiac arteries may signify an imminent cardiac arrest. Cerebral aneurism often results in the rapture of the dilated blood vessel especially in a case whereby the concerned person has hypertension. The endothelin receptor gene is responsible for the abnormal constriction of the blood vessels resulting in high blood pressure. High blood pressure often causes cardiac disorders in most people (Chung 29). In addition, high blood pressure causes abnormal dilation of brain vessels posing a risk of aneurism at weak points especially at the point where the vessels branch out. The bulge of the vessel may cause trauma to the brain consequently inducing headache. Sometimes, the bulge may burst resulting in a stroke. Stroke is usually fatal and may result to death if professional medical care is not availed immediately.

In addition, the endothelin receptor gene controls the deposit of cellulose material and fat in the anterior walls of the blood vessels. Progressive and localized deposit of fat in a blood vessel may cause thrombosis or blocking of the vessel. If the blocking or narrowing of the vessel reaches below the minimum, a condition known as coronary thrombosis or cardiac arrest occurs. Similarly, the depositing of cellulose and a material known as arteriosclerosis may cause hypertension. The pressure on the blood vessels walls may cause forceful dilation resulting into cerebral aneurism. This gene causes its effect through the control of building of proteins. Furthermore, the protein structure and concentration determines the physical properties of blood vessels, and the deposit of the cellulose material on the endothelium. The gene is also a determinant of the outcome of the growth of the heart (Adams 238). Consequently, the malfunctioning of this gene leads to disorders or malformation of the heart and the blood vessels leading to the occurrence of heart disorders and cerebral aneurisms simultaneously.

Works Cited

Adams, Harold P.. Principles of cerebrovascular disease. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical, 2007. Print.

Chung, Ka Young. Physiological and pathological function of enothelin receptor type A in adult ventricular myocytes. Madison: University of Wisconsin, 2008. Print.

Milunsky, Aubrey. Your genes, Your health. Manchester: Oxford University Press, 2008. Print.

Alcohol abusers suffer from a variety of adverse physical and psychological outcomes. While mental health can be improved with the help of specialists, family support, and different group therapy methods, it is much more complicated to deal with the destructive effect of alcohol on ones body. The case study under consideration presents the situation of a 68-year-old man who has been dealing with alcoholism for over 30 years. The paper will discuss several crucial questions associated with the impact of alcoholism on the human organism.

Alcoholic liver disease is a rather severe health complication pertaining to alcoholics since the liver is the organ performing multiple crucial functions in the human body. The liver takes part in protein, carbohydrate, and lipid metabolism (Behera & Dash, 2020). Additionally, this organ plays an important role in the maintenance of a persons immune system and in the synthesis of plasma proteins. Furthermore, the liver supports blood homeostasis due to functioning as a storage depot for Vitamin B12, folic acid, and iron (Behera & Dash, 2020, p. 149). Finally, the liver secretes inhibitors and clotting factors in peoples organisms. Therefore, when one has liver disease, a variety of hematological abnormalities can be observed. Research indicates that over 50 million individuals have chronic liver disease, which indicates a high prevalence of cirrhosis (Behera & Dash, 2020). Alcohol abuse is one of the most prevalent causes of liver disease. Meanwhile, the incidence of cirrhosis is largely underestimated in about one-third of patients do not demonstrate any symptoms.

Two of the most dangerous hematologic disorders related to alcoholic liver disease are anemia and clotting. Anemia of diverse etiology is reported to occur in three-thirds of patients with liver disease. Scholars note that the major factors responsible for the development of anemia in liver disease patients are anemia due to chronic disease, hypersplenism, iron deficiency, folic acid deficiency, aplastic anemia, autoimmune hemolytic anemia, and as an effect of the antiviral drug (Behera & Dash, 2020). Alcohol is the most typically used drug, the aftermath of which includes the destruction of hematopoiesis, the process of manufacturing blood cells in the body. Hence, patients suffering from alcoholism can experience nutritional deficiencies of vitamins (such as folic acid) because of malnutrition, malabsorption, or explicit toxic effect participating in hematopoiesis. Consequently, alcohol abusers cam suffer from moderate or severe anemia, which is characterized by enlarged, structurally abnormal red blood cells, mildly reduced numbers leukocytes and neutrophils, and moderately to severely reduced numbers of platelets (Behera & Dash, 2020). Therefore, anemia in chronic alcoholics is associated with the irreversible effect on hematopoiesis and impaired platelet production.

Clotting disorder is another problem commonly related to alcoholic liver disease. The mechanism of this condition is similar to that of anemia. Namely, platelet defects and coagulation issues, which are driven by alcohol abuse, are responsible for developing a clotting disorder in ones organism (Behera & Dash, 2020; Gkamprela et al., 2017). Liver plays the most significant role in the clotting process, and on the bodies of people whose liver has been damaged by excessive alcohol consumption, this process is considerably obstructed.

Apart from dangerous hematologic disorders caused by alcohol abuse, there may also develop severe gastrointestinal bleedings. The one having the highest mortality rates in those with advanced cirrhosis is the variceal bleeding (Mallet et al., 2017). Acute variceal bleeding is one of the principal causes of high death rates among alcohol abusers. Additionally, this health problem is the main reason for upper gastrointestinal bleeding, accountable for about 70% of incidents (Mallet et al., 2017). During the first episode of variceal bleeding, the mortality rate is 15-20%, but it tends to increase with the severity of alcohol addiction level. Meanwhile, mortality is rather low in individuals with compensated cirrhosis (Mallet et al., 2017). The pathophysiology of variceal bleeding is manifested through portal hypertension, which derives from portal flow increases and portal vascular resistance. Such resistance appears when the vasculature is distorted by cirrhotic nodules.

The main resistance site is at the sinusoid level, and it is composed of two elements: a fixed one (associated with the vessels distortion by cirrhotic nodules) and a variable one (linked to vasoactive substances). The main predictors of variceal bleeding are red wale marks and large versus small varices (Mallet et al., 2017). In the past few years, researchers have gained significant progress in the management of variceal bleeding. Still, this condition is highly dangerous and affects a large number of people.

Acute pancreatitis is another common disease occurring in alcoholic abusers. This condition is the principal cause of hospitalization among gastrointestinal disorders in the USA (Gapp & Chandra, 2020). Some of the indications of acute pancreatitis are tachycardia and hypotension. The cardiovascular system is particularly affected in individuals suffering from acute pancreatitis. The reason why many patients present with hypotension and tachycardia is that the acute inflammatory process of pancreas is linked to the involvement of pancreatic and peripancreatic tissue in the cardiovascular system. Furthermore, the two mentioned conditions can manifest as additional symptoms of acute pancreatitis since they are associated with low to moderate fever and respiratory failure.

When analyzing individuals predisposition to alcoholic liver disease, one cannot but mention the gender differences. Females are more predisposed to alcoholic liver disease due to composition and body size. Specifically, women have less body water and are typically smaller than men in size. However, not only physical composition divergences affect females susceptibility to alcoholic liver disease but also varieties in immune reactivity do (Sookoian & Pirola, 2017). Research indicates that alcohol abuse is accountable for one in seven deaths in males and one in thirteen  in females (Stickel et al., 2017). However, concerning liver disease, women are more vulnerable due to varieties in expression patterns of alcohol-metabolizing enzymes, higher tissue levels of alcohol exposure, and a smaller distribution volume of alcohol in the body (Stickel et al., 2017). These factors signify a higher predisposition to alcoholic liver disease in women as compared to men.

Consuming alcohol in large quantities can have both direct and indirect effects on the human body and psyche. Direct ones can be observed comparatively early, which makes it possible to seek solutions for them. Meanwhile, indirect complications of the main problem  alcoholic liver disease  can remain unnoticed or neglected for many years, which significantly reduces the quality and duration of peoples lives. Hematologic disorders, such as anemia and clotting ones, gastrointestinal bleeds, such as variceal one, and acute pancreatitis are only some of the features manifesting alcoholic liver disease. The predisposition to alcoholic liver disease differs in patients depending on their age and gender. In order to avoid chronic conditions related to alcohol abuse, it is necessary to evaluate patients for adverse effects and suggest viable solutions to health problems associated with alcoholic liver disease as soon as they are suspected.

References

Behera, B. P., & Dash, M. (2020). An observational study of clinical and hematological profile of cirrhosis of liver. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research, 13(4), 149-152. Web.

Gapp, J., & Chandra, S. (2020). Acute pancreatitis. Web.

Gkamprela, E., Deutsch, M., & Pectasides, D. (2017). Iron deficiency anemia in chronic liver disease: Etiopathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment. Annals of Gastroenterology, 30, 405-413. Web.

Mallet, M., Rudler, M., & Thabut, D. (2017). Variceal bleeding in cirrhotic patients. Gastroenterology Report, 5(3), 185-192. Web.

Sookoian, S., & Pirola, C. J. (2017). Genetic predisposition in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Clinical and Molecular Hepatology, 23(1), 1-12. Web.

Stickel, F., Datz, C., Hampe, J., & Bataller, R. (2017). Pathophysiology and management of alcoholic liver disease: Update 2016. Gut & Liver, 11(2), 173-188. Web.

Mental disorders can emerge from drug dependency or addiction; paranoia or schizophrenia; Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (combat-related and other); neurocognitive deficits; domestic abuse, as well as other types of mental disorders. About 15 percent of people with extreme mental illness were homeless over one year in California (Smartt et al., 2019). Sadly, homelessness is known to be common to persons with some mental disorders, like paranoia.

According to what I have found, addictive disorders (substance abuse) disrupt relationships between individuals with families and friends and cause addicts to lose their jobs. However, in other cases, substance abuse is a product of homelessness rather than a cause of it. Homeless people often resort to drugs and alcohol to deal with their circumstances by trying to attain momentary respite from their problems. Nevertheless, drug abuse aggravates their issues and limits their efforts to attain job stability and leave the streets.

On the other hand, people who have schizophrenia or psychosis are more likely to detach from everybody else and go to the streets. It is because the disease causes a big effect on all the hopes, aspirations, and plans of those suffering from it. A common aspect of the disorder is scary hallucinations and delusions. The individual can hear voices trying to persuade them that the people who care about and love them are conspiring against them (Perry & Craig, 2015). Therefore, it is understandable why individuals with schizophrenia sometimes isolate and disconnect from interactions with others. People who have post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) find themselves on the streets and away from their loved ones because of disturbing events that they experienced at a certain period in time. These events may include serious threats, injury, or even losing someone through death. Smartt et al. (2019) say that this is why most military veterans suffering from PSTD find themselves homeless. It is because of all the horrifying events that these soldiers experience on the battlefield.

Another disturbing factor is a growing awareness of the cognitive effects of socio-economic disadvantages, such as diminished learning and regional development of the skills required for academic, professional, and independent success in adulthood. Consequently, impaired neurocognition will lead to the persistence of poverty through generations, which leads to homelessness among families. Domestic violence experience is another issue that is widespread among teenagers, unmarried adults, and families who become homeless. For many, this is the direct consequence of their homelessness. Safety is the urgent need for a victim escaping abuse. As a result, most of these sufferers are forced to escape by ending their relationships and abandoning their homes. Some survivors can remain comfortably at home with financial help through rental assistance. In contrast, others may need to stay in transitional housing facilities until they re-enter their separate housing (Smartt et al., 2019). The most affected by these conditions are children who lack security at home; they opt to go onto the streets.

However, the one thing that made me unhappy is the negative perceptions people have against the homeless. I hope they understand that homelessness is not a choice. Many homeless individuals are forced to live on the sidewalks because of being evicted or having lost their homes in a financial meltdown. Others are driven into homelessness because of mental illness or addictions. These negative opinions cause stigma and prejudice, which result in hurting the homeless and making it hard for them to reconnect with their families.

References

Smartt, C., Prince, M., Frissa, S., Eaton, J., Fekadu, A., & Hanlon, C. (2019). Homelessness and severe mental illness in low- and middle-income countries: Scoping review. BJPsych Open, 5(4), e57.

Perry, J., & Craig, T. K. J. (2015). Homelessness and mental health. Trends in Urology & Mens Health, 6(2), 1921.

Introduction

Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is a condition that involves persistent phases of anger, refusal to comply with adults, arguing, and spitefulness. It is experienced for a period of at least six months. Other behaviors include deliberately annoying people, touchiness, and blaming others for their misconduct. For a child to be regarded as suffering from ODD, they must exhibit four out of the eight signs and symptoms of the condition (Pardini, Frick & Moffitt, 2010). Despite their behavior, children suffering from oppositional defiant disorder are not always violent. In addition, they do not destroy property or engage in theft.

The criteria for ODD are more evenly distributed between emotions and behavior than other impulsive control disorders. The condition leads to extensive impairment in academic, social, and occupational functioning (Matthys & Lochman, 2010). Oppositional defiant disorder is manifested by patterns of extreme stubbornness, desire for revenge, and confrontation.

History of Oppositional Defiant Disorder

The condition was initially described in the Manual of Mental Disorders in 1980 under DSM-iii (Aebi et al., 2010). The 1987 publication of the DSM changed OD to the current ODD. The term became the official name for defiant, argumentative, and rule breaking children. In addition, psychiatrists started viewing it as a medical condition which required precise treatment. Clinical experts noted the first symptoms often appeared during preschool age.

It was rare for them to manifest in adolescence stage. Since then, numerous field trials to describe the state have been conducted on male subjects. Most clinical experts argued on whether the diagnostic criteria employed with boys could be of significant to females (Matthys & Lochman, 2010). In addition, some clinicians questioned the need for use of gender-specific criteria and threshold.

Parents with a stubborn child were advised not to consider themselves as being overly indulgent or poor in parenting and controlling their kids behavior. The reason behind this is because the misconduct could be as a result of suffering from a medical disorder. Through various tests, it was discovered a majority of children who suffered from Oppositional Defiant Disorder at a very minor age would later be diagnosed with other conditions (Heflinger & Humphreys, 2008). They include Attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), anxiety, or depression.

Over time, coexisting conditions have been discovered to be common in children suffering from oppositional defiant disorder. However, psychiatrics do not exactly describe the degree and temperament of their coexistence. In addition, it is estimated one third of children who suffer from ODD later develop conduct disorder. In adulthood, 40% of them tend to experience antisocial personality disorder (Comer, 2014). Since its discovery in 1980, it has been reported that males are more likely to suffer from ODD compared to females.

Causes of Oppositional Defiant Behavior

The precise cause of oppositional defiant disorder is not well known. However, researchers believe the condition is caused by a combination of genetic, environmental, and genetic factors.

Genetic Factors

Numerous research findings indicate parents can pass on a number of mental disorders to their children. The conditions later manifest themselves in various ways such as through hyperactivity. They are also displayed by inattention and patterns of oppositional and conduct issues. Adoption and twin research reveal an estimated 50% of antisocial problem causes are linked to biological factors (Pardini et al., 2010). Cases of oppositional defiant disorder are often experienced in families with a history of ADHD, mood problems, and substance abuse. As a result, children from such family units are likely to suffer from ODD.

Neurobiological Factors

They are other aspects behind this condition. The elements involve injuries to the brain. Such developments are associated with a number of behavioral disorders, especially among they young. Findings from Neuroimaging studies reveal persons suffering from ODD may have slight variations in the brain area which influences impulse control, decision making, and reasoning. In addition, children with the condition are believed to have both overactive behavioral activation system (BAS) and underactive behavioral system (Fields, 2012). BAS motivates certain deeds due to lack of punishment. On its part, BIS influences anxiety.

Environmental Factors

Inconsistent discipline practices have been known to cause antisocial behavior. As a result, insecure parent and child relations have been linked to oppositional defiant disorder. In addition, researchers believe unsteadiness in the family unit can also influence the condition. Factors which lead to poor parenting and monitoring include low socio-economic status (Hamilton & Armando, 2008). As a result, children from such backgrounds patterns of persistent aggression and antisocial behaviors at a very young age.

Treatment of Oppositional Defiant Behavior

There are various treatment options for this condition. The interventions are aimed at children and their parents. In most cases, a combination of medications and other interventions is used. The treatment measures include

Parental Training

A mental health expert trained to deal with ODD can be consulted to help the parent develop proper parenting skills. Researchers stress they should be more positive and less frustrating to both the parent and the child. In addition, the child suffering from ODD can also take part in the training (Fields, 2012). The reason behind this is so as to enable family develop shared procedures on appropriate how to deal with misconduct problems.

Individual and Family Therapy

Counseling is another intervention used to treat the disorder. It helps the child in anger management and self-expression. Family psychotherapy improves parent-child relation (Aebi et al., 2010). Through this, better communication is developed. Various techniques can be employed to help manage the behavior. They include denying the child some privileges, for example, access to electronic games every time he or she fails to control high temper. In addition, the parent can reduce punishment in instances where the child manages regain calmness after initiating an argument.

Training in Cognitive Problem Solving

The therapy is conducted with the main purpose being to help the ODD child identify and change thinking patterns responsible for misconduct. In this procedure, both the parent and kid are required to work closely together (Comer, 2014). The reason behind this is so as to formulate better solutions which are beneficial to all of them. Parents are also advised to reward positive behavior. Praise enables the child to continue acting in a good manner.

Benefits of Treatment

The treatment procedures have various positive impacts on the clients. It is beneficial to the child and the parent. The child learns how to control his or her thinking and manage anger. In addition, interaction with peers improves significantly (Pardini et al., 2010). The parents are helped to develop better ways of reinforcing good behavior. They also adopt skills which will enable them to show more love to their children. As a result, those suffering from ODD feel more protected and safe.

Prevention of Oppositional Defiant behavior

Research findings reveal programs for preschool children help reduce oppositional defiant behavior. For elementary school age group, the best prevention measure is engaging parents in management ways to control the condition (Comer, 2014). There are various plans at this level. One of them is Triple P. The measures are self-directed and help manage severe children misconduct mannerisms through various ways. They enhance the capabilities of the parents to deal with the child. Other effective school-based programs are those which focus on peer groups, bullying, and antisocial behavior.

ODD can also be prevented by early detection of unordinary behavioral patterns. Most medical experts believe results from a certain sequence of events and experiences. The first step is often poor parenting. The child then fails to comply with rules set by the seniors and engages in poor interaction with the peers. As the experiences continue, the misconducts develop into a severe problem.

Early detection and intervention of a dysfunctional family and unordinary behavior involves employing effective and consistent parenting skills (Fields, 2012). In addition, proper communication, anger management, and conflict resolution techniques are vital for preventing oppositional defiant behavior. The intervention greatly helps the child to undergo normal growth as the others. As a result, their quality of life is improved.

Children suspected to be suffering from ODD can be referred to medical professional with extensive knowledge and skill on the condition. The move helps to prevent the condition from developing to more severe stages. A physician can guide a parent multiple avenues to visit. In addition, the expert on detection on the disorder can act as the familys advocate (Matthys & Lochman, 2010). Through this, he or she can connect the child to institutions which provide educational services for ODD children and their parents.

Cross-Cultural Issues Pertaining to ODD

The worldwide predominance of Oppositional defiant and conduct disorder is presented to evaluate the major criteria employed in research to analyze the legality of psychiatric disorders across different cultures (Hamilton & Armando, 2008). Numerous studies indicate cultural backgrounds influence the interpretation of behavioral disorders.

As a result, Diagnostic Statistical Manual, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV), American Psychiatric Association (APA), and International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 10^th edition (ICD-10) have implemented diagnostic procedures which can be applied across all cultures. DSV-IV stresses all ODD diagnosis should be used when the child manifests clear symptoms. It should not be applied by looking at factors within the immediate social context.

Children from ethnic minority groups and poor family backgrounds have the highest risk of suffering from Oppositional defiant disorder (Comer, 2014). The reason behind this is because they are likely to be exposed to negative environments and poor infant nutrition. In addition, they may experience inconsistent parenting patterns and stressful circumstances.

Research reveals positive environments reduce the likely hood of suffering from ODD (Heflinger & Humphreys, 2008). One longitudinal study of the condition was conducted in Puerto Rica. Findings from children living in San Juan and Bronx indicated close family attachments and strict monitoring practiced by Puerto Ricans culture resulted to reduced cases of both CD and ODD.

Prevalence rates of the condition are also affected by practices observed within different cultures. In Chinese, the people often repress rage, aggression, and strong sentiments (Aebi et al., 2010). The cultural practice can make it a challenge for parents in such setting to determine if the behavior is caused by oppositional defiant disorder. As a result, it takes more effort to control and prevent the condition. Research by Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) on children syndromes in I6 diverse parts of the globe showed Asian countries highly internalize syndromes compared to Western (Aebi et al., 2010).

Biblical Worldview of ODD

The entire medical community believes there is no clear reason behind the cause of certain behavioral disorder. In addition the experts argue some conditions cannot be prevented or cured. Christians stress that certain chemical imbalances and disorders which people suffer from result from the sinful nature of man (Mohr, 2011). God created humans in His own image and likeness. He also told humanity they are responsible for their own actions. He further added all people are sinners and the deeds will results to various consequences.

Most Christians argue God stressed on the need to be saved and train children in the right way. From the teachings, most Christians believe the greatest answer to dealing with behavioral problems can only be found in the bible. Christians need to study the bible more critically to discover the solutions of not only ODD but other related disorders (Mohr, 2011).

The scriptures talk about peoples disobedience towards their parents (2 Timothy 3:2 New International Version). In this era, the children are similar to those suffering from oppositional defiant disorder. Despite the condition being linked to sin, some Christians believe not all bad events are of failure to abide by the scriptures (Matthys & Lochman, 2010). The reason behind this is because there are righteous persons who believed in God and still fell ill such as Job.

Generally, the main cause of oppositional disorder in Christian worldview is the sinful nature of man. The best treatment and prevention measures lie within the scriptures. The reason behind this is because the Bible is superior to any other thing in the world. Gods word is the only real source of help to humanity (Mohr, 2011). In addition, to overcome ODD and other disorders, people need to turn to God and initiate a conversation through prayers and belief in healing.

Conclusion

All children tend to be oppositional at times when growing up. However not all cases are linked to Oppositional defiant disorder. To consider the child to be suffering from the condition, there should be clear evidence of manifestation of the major symptoms. To curb manage the behavioral disorder proper measures are required. Parents and children should face the problem collaboratively.

In addition, parents should not always blame themselves. The reason behind this is because it is evident the problem can result from biological factors and not entirely poor parenting. To manage the problem more effectively in the future, various measures need to be taken. More studies focusing on the child, parent, and family as a whole needs to be conducted. People should be enlightened more about the problem. Through this, it will be possible to detect the condition early and manage it.

References

Aebi, M., Muller, U., Asherson, P., Banaschewski, T., Buitelaar, J., Ebstein, R.,&Steinhausen, H. (2010). Predictability of oppositional defiant disorder and symptom dimensions in children and adolescents with ADHD combined type. Psychological Medicine, 40(12), 2089-2100.

Comer, R. (2014). Fundamentals of abnormal psychology (7th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers.

Fields, B. (2012). Getting the balance right: The challenge of balancing praise and correction for early school years children who exhibit oppositional and defiant behavior. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 37(4), 24.

Hamilton, S., & Armando, J. (2008). Oppositional defiant disorder. American Family Physician, 78(7), 861-866.

Heflinger, C., & Humphreys, K. (2008). Identification and treatment of children with oppositional defiant disorder: A case study of one states public service system. Psychological Services, 5, 139-152.

Matthys, W., & Lochman, J. (2010). Oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder in childhood. Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.

Mohr, S. (2011). Integration of spirituality and religion in the care of patients with severe mental disorders. Religions, 2(4), 549-565.

Pardini, D., Frick, P., & Moffitt, T. (2010). Building an evidence base for DSM-5 conceptualization of oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder: Introduction to the special section. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 683-688.

Eating disorders are significant mental and physical diseases that entail complicated and harmful interactions with food, feeding, exercising, and self-image or form, resulting in an unhealthy concern with somebodys existence. In the United States, these illnesses affect roughly twenty million females and ten million males regardless of age, race, socioeconomic class, faith, gender, or sexuality (Mehler, 2019). People should stop neglecting their condition, express their feelings honestly, and engage in more social activities.

Mental illnesses are best treated with mindfulness without negative associations and stress. As eating recovery caregivers advise, it is better not to panic and gently ask for outside support. Therapeutic relations of solution-focused group counseling can provide this support, increasing the patients recognition of himself and treatment motivation without causing more anxiety (Yildirim & Aylaz, 2022). Professionals help a person find a solution by strength by proving how he genuinely coped with problems before. It arises more positive emotions that maintain the patients mental health and push him to recovery. Therefore, nursing interventions with daily therapeutic sessions provide adequate support for victims to fight eating disorders.

Another recommendation is engaging in more activities without food involvement. Social interactions may be uncomfortable for those with an unhealthy relationship with food, and dining in public could be incredibly distressing. Persons who lack self-confidence may shun social situations, only to become increasingly alienated (Mehler, 2019). It is better to start with personal hobbies such as writing, dancing, and performing music that has assisted afflicted people in dealing with the condition. People practicing yoga admit that it contributes to body awareness, reducing restrictions and more tolerance toward body sizes (Jahanbin, 2019). Thus, people fight their insecurities by focusing on other activities except for food.

To conclude, understanding psychology under the illness improves the situation. When a person realizes his illness and puts all efforts into healing without rushing, he starts his recovery. Significantly, negative emotions, great expectations, panic, and anxiety disrupt the process by making the patient more stressed. Concentrating on other things and getting enough support from loved ones and therapists efficiently cope with the existing eating disorder.

References

Eating recovery caregiver dos and donts. Eating Recovery Center. (2020).

Jahanbin., E. (2019). Yoga Therapy and Eating Disorders. Caspian Journal of Health Research, 4(1), 21-27.

Mehler, P. (2019). Clinical guidance on osteoporosis and eating disorders: the NEDA continuing education series. Eating Disorders, 27(5), 471-481.

Yildirim, H., & Aylaz, R. (2022). The effects of group counseling based on the solution-focused approach on anxiety and healthy lifestyle behaviors in individuals with eating disorders. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care, 58(1), 180188.

This reflection will focus on SLO 2, which is concerned with identifying approaches to dealing with people with mental illnesses in the system of justice. Mental illnesses are prevalent among the US population; for example, multiple substance use disorders (SUDs) among US adults taking prescription drugs increased from 1990 to 2000 (McCabe et al., 2017). Sometimes, mental disorders may hinder people from controlling their behavior or understanding the consequences of their actions, which is why they can commit actions that lead them to enter the criminal justice system. Forensic psychologists should be able to provide treatment to these individuals and assess the mental state of the defendants and victims of crime.

One approach to dealing with people with mental disorders is the assessment of criminal responsibility. This evaluation is vital because it helps the court define whether the insanity defense can be supported in a particular case (Bartol & Bartol, 2018). For example, the defendant may fake the symptoms of a mental disorder to try to avoid the guilty sentence, and it is the task of a forensic psychologist to identify whether an individual indeed has this condition. One approach to conducting such an assessment is the right and wrong test, which aims to understand whether the person knows the difference between right and wrong (Bartol & Bartol, 2018). However, during the course, I learned that forensic psychologists should not limit their sources of data only to psychological tests. They should also gain information from third parties and conduct interviews with defendants because the evaluation of an individuals mental state is a complex issue.

If one is found not guilty due to insanity, one should undergo treatment. According to Brigham (1999), treatment in the legal context is also a responsibility of forensic psychologists. During the course, I learned to discern several approaches to the treatment of people with mental illnesses. First, treatment should be initiated only after the individuals mental disorders are documented and their dangerousness to themselves or others is established (Bartol & Bartol, 2018). Second, people found incompetent to stand trial should be treated only to the point of restoration of this competency. There is also a need to complete re-evaluations of the persons mental state after being hospitalized to ensure that an individual is not treated longer than necessary.

Another area where forensic psychologists may need to deal with people with mental disorders is the work with victims of crime. For example, victims of intimate partner violence often present with symptoms of PTSD (Bartol & Bartol, 2018). When working with such individuals, forensic psychologists should understand the approaches to assessing and treating a particular mental disorder. For example, some methods of evaluating PTSD include PTSD Symptom Scale, the Traumatic Life Events Questionnaire, or the Posttraumatic Diagnostic Stress Scale (Bartol & Bartol, 2018). It is also important to document the victims PTSD because it may help in prosecuting the abuser or defending the battered woman if she happens to kill her abuser (Bartol & Bartol, 2018). When dealing with victims of crime, it is also important to remember that various people can respond to traumatic experiences differently, which is why mental disorders, in their case, may manifest themselves with a wide range of symptoms. Therefore, I learned that thorough evaluation and documentation of an individuals mental state is vital for the effective work of the criminal justice system.

In conclusion, I feel that I have met this outcome because I can identify certain approaches to assessing and treating people with mental disorders in the criminal justice system. For example, I know that while psychological tests are important for establishing a persons mental status, the assessment approach should also include gathering data from other sources. Furthermore, the treatment of such individuals should be based on thorough documentation of their illnesses and should be regularly evaluated for progress. Finally, I learned about specific approaches to working with the victims of crime, who need to be carefully evaluated to detect their psychological needs and individual coping mechanisms.

References

Bartol, C. R., & Bartol, A. M. (2018). Introduction to forensic psychology: Research and application (5^th ed.). SAGE Publications.

Brigham, J. C. (1999). What is forensic psychology, anyway? Law and Human Behavior, 23(3), 273-298.

McCabe, S. E., West, B. T., Jutkiewicz, E. M., & Boyd, C. J. (2017). Multiple DSM5 substance use disorders: A national study of US adults. Human Psychopharmacology, 32(5), 1-10.

Abstract

Sexual disorders refer to any physical or mental conditions that causes disturbance to the normal functioning of the body, thus preventing one from desiring or enjoying sex. Both men and women suffer from sexual disorders, albeit in varying degrees. Common causes of sexual disorders in both men and women include sex related trauma, depression, low self-esteem, drug abuse, and medical conditions. Sexual disorders belong to four major categories, namely sexual desire disorders, arousal disorders, orgasm disorders, and sexual pain disorders.

Under normal circumstances, sexual activity should be pleasurable and not painful. Experts argue that people with sexual disorders should not be worried because they are numerous methods used in treating the condition. Some of the approaches used include therapy, counseling, and genital surgeries among others. Talking to ones sexual partner is an effective strategy of avoiding the side effects of sexual disorders in relationships and marriages.

Introduction

Sexual disorders are a common phenomenon that professionals in the health care industry deal with on a regular basis. According to experts, a sexual disorder refers to any physical or mental condition that causes disturbance to the normal functioning of the body, thus preventing one from desiring or enjoying sex (Grohol, 2008). In addition, they argue that someone is considered to have a sexual disorder if they experience pain and distress during copulation for more than six months.

People who suffer from this condition often complain about a strained sexual life characterized by lack of desire or an unsatisfied partner. Psychologists argue that sexual disorders are a common causative factor in failed relationships and broken marriages across the world. Studies have established that someone can experience the effects of a sexual disorder at any time that may include before or during a sexual activity (Zorn, 2013).

Sexual disorders are common in both men and women, albeit in different degrees. Experts warn that a sexual disorder does not necessarily mean that something is wrong with someone. However, it denotes occasional changes in the body that can suddenly change ones desire for copulation or response to sexual arousal.

Some of the common causes of sexual disorders in both men and women include sex related trauma, depression, low self-esteem, drug abuse, as well as medical conditions such as diabetes and heart disease (Grohol, 2008).

Discussion

Studies have established that sexual disorders are of different kinds, magnitudes, and occur at different times of an individuals life. Experts argue that although both men and women can experience sexual disorders at any stage of their lives past puberty, chances are often higher as someone gets older (Zorn, 2013). This condition entails challenges faced by individuals in regard to their sexual identity, performance, and aim (Grohol, 2008).

Sexual disorders can easily cause anxiety among couples if they the problems keep happening and they fail to address them on time. There are numerous types of sexual disorder that affect both men and women. Examples of sexual disorders in men include erectile dysfunction, premature ejaculation, low libido, and painful ejaculations (Grohol, 2008).

Examples of sexual disorders in women include low libido, difficulty reaching orgasm, vaginal dryness, and negative thoughts during copulation among others (Grohol, 2008). All these types of conditions that affect both men and women belong to four major categories (Zorn, 2013).

Sexual desire disorders

This condition entails challenges involving the absence or lack of desire by a man or woman to engage in copulation. According to experts, the inclination to want is one of the main drivers of sex. In the field of health care professionals, this condition is referred to as low libido (Mandal, 2014). Sexual urge in both men and women is triggered by certain hormones that are excreted by the body.

Sexual desire disorder in men is characterized by low levels of a hormone called testosterone, while in women it is denoted by low excretion of a hormone called estrogen (Mandal, 2014). Experts argue that low libido can be a problem experienced out of normal circumstances or towards ones sexual partner.

Some of the causative factors of this disorder include depression, performance anxiety, medication, pregnancy, fatigue, and aging among others (Zorn, 2013). Experts warn that most of these causes are not empirically tested, but merely beliefs of psychiatrists.

Arousal disorders

Sexual problems in this category entail challenges related to an individuals ability to respond when aroused sexually. One of the common symptoms of an individual suffering from this disorder is aversion to any form of contact (Mandal, 2014). In men, this disorder is characterized by erectile dysfunction, where one often experiences partial erection or none at all. Some men with this problem can have a full erection once in a while but cannot maintain it for long.

Men who have had this problem also complain about not gaining any pleasure from copulation (Zorn, 2013). Another type of arousal disorder in men is premature ejaculation. This is when one ejects semen almost immediately after penetration, mostly in less than two minutes.

In females, this disorder is characterized by vaginal dryness, where the epithelial duct fails to get wet and making it hard for penetration to occur. Some of the causes of this disorder include medical reasons such as low flow of blood to the genitals and chronic diseases such as stroke (Mandal, 2014). Experts argue that attraction between sexual partners can also contribute to this disorder.

Orgasm disorders

This problem is characterized by relentless delays before one reaches climax. In some cases it involves the complete absence of orgasm (Mandal, 2014). Pain during ejaculation by men is also considered an orgasm disorder. Although there are no specific causes of this disorder, experts believe the problem involves medical, physical, and psychological factors (Zorn, 2013).

The mind is considered as the biggest sexual organ. Therefore, having negative thoughts or absent-mindedness during copulation can easily lead to delayed orgasm or lack of it.

Sexual pain disorders

Problems in this category involve situations when one experiences pain during copulation. Normally, sexual activity should be pleasurable and not painful. This disorder is common among women compared to men. This problem is caused by the dryness of the vagina, which makes it hard for the man to penetrate (Mandal, 2014). Vaginal dryness in women happens due to factors such as lack of arousal, sexual boredom, as well as body changes caused by processes such as climacteric, lactating, maternity, and use of contraceptives (Zorn, 2013).

Experts also claim that sexual pain disorder can be caused by failure of the muscles in the vaginal wall to relax, even when epithelial duct is well lubricated. Failure of the vaginal muscles to relax is commonly associated with past sexual trauma because the woman tends to feel scared every time they engage in copulation (Mandal, 2014). Sexual pain disorders also happen to men, albeit in a lesser magnitude compared to that in women.

Pain for men during copulation happens when someone maintains an erection for a very long time, thus becoming painful (Zorn, 2013). Such a prolonged erection is caused by poor flow of blood into the penis causing some of it to be trapped. Experts advise that this problem should be treated as soon as it is discovered because it can easily lead to a victim loosing the ability to have an erection forever (Mandal, 2014).

Conclusion

Sexual disorders are one of the many challenges that professionals in the health care industry and people in relationships deal with on a regular basis. Sexual disorders involve any problems associated with any part of the sexual process. Premature ejaculation, vaginal dryness, depression, anxiety, and exhibitionism are some of the notable symptoms of sexual disorders. Causes of the various types of sexual disorder are mostly triggered by mental, physical, psychological, and medical factors.

Experts argue that people with sexual disorders should not be worried because they are numerous methods used in treating the condition. Some of the approaches used include therapy, counseling, and genital surgeries among others.

In order to avoid suffering any of the sexual disorders, experts advise people to stop using all types of drugs, and focus on building their body muscles by taking foods that provide the body with Vitamin C. People suffering from sexual disorders should also follow all the prescriptions given by their physicians, as well as talking to their sexual partners every time one experiences a disturbance.

References

Grohol, J. (2008). Sexuality and Sexual Disorders. Web.

Mandal, A. (2014). Types of Sexual Dysfunction. Web.

Zorn, K. C. (2013). Sexual Problems in Men. Web.

Eating disorders are a complex and multifaceted problem that is even today far from being resolved. Thus, it is incredibly important to understand what can act as a cause for their occurrence in order to design effective and relevant interventions. The article by Keel and Forney (2013) discusses specifically what role psychosocial factors play in the development of an eating disorder. Patients with eating disorders usually have a range of body beliefs that have been shaped by their environment. In addition to these beliefs, they also have a certain emotionally colored attitude towards their body. Idealization of thinness and subsequent issues with body image and weight are emphasized by Keel and Forney in the findings of their study, stating that epidemiological, cross-cultural, and longitudinal data support that conclusion.

The psychosocial approach to determining the causes of eating disorders proved to be effective in various studies. Discovering patients rules of life related to the body and thinness, as well as the examination of patient history and events associated with weight changes, often helps to detect underlying issues. Understanding a specific patients predispositions and how their disorder progressed throughout the years and concrete events can establish a more comprehensive context for the case. Moreover, determining the psychosocial causes of an eating disorder and tracing correlations in them among different patients can help design more targeted and tailored interventions for the future.

It is still rather arguable that just the socio-cultural environment itself, which provokes bodily anxiety, causes the development of eating disorders. However, Keel and Forney (2013) emphasize that it is precisely the environment that makes the reassessment of weight and body shape  the key psychopathology of eating disorders  possible. In addition, it creates the prerequisites for the use of restrictive eating styles, which can trigger the development of eating disorders.

Thus, such disorders occur in individuals predisposed to them if they are exposed to a number of adverse factors. For example, sensitive temperament is an important aspect predisposing to the development of eating disorders. People with this type of temperament tend to take criticism more sharply than the rest of the population. Thus, the comments of other people about the appearance and shape of the body often become exactly the critical event that triggers the development of eating disorders.

People whose weight and body shape do not meet the socially accepted standard are often perceived as lazy, lacking willpower, and weak. In addition, they themselves often tend to experience an intense sense of shame in connection with the inadequacy of the generally accepted ideal. Being able to recognize these negative feelings and counter them with self-compassion might reduce the severity of stress and, thus, help people avoid developing an eating disorder. The healthcare sector should facilitate awareness of the specifics of approaches to treating and preventing eating disorders as part of both professional and public interventions.

References

Boyd, C. J., McCabe, S. E., Cranford, J. A., & Young, A. (2006). Adolescents motivations to abuse prescription medications. Pediatrics, 118(6), 24722480. Web.

Keel, P. K., & Forney, K. J. (2013). Psychosocial risk factors for eating disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 46(5), 433439. Web.