Category: Disorders

Introduction

Language is an important part of the social life of human beings, and it acts as a source of integration and order. Hoodin (2011) defines language disorders or language impairments as conditions that prevent the dispensation of linguistic information. Language impairments affect grammar abilities among children. In addition, Benner (2005) acknowledges a positive correlation between language disorders and poor academic performance. Language disorders are also associated with psychiatric issues and learning disabilities. In reference to Petersen et al. (2013), children with language disorders lack the ability to regulate their level of attention to various issues. This could explain why language disorders occur in many children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorders (ADHD). Language disorders can either be pragmatic or specific (Hoodin, 2011).

Pragmatic language impairment (PLI) refers to difficulties experienced in comprehending the practical aspects of language. Additionally, specific language impairment (SLI) results in delays in mastering linguistic skills. While PLI is associated with autism, Asperger syndrome, and ADHD, SLI is developmental (Hoodin, 2011).

There are reports in previous research studies concerning gender variations in the incidences of language disorders. According to Petersen et al. (2013), the impacts of language disorders appear to be stronger in males than females. Moreover, boys have a higher risk of developing attention and behavioral problems associated with language impairment. Research undertaken by Benner (2005) revealed that SLI occurred more in boys than girls. In reference to the authors, the correlates of SLI tend to focus on the history of language impairment in the family. Genetic factors have a role to play in revealing gender disparities reported in language impairment.

Contrary to this perspective, Hoodin (2011) reports the absence of gender variations in language disorders. The author explains that both genders have equal chances of being predisposed to familial risk factors that cause language impairment. The aim of the current research is to determine whether there are gender variations in language impairment among children and young adults. Understanding such variations would clear the discrepancies that exist in literature and prevent the misdiagnosis of language disorders among females.

Language disorders vary across gender

Past research studies have revealed that language impairments affect the ability of children to comprehend and comply with instructions (Hoodin, 2011). As a result, these children tend to misinterpret linguistic information and develop antisocial behaviors. This is an indication that language impairment affects the social lives of children. Hence, any gender disparities reported in research studies require clarification to provide solid evidence on their role in language impairment. Conti-Ramsden, Mok, Pickles, and Durkin (2013) undertook a research study on the occurrence of language impairment in young adults.

Based on the findings, the authors note that females are more likely to develop SLI because they experience emotional difficulties more than their male counterparts. On the contrary, past research findings have concluded that boys have a higher likelihood of developing language impairment than girls. However, the authors do not explain the basis for the emotional difficulties in females. They also acknowledge the dearth of evidence in other studies in explaining such findings (Conti-Ramsden, Mok, Pickles, & Durkin, 2013).

In a different research, Krizman, Skoe, and Kraus (2012) report gender variations in language disorders. They explain that genetic factors cause such variations, as male children have slower responses to speech compared to females. Moreover, male children tend to exhibit more neural deficits that relate to language impairment. The research also demonstrated that females had faster peaks with respect to language recognition and comprehension. Krizman, Skoe, and Kraus (2012) also acknowledge the gender differences in encoding speech syllables, which could explain variations in language disorders.

Benner (2005) indicates that SLI occurs more in males than females. The author explains that sex chromosomes play a critical role in such findings. However, there is a lack of a clear linkage between genetics and gender variations in language impairment. In an attempt to explain gender disparities in language impairment, Krizman, Skoe, Kraus (2012) argue that the acquisition of words is slower in boys than girls. Therefore, male children are more likely to have language disorders than females. These authors also note the findings in previous longitudinal research studies that girls perform better than boys in various language measures. Lastly, studies have shown that girls tend to perform better in understanding vocabularies while boys perform better in arithmetic (Benner, 2005). Since vocabulary comprehension is an important risk factor in learning abilities, such findings could explain why boys are reported to have higher incidences of language impairment.

Misconceptions regarding language variations across gender

According to Hoodin (2011), past research studies are inconsistent in reporting gender variations in language impairment. While some studies report that boys are more likely to have language disorders, others report the absence of gender variations. This is an indication that more comprehensive studies are required to confirm whether the reported gender disparities are actually true. The research by Conti-Ramsden, Mok, Pickles, and Durkin (2013) provides contrary evidence as it states that adolescent girls are more likely to have language impairment compared to boys. Moreover, the researchers admit that their findings could have been due to chance as the sample size was small.

Hoodin (2011) acknowledges that proband models show no gender variations among children whose relatives have language impairment. Causal inferences can only be true when epidemiological studies prove without a doubt that an exposure (gender) causes an outcome (language impairment). In this view, there are no studies that have consistently reported gender differences in language disorders. Perhaps this is an indication that the association is just a fallacy.

Viding et al. (2004) state that studies on twins tends to dispute the role of genetics in language impairment. These longitudinal studies have focused on the heritability of language disorders on fraternal and identical twins. Although their longitudinal research study reported gender variation in language disorders, further analysis of sex pairs did not find any association between language impairment and genetic or environmental factors (Viding et al., 2004).

Furthermore, Hoodin (2011) indicates that twin studies have reported varying results. While some have reported a positive association between gender and language impairment among young adults below 18 years, others have noted that genetic factors have played a major role in language impairment. Viding et al. (2004) argue that genetic explanations for gender variations in language disorders are a misconception due to the absence of clinically randomized trials to determine the kind of genes involved. Additionally, Benner (2005) indicates that the gender variations in these studies could be due to referral bias that occurs in the data collection phases of research. There could also be methodological variations that lead to discrepancies in the results reported in past research.

Hoodin (2011) also notes that some authors have attributed the gender discrepancies to environmental factors, which is a flawed conclusion. Viding et al. (2004) recommend more complex epidemiological studies on gender variations. The fact that the prevalence of impairment is higher in one gender should not necessarily mean that there are actual sex differences. The authors note that gender is majorly a confounding factor in most of the epidemiological research studies. Therefore, researchers should control for gender during data collection and analysis (Viding et al., 2004). Some of the twin research studies have also concluded that there are gender differences in language impairment, even when the levels of heritability appear to be the same across gender. In conclusion, all the research studies that report the presence of sex variation also recommend future research on the issue.

Conclusion

Language is an integral part of human life, as it enhances communication and integration. Language disorders inhibit the dispensation of linguistic abilities (Hoodin, 2011). Such impairments affect academic performance and learning abilities. Some previous studies have reported gender variations in language disorders. While some of these studies do not explain the findings, others state that genes play a major role in gender discrepancies. On the contrary, most twin studies report no gender disparities in language disorders and recommend further comprehensive research. Such variations are likely to result in misdiagnosis of language disorders among girls. As a result, this is likely to affect the treatment of such disorders among the female gender. In this regard, the research concludes that gender variations in language impairment are just a misconception, and further research is required to provide more solid scientific evidence.

References

Benner, G. J. (2005). Language skills of elementary-aged children with emotional and behavioral disorders. Great Plains Research, 15(11), 251-265. Web.

Conti-Ramsden, G., Mok, P. L., Pickles, A., & Durkin, K. (2013). Adolescents with a history of specific language impairment (SLI): Strengths and difficulties in social, emotional and behavioral functioning. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 34(11), 41614169. Web.

Hoodin, R. B. (2011). Interventions in child language disorders: A comprehensive handbook. Sudbury, Mass: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Web.

Krizman, J., Skoe, E., & Kraus, N. (2012). Sex differences in auditory subcortical function. Clinical Neurophysiology, 123(47), 590597. Web.

Petersen, I. T., Bates, J. E., DOnofrio, B. M., Coyne, C. A., Lansford, J. E., Dodge, K. A.,& Van Hulle, C. A. (2013). Language ability predicts the development of behavior problems in children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122(2), 542557. Web.

Viding, E., Spinath, F. M., Price, T. S., Bishop, D. V., Dale, P. S., & Plomin, R. (2004). Genetic and environmental infuence on language impairment in 4-year-old same-sex and opposite-sex twins. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(2), 315325. Web.

Introduction

Language development is a process that begins at a very early age. This subject has been researched by several researchers and as a result, there are several theories proposed by them. In general, a person begins to acquire language by learning it as it is spoken and by mimicry. As the development of language progresses it moves from simplicity to complexity. At the initial stage, infants start without language, however, in a few months children can read lips and discriminate speech sounds.

In general, we hear children making simple words that may not necessarily have any specific meaning. As and when they age, words acquire meaning, and connections between words are formed and then later on they begin to form simple sentences which are joined together to create logical meaning. As the child grows up, new meanings of words and sentences and new associations are created. As a result of these exercises vocabulary increases and the child is able to communicate easily.

On average a normal child becomes remarkably capable communicators during the first three years of their life. However, there can be a difference from one child to another as it invariably depends on how the parent or the caretaker interacts with them. During the first three years, children use body language, sign language, painting, drawing and mark-making, and oral expression, and sometimes a combination of these to express their needs. In fact, it can be said that child starts learning right from the womb where they have been acutely active listeners where they learned to recognize the speech patterns, tunes, and tones of the languages especially of the mother and other people in the home (The National Literacy Trust, 2007).

The concept of language development has initiated several arguments and as a result, several theories have emerged. For instance, linguists do not agree on what biological factors contribute to language development, however, most of them do agree that the ability to acquire such a complicated system is unique to the human species. Besides, the ability to learn a language may have been evolved from the ancestors through the evolutionary process.

They also assume that the foundation for language may be passed down genetically. Social interaction is a precondition for the development of language which is agreed upon by all linguists. It is important that children are allowed to interact with other people to be able to develop their basic skills with language. In other words, it is important for children to spend time and effort with other people that allow them to communicate socially in a particular language.

Between the age of two and three most of the children are able to use language to influence the people closest to them, indicating the links with brain development and theyre growing ability to attract others and gain their attention. In other words, they are beginning to understand the minds of their parents, and their siblings and express their feelings much more clearly than they used to do in the first year of their life.

While this type of development is a typical form of language development, children with impaired mental and physical status find it difficult to acquire language as fast as normal children. In the case of such speech and language disorders in children, lifelong impairments can severely impact many aspects of life such as learning, education, behavior, relationships and self-esteem. It is especially true with children born with significant biological impairments such as blindness, deafness, and severe motor deficits.

However, these children also attain a range of basic abilities, such as representational thinking and language competence, in ways different from those experienced by children without such limitations. Experience proves that a good understanding of these problems can provide guidance for interventionists in their attempts to facilitate the adaptive development of young children with a wide variety of special needs, as well as in their efforts to extend constructive support to their parents (Gleitman, 1986).

Phonological Disorder

There are many children who are not able to follow this general trend and have problems developing good communication. Children who do not succeed to use age-specific speech and sounds and language may be diagnosed with phonological disorder. Statistics suggest that phonological disorder is among the most widespread speech disorders, affecting roughly about 10% of the preschool and school-age population. It is also suggested by researchers that this disorder is more common in boys than in girls (NIDCD, 1994).

Phonological disorder is often referred to as articulation disorder, developmental articulation disorder, or speech sound production disorder. Phonological disorder is characterized by an inappropriate sound production and use. For instance, a child with such a disorder may substitute unfamiliar sounds with other similar sounds in words (e.g., wed for red). They may also sometimes exclude unfamiliar sounds in words (e.g., back for black). For a child with severe cases of phonological disorder, the articulation may be impaired to such an extent that children experience social difficulties and difficulties making basic needs known to others (Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders, 2007).

In general, it is observed that these children have normal hearing and IQ. Even after years of studies the specific cause or causes of the articulation problem is still a mystery. In some cases, an obvious organic base can be found (Gierut, 1998) whereas in others a genetic component has been suggested as an etiological variable. Other contributing factors may be low socioeconomic status or it may also be the result of a large family (NIDCD, 1994).

Classification of Phonological Disorder

Studies have come out with various classifications based on their origin. For instance, if there is no known cause, it is called developmental phonological disorder. If the cause is known to be of neurological origin, the names given to the disorder are dysarthria or dyspraxia. In general, it is a disorder that is characterized by a childs helplessness to create speech at a level expected of his or her age group because of an inability to form the necessary sounds. The severity of the phonological disorder is classified into several levels and ranges from speech that is completely beyond one understanding, even to a childs immediate family members, to speech that can be understood by the ones who listen but in which some sounds are somewhat mispronounced.

Phonological disorder is often divided into three categories, based on the cause of the disorder. The disorder is sometimes caused due to structural problems, or abnormalities in the areas necessary for speech sound production, such as the tongue or the roof of the mouth. These structural abnormalities make it difficult for children to produce certain sounds. There are severe cases where it becomes impossible for a child to produce the sounds at all. In case of such disorders, it is important to set right the structural problem causing the phonological disorder before the child goes into linguistic-based treatment. It is often observed that in many cases the correction of the structural problem results in correction of the speech sound problem.

Another category of phonological disorder is mainly due to neurological problems. As a result of such disorder, the muscles of the mouth do not allow the child sufficient fine motor control over the muscles to produce all speech sounds. It is often observed that a child with such phonological disorder is able to communicate if the child undergoes linguistic-based treatment.

The third category of phonological disorder is due to an unknown cause. This is often called developmental phonological disorder. Although the cause is not known, there are certain assumptions. Researchers have predicted that this disorder may result from slight brain abnormalities, a childs learning environment, and immature development of the neurological system (Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders, 2007).

Symptoms of Phonological Disorder

Symptoms of phonological disorder depend on the age of the child and vary considerably. It is often difficult to detect this disorder, as the child with phonological disorder develops speech sounds comparatively more slowly than his or her age group children. However, though late, he or she develops them in the same order. Therefore, it can be observed that speech that may be normal for a four-year-old child may be a sign of phonological disorder in a six-year-old.

Under normal circumstances, all normal children develop speech sounds in the same sequence. These sequences of sounds are classified into three main categories groups of eight sounds each: the early eight, the middle eight, and the late night. The early eight include consonant sounds such as m, b,, and p. The middle eight include sounds such as t, g, and chi, and the late eight include more complicated sounds such as sh, th, z, and Zh. (Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders, 2007).

In general, it is observed that as the age advances the child develops these sounds and many of them do not normally finish mastering the late eight until they are seven or eight years old. Even though they master all three levels of sound, there are some very common mistakes made by them. Some of the most common mistakes are the omission of sounds, (i.e., frequently at the end of words), the distortion of sounds, or the substitution of one sound for another. Often the substitution is of a sound that the child can more easily produce for one they find it difficult (Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders, 2007).

Treatment for Phonological Disorder

It is the job of a speech-language pathologist to diagnose, treat and provide services to children with communication disorders, including speech, language, voice, fluency, and literacy difficulties. In general, speech pathologists need to perform tasks such as identifying the exact nature and severity of each childs communication problems, which may require the use of special equipment and test plan and carry out treatment and management taking into account the age, social environment, and physical and intellectual abilities.

A speech-language pathologist is one who helps children with phonological disorders. Though the therapy may vary from child to child depending on an individual childs needs, it is mainly overcome by practicing sounds. These therapists demonstrate the physical ways that the sound is made. For instance, they show where to place the tongue and how to move the lips. It is often seen that repetition of the difficult sounds with the therapist produces good results.

There are serious debates among the therapists as to teach first the complex sounds or the simple sounds. Whatever the case is it is observed that when the child develops a sense of accomplishment when these sounds are mastered, and they are will more willingly continue with treatment and develops a sense of confidence (Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders, 2007).

The classic shift from articulation to linguistic and psycholinguistic research has not been accompanied by complete descriptive accounts of the distal causes or etiologies of child speech-sound disorders (Shriberg, 2003). However, today it is said that no matter what combination of difficulties a child with a developmental phonological disorder has, appropriate speech-language pathology treatment is usually successful in eliminating or at the very least, reducing the problem (Bowen, 1998).

It is essential that a child with speech-sound disorders is diagnosed and treated at a very early stage as the treatment for the phonological disorder is important not only for the childs development to be able to form speech sounds but for other reasons.

For instance, children who have trouble creating speech sounds may have academic problems in subject areas such as spelling or reading. Besides, these children may also be affected psychologically as they sound themselves different than their peers. They find themselves frustrated and ridiculed, and may become less willing to participate in common activities. Even if they attempt to mingle with other children, there are times when these children are made fun of.

Stoel-Gammon and Dunn (1985) have provided a precise summation of the characteristics of phonological therapy, saying that it: Phonological therapy is based on the systematic nature of phonology; is characterized by conceptual, rather than motoric, activities; and has generalization as its ultimate goal.

In a similar way, Fey (1992) suggested that phonological therapy approaches are designed to nurture the childs system rather than simply to teach new sounds. However, it is Grunwell (1988) who had captured the real meaning of what taking a phonological approach to intervention for developmental phonological disorders means when she wrote that, The defining characteristic of phonological therapy is that it is in the mind.

If we look at the history of interventions it can be said that the traditional treatments for children with phonological disorder involved a variety of interventions, but most of them arise from a motor-oriented framework (Klein, 1996b). Some of the techniques include the use of mirrors, tongue depressors, oral-motor exercises, sensory-motor training, modeling and imitation of speech and speech sounds, shaping via successive approximations, and chaining.

Phonologically based therapy or in other words linguistic-based treatment is a more recent approach to the treatment for phonological disorder (Creaghead, 1989; Fey, 1985). Fey (1992) stated that: phonological therapy approaches are designed to nurture the childs system rather than simply to teach new sounds. Researchers have noted several differences that can be noted between the traditional and linguistic-based treatment contrasts to the more traditional approaches in several ways. In fact, the traditional approaches focus on teaching the child to articulate given words or sounds correctly, the phonological approach focuses on having the child change his or her rule system, using cognitive techniques such as semantic images (Klein, 1996a).

Researchers have pointed out that phonological disorder may be characterized by poor development of the echoic repertoire that is defined by its point-to-point correspondence between the preceding verbal stimulus and the verbal response (Skinner, 1957). It is often observed that children with the phonological disorder are not able to when compared to same-age peers to display accurate point-to-point correspondence between words heard and words said. In such cases, the speech pathologist plans the treatment accordingly to focus on improving the echoic repertoire. Studies have proven that it is possible through a series of vocal imitation training (Lovaas, 2003).

In general, in vocal imitation training, children with the phonological disorder are trained to repeat sounds and words emitted by the therapist, using procedures such as shaping, chaining, and prompting. Once this step of therapy is complete and the child acquires correct articulation, the subsequent focus is made to generalize the item across personnel, stimuli, settings, and verbal classes. This is essential since the vocal imitation training only may not produce such generalization (McReynolds, 1981).

In fact, it can be seen that different therapists program generalizations across personnel, and teach the same label using the same training stimuli. To program generalization across stimuli, the therapist varies the stimulus materials during training, whereas to program generalization across different settings, training is carried out in different environments, such as at school, at home, and in the community (Sarokoff, Taylor, & Poulson, 2001). It should be noted that in order to optimize the effects of such training, a vital programming goal in vocal imitation training is to set up a transfer of correct articulation from trained words to untrained words and this kind of transfer may be established through further training (Osnes & Lieblein, 2002;).

Language development is part of their holistic development, emerging from cognitive, emotional, and social interactions between the child and the world around them. A question that often worries parents of children with this most severe form of articulation and Phonological impairment is, will my child ever speak? It is seen that an articulation and phonological disorder is the most commonly encountered type of communication difficulty.

These occur as either an isolated developmental problem or as part of a larger collection of difficulties such as language disorders, mental retardation, respiratory problems, neurological injuries, cerebral palsy, and orofacial anomalies. However, it should be noted that treatment can help a child with Phonological impairment to overcome the difficulties to communicate.

Conclusion

The childs physician will usually refer the child to a variety of specialists, including a speech-language pathologist, who performs a comprehensive evaluation of his or her ability to communicate and designs and administers treatment. No single treatment method has been found to successfully improve communication in these children. The best treatment begins early, during the preschool years, is individually tailored, targets both behavior and communication, and involves parents or primary caregivers. Finally, the goal of therapy should be to improve useful communication.

References

Bowen, C. (1998). Developmental phonological disorders: A practical guide for families and teachers. Melbourne: The Australian Council for Educational Research Ltd.)

Creaghead, N. (1989). Linguistic approaches to treatment. In N. Creaghead, P. W. Newman, & W. A. Secord (Eds.), Assessment and remediation of articulatory and phonological disorders (2nd ed., pp. 193216). Columbus, OH: Merrill.

Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders (2007) Phonological disorder. Web.

Fey, M. E. (1985). Articulation and phonology: Inextricable constructs in speech pathology. Human Communication Canada, 9, 716. (Reprinted in Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 23, 225232).

Fey, M.E. (1992). Clinical Forum: Phonological assessment and treatment. Articulation and phonology: An addendum. Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, 23, 277  282.

Geirut, J. A. (1998). Treatment efficacy: Functional phonological disorders in children. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 41, S85 S100.

Gleitman, L.R. 1986 Biological pre-programming for language learning. Pp. 120-151 in The Brain, Cognition, and Education. S.L. Friedman, K.A. Kilvington, and R.W. Peterson, eds. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

Grunwell, P. (1988). Comment on Helping the development of consonant contrasts. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 4, 57-59.

Klein, E. S. (1996a). Clinical phonology: Assessment and treatment of articulation disorders in children and adults. San Diego, CA: Singular.

Klein, E. S. (1996b). Phonological/traditional approaches to articulation therapy: A retrospective group comparison. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 27, 314323.

Lovaas, O. I. (2003). Teaching individuals with developmental delays: Basic intervention techniques. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

McReynolds, L. V. (1981). Generalization of articulation training. Analysis and Intervention in Developmental Disabilities, 1, 245258.

National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders. (1994). National strategic research plan. Bethesda, MD: Department of Health and Human Services.

Osnes, P. G., & Lieblein, T. (2002). An explicit technology of generalization. The Behavior Analyst Today, 4, 364374.

Sarokoff, R. A., Taylor, B. A., & Poulson, C. L. (2001). Teaching children with autism to engage in conversational exchanges: Script fading with embedded textual stimuli. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 8184.

Shriberg, L.D. (2003) Diagnostic markers for child speech-sound disorders: introductory comments, Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 17, 7, 501505.

Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Stoel-Gammon, C., & Dunn, C. (1985). Normal and abnormal phonology in children. Austin Texas: Pro-Ed. Inc.

The National Literacy Trust, (2007) Theories about how young children acquire and develop language. Web.

Introduction

Language is an important part of the social life of human beings, and it acts as a source of integration and order. Hoodin (2011) defines language disorders or language impairments as conditions that prevent the dispensation of linguistic information. Language impairments affect grammar abilities among children. In addition, Benner (2005) acknowledges a positive correlation between language disorders and poor academic performance. Language disorders are also associated with psychiatric issues and learning disabilities. In reference to Petersen et al. (2013), children with language disorders lack the ability to regulate their level of attention to various issues. This could explain why language disorders occur in many children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorders (ADHD). Language disorders can either be pragmatic or specific (Hoodin, 2011).

Pragmatic language impairment (PLI) refers to difficulties experienced in comprehending the practical aspects of language. Additionally, specific language impairment (SLI) results in delays in mastering linguistic skills. While PLI is associated with autism, Asperger syndrome, and ADHD, SLI is developmental (Hoodin, 2011).

There are reports in previous research studies concerning gender variations in the incidences of language disorders. According to Petersen et al. (2013), the impacts of language disorders appear to be stronger in males than females. Moreover, boys have a higher risk of developing attention and behavioral problems associated with language impairment. Research undertaken by Benner (2005) revealed that SLI occurred more in boys than girls. In reference to the authors, the correlates of SLI tend to focus on the history of language impairment in the family. Genetic factors have a role to play in revealing gender disparities reported in language impairment.

Contrary to this perspective, Hoodin (2011) reports the absence of gender variations in language disorders. The author explains that both genders have equal chances of being predisposed to familial risk factors that cause language impairment. The aim of the current research is to determine whether there are gender variations in language impairment among children and young adults. Understanding such variations would clear the discrepancies that exist in literature and prevent the misdiagnosis of language disorders among females.

Language disorders vary across gender

Past research studies have revealed that language impairments affect the ability of children to comprehend and comply with instructions (Hoodin, 2011). As a result, these children tend to misinterpret linguistic information and develop antisocial behaviors. This is an indication that language impairment affects the social lives of children. Hence, any gender disparities reported in research studies require clarification to provide solid evidence on their role in language impairment. Conti-Ramsden, Mok, Pickles, and Durkin (2013) undertook a research study on the occurrence of language impairment in young adults.

Based on the findings, the authors note that females are more likely to develop SLI because they experience emotional difficulties more than their male counterparts. On the contrary, past research findings have concluded that boys have a higher likelihood of developing language impairment than girls. However, the authors do not explain the basis for the emotional difficulties in females. They also acknowledge the dearth of evidence in other studies in explaining such findings (Conti-Ramsden, Mok, Pickles, & Durkin, 2013).

In a different research, Krizman, Skoe, and Kraus (2012) report gender variations in language disorders. They explain that genetic factors cause such variations, as male children have slower responses to speech compared to females. Moreover, male children tend to exhibit more neural deficits that relate to language impairment. The research also demonstrated that females had faster peaks with respect to language recognition and comprehension. Krizman, Skoe, and Kraus (2012) also acknowledge the gender differences in encoding speech syllables, which could explain variations in language disorders.

Benner (2005) indicates that SLI occurs more in males than females. The author explains that sex chromosomes play a critical role in such findings. However, there is a lack of a clear linkage between genetics and gender variations in language impairment. In an attempt to explain gender disparities in language impairment, Krizman, Skoe, Kraus (2012) argue that the acquisition of words is slower in boys than girls. Therefore, male children are more likely to have language disorders than females. These authors also note the findings in previous longitudinal research studies that girls perform better than boys in various language measures. Lastly, studies have shown that girls tend to perform better in understanding vocabularies while boys perform better in arithmetic (Benner, 2005). Since vocabulary comprehension is an important risk factor in learning abilities, such findings could explain why boys are reported to have higher incidences of language impairment.

Misconceptions regarding language variations across gender

According to Hoodin (2011), past research studies are inconsistent in reporting gender variations in language impairment. While some studies report that boys are more likely to have language disorders, others report the absence of gender variations. This is an indication that more comprehensive studies are required to confirm whether the reported gender disparities are actually true. The research by Conti-Ramsden, Mok, Pickles, and Durkin (2013) provides contrary evidence as it states that adolescent girls are more likely to have language impairment compared to boys. Moreover, the researchers admit that their findings could have been due to chance as the sample size was small.

Hoodin (2011) acknowledges that proband models show no gender variations among children whose relatives have language impairment. Causal inferences can only be true when epidemiological studies prove without a doubt that an exposure (gender) causes an outcome (language impairment). In this view, there are no studies that have consistently reported gender differences in language disorders. Perhaps this is an indication that the association is just a fallacy.

Viding et al. (2004) state that studies on twins tends to dispute the role of genetics in language impairment. These longitudinal studies have focused on the heritability of language disorders on fraternal and identical twins. Although their longitudinal research study reported gender variation in language disorders, further analysis of sex pairs did not find any association between language impairment and genetic or environmental factors (Viding et al., 2004).

Furthermore, Hoodin (2011) indicates that twin studies have reported varying results. While some have reported a positive association between gender and language impairment among young adults below 18 years, others have noted that genetic factors have played a major role in language impairment. Viding et al. (2004) argue that genetic explanations for gender variations in language disorders are a misconception due to the absence of clinically randomized trials to determine the kind of genes involved. Additionally, Benner (2005) indicates that the gender variations in these studies could be due to referral bias that occurs in the data collection phases of research. There could also be methodological variations that lead to discrepancies in the results reported in past research.

Hoodin (2011) also notes that some authors have attributed the gender discrepancies to environmental factors, which is a flawed conclusion. Viding et al. (2004) recommend more complex epidemiological studies on gender variations. The fact that the prevalence of impairment is higher in one gender should not necessarily mean that there are actual sex differences. The authors note that gender is majorly a confounding factor in most of the epidemiological research studies. Therefore, researchers should control for gender during data collection and analysis (Viding et al., 2004). Some of the twin research studies have also concluded that there are gender differences in language impairment, even when the levels of heritability appear to be the same across gender. In conclusion, all the research studies that report the presence of sex variation also recommend future research on the issue.

Conclusion

Language is an integral part of human life, as it enhances communication and integration. Language disorders inhibit the dispensation of linguistic abilities (Hoodin, 2011). Such impairments affect academic performance and learning abilities. Some previous studies have reported gender variations in language disorders. While some of these studies do not explain the findings, others state that genes play a major role in gender discrepancies. On the contrary, most twin studies report no gender disparities in language disorders and recommend further comprehensive research. Such variations are likely to result in misdiagnosis of language disorders among girls. As a result, this is likely to affect the treatment of such disorders among the female gender. In this regard, the research concludes that gender variations in language impairment are just a misconception, and further research is required to provide more solid scientific evidence.

References

Benner, G. J. (2005). Language skills of elementary-aged children with emotional and behavioral disorders. Great Plains Research, 15(11), 251-265. Web.

Conti-Ramsden, G., Mok, P. L., Pickles, A., & Durkin, K. (2013). Adolescents with a history of specific language impairment (SLI): Strengths and difficulties in social, emotional and behavioral functioning. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 34(11), 41614169. Web.

Hoodin, R. B. (2011). Interventions in child language disorders: A comprehensive handbook. Sudbury, Mass: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Web.

Krizman, J., Skoe, E., & Kraus, N. (2012). Sex differences in auditory subcortical function. Clinical Neurophysiology, 123(47), 590597. Web.

Petersen, I. T., Bates, J. E., DOnofrio, B. M., Coyne, C. A., Lansford, J. E., Dodge, K. A.,& Van Hulle, C. A. (2013). Language ability predicts the development of behavior problems in children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122(2), 542557. Web.

Viding, E., Spinath, F. M., Price, T. S., Bishop, D. V., Dale, P. S., & Plomin, R. (2004). Genetic and environmental infuence on language impairment in 4-year-old same-sex and opposite-sex twins. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(2), 315325. Web.

Jakobsons Essay Passage

The first part of this paper expounds on the book of Roman Jakobson Two aspects of language and two types of disturbances. In this assignment, I have chosen this passage from the above-named material and am going to put it into perspective according to my understanding of the matter. The passage is; If aphasia is a language disturbance, as the term itself suggests, and then any description and classification of aphasic syndromes must begin with the question of what aspects of language are impaired in the various species of such a disorder. This problem, which was approached long ago by Hughlings Jackson, cannot be solved without the participation of professional linguist familiar with the patterning and functioning of language. (Jakobson, 49)

Here Roman Jakobson is trying to emphasize and relates aphasia as a language disorder and various species disorders which impairs language understanding and speaking, this is mainly directed toward young children as these disorders are very much supposedly going to be seen mostly in them although there are also cases in the adults due to brain damage, this happens when the left Perisyvian region, Wernikes area and Brocas area included are damaged and the result is what causes aphasia. Aphasia here deters fluent speech and understanding of languages (Jakobson, 49).

In this passage, Roman Jakobson tries to alienate the aspect or the syndromes that bring about this disorder and how this can be solved. He is stating that this questions that have been addressed before by a certain scholar called Hughlings Jakobson long time ago and cannot be solved by one if they do not indulge professional linguist that is fashioned with functions and pattern of language.

Mont Blanc by Percy Bysshe Shelley

This second part of this paper is an explanation of how a chosen stanza from the poem; Mont Blanc applies from the Roman Jakobson passage above. According to the second stanza of the poem the Mont Blanc the original work of Percy Byshe Shelley. In relation to the thesis and essay of Roman Jacobson on the Two aspects of language and two types of disturbances, this stanza applies to this essay like the following;

The stanza is basically expounded on the forces that nature has and the impact it causes in our daily lives, instead of the narrator considering nature as benevolent and gentle he takes in the direction of the force that this nature force has in the human mind, this understanding is the same concept that Jacobson addresses while addressing language disorders which are environmentally affluence (Blanc). This concept in the human mind viewed as a representation of consciousness in nature is what the essay terms to the concept that is favorable for the understanding of languages and also being able to speak, as the narrator of this poem says The Arve river and the surrounding ravine complements the beauty of each other so does the speech and understanding does to each other as in the essay thesis.

The power of imagination is what both the narrator of the poem and the thesis in the essay by Roman Jacobson, the combination of sensory concepts is both expounded in this stanza as in the essay, the use of ideas in the mind as conscious power and source of imaginative thought that influence language and speech (Blanc).

Conclusion

Both Mont Blanc poem by Percy Shelley and the book of Roman Jakobson Two aspects of language and two types of disturbances, discuss the power of human thinking as a concept of understanding to cover things and relate to other things through language. Both concur that only a few who dont have disorders of languages can have the privilege to seething and be able to attribute them in languages and speech.

Work Cited

Jakobson, Roman. Studies on Child Language and Aphasia. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1971. Print.

Shelley, Percy. Mont Blanc. 2009. Web.

This disorder is classified as an Axis II disorder. It is a common personality disorder that sometimes leads the affected individuals into criminal activities (Davison, 2002). This disorder results into persistent disrespect and infringement of the rights of other people. This disorder develops during childhood or adolescence and it continues to manifest itself with increased intensity as an individual develops into an adult.

Individuals suffering from this disorder have no sense of consciousness. Moreover, it occasionally agitates aggressive and impulsive behaviors that may eventually result into a history of legal problems and criminal activities. The disorder is sometimes referred to as a dissocial personality disorder (Blair, 2001).

Individuals who are diagnosed with this disorder often exhibit quite a range of characteristics. A person may demonstrate all or some of these characteristics. The common features include lack of concern on how others are affected by the negative behavioral patterns, increased instances of irresponsibility, and non-adherence to social norms, obligations and rules (Blair, 2001).

Furthermore, such individuals are unable to maintain a relationship, unable to tolerate annoyance, and violence. They also do not learn from the past experiences. In addition, such individuals blame others for the troubles they encounter in life.

Diagnosis of this disorder may be carried out when an individual is above 18 years of age. This is done because most of such individuals start exhibiting the symptoms of the disease when they are above 15 years of age (Blair, 2003).

The characteristic of this disorder is sometimes confused with other personality disorders such as anxiety, depressive, Somatization, and histrionic personality disorders (Blair, 2001). However, this disorder is believed to have family ties and hence genetics plays a major role in the prevalence of the disorder (Blair, 2003).

The environment is also an important factor that determines how antisocial personality disorder affects the life of an individual. Family relations are seen to be a major trigger toward the onset of the disorder. In this case, children emulate antisocial behaviors from their parents.

Moreover, traumatic experiences during the early stages of human development are also major causative factors of this disorder. Scientific studies associate the release of abnormal development with the childhood trauma (Blair, 2003).

Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) is one of the most complicated disorders when it comes to treatment and management. In most cases, such individuals may agree or commit to change but end up not changing as it is very difficult to motivate such characters (Blair, 2003).

Several institutions have been established in order to provide a conducive environment for such individuals to undergo the required behavioral change. Inpatient therapy has also proven to be an effective control against ASPD.

Since personality disorders are simply mental disorders, this disorder is clinically diagnosed as a mental disorder. Therefore, normal medications available for the management of mental disorders are applied in the management of these disorders (Davison, 2002).

People suffering from ASPD are in most cases found to carry out criminal activities (Blair, 2001). Criminal occurrences are witnessed among individuals who develop this problem during adolescence or early childhood. Such individuals often interact minimally with others.

This drives them to be concerned with what affects them only. These people are also violent and do not care if their actions affect others. Drug abuse tends to amplify this disorder and therefore makes such individuals to be potentially dangerous.

References

Blair, R. J. R. (2001). Neurocognitive models of aggression, the antisocial personality disorders, and psychopathy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 71(6), 72773.

Blair, R. J. R. (2003). Neurobiological basis of psychopathy. The British Journal of Psychiatry 182, 5-7.

Davison, S. E. (2002). Principles of managing patients with personality disorder. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment 8(3), 1-9.

Introduction

Language development is a process that begins at a very early age. This subject has been researched by several researchers and as a result, there are several theories proposed by them. In general, a person begins to acquire language by learning it as it is spoken and by mimicry. As the development of language progresses it moves from simplicity to complexity. At the initial stage, infants start without language, however, in a few months children can read lips and discriminate speech sounds.

In general, we hear children making simple words that may not necessarily have any specific meaning. As and when they age, words acquire meaning, and connections between words are formed and then later on they begin to form simple sentences which are joined together to create logical meaning. As the child grows up, new meanings of words and sentences and new associations are created. As a result of these exercises vocabulary increases and the child is able to communicate easily.

On average a normal child becomes remarkably capable communicators during the first three years of their life. However, there can be a difference from one child to another as it invariably depends on how the parent or the caretaker interacts with them. During the first three years, children use body language, sign language, painting, drawing and mark-making, and oral expression, and sometimes a combination of these to express their needs. In fact, it can be said that child starts learning right from the womb where they have been acutely active listeners where they learned to recognize the speech patterns, tunes, and tones of the languages especially of the mother and other people in the home (The National Literacy Trust, 2007).

The concept of language development has initiated several arguments and as a result, several theories have emerged. For instance, linguists do not agree on what biological factors contribute to language development, however, most of them do agree that the ability to acquire such a complicated system is unique to the human species. Besides, the ability to learn a language may have been evolved from the ancestors through the evolutionary process.

They also assume that the foundation for language may be passed down genetically. Social interaction is a precondition for the development of language which is agreed upon by all linguists. It is important that children are allowed to interact with other people to be able to develop their basic skills with language. In other words, it is important for children to spend time and effort with other people that allow them to communicate socially in a particular language.

Between the age of two and three most of the children are able to use language to influence the people closest to them, indicating the links with brain development and theyre growing ability to attract others and gain their attention. In other words, they are beginning to understand the minds of their parents, and their siblings and express their feelings much more clearly than they used to do in the first year of their life.

While this type of development is a typical form of language development, children with impaired mental and physical status find it difficult to acquire language as fast as normal children. In the case of such speech and language disorders in children, lifelong impairments can severely impact many aspects of life such as learning, education, behavior, relationships and self-esteem. It is especially true with children born with significant biological impairments such as blindness, deafness, and severe motor deficits.

However, these children also attain a range of basic abilities, such as representational thinking and language competence, in ways different from those experienced by children without such limitations. Experience proves that a good understanding of these problems can provide guidance for interventionists in their attempts to facilitate the adaptive development of young children with a wide variety of special needs, as well as in their efforts to extend constructive support to their parents (Gleitman, 1986).

Phonological Disorder

There are many children who are not able to follow this general trend and have problems developing good communication. Children who do not succeed to use age-specific speech and sounds and language may be diagnosed with phonological disorder. Statistics suggest that phonological disorder is among the most widespread speech disorders, affecting roughly about 10% of the preschool and school-age population. It is also suggested by researchers that this disorder is more common in boys than in girls (NIDCD, 1994).

Phonological disorder is often referred to as articulation disorder, developmental articulation disorder, or speech sound production disorder. Phonological disorder is characterized by an inappropriate sound production and use. For instance, a child with such a disorder may substitute unfamiliar sounds with other similar sounds in words (e.g., wed for red). They may also sometimes exclude unfamiliar sounds in words (e.g., back for black). For a child with severe cases of phonological disorder, the articulation may be impaired to such an extent that children experience social difficulties and difficulties making basic needs known to others (Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders, 2007).

In general, it is observed that these children have normal hearing and IQ. Even after years of studies the specific cause or causes of the articulation problem is still a mystery. In some cases, an obvious organic base can be found (Gierut, 1998) whereas in others a genetic component has been suggested as an etiological variable. Other contributing factors may be low socioeconomic status or it may also be the result of a large family (NIDCD, 1994).

Classification of Phonological Disorder

Studies have come out with various classifications based on their origin. For instance, if there is no known cause, it is called developmental phonological disorder. If the cause is known to be of neurological origin, the names given to the disorder are dysarthria or dyspraxia. In general, it is a disorder that is characterized by a childs helplessness to create speech at a level expected of his or her age group because of an inability to form the necessary sounds. The severity of the phonological disorder is classified into several levels and ranges from speech that is completely beyond one understanding, even to a childs immediate family members, to speech that can be understood by the ones who listen but in which some sounds are somewhat mispronounced.

Phonological disorder is often divided into three categories, based on the cause of the disorder. The disorder is sometimes caused due to structural problems, or abnormalities in the areas necessary for speech sound production, such as the tongue or the roof of the mouth. These structural abnormalities make it difficult for children to produce certain sounds. There are severe cases where it becomes impossible for a child to produce the sounds at all. In case of such disorders, it is important to set right the structural problem causing the phonological disorder before the child goes into linguistic-based treatment. It is often observed that in many cases the correction of the structural problem results in correction of the speech sound problem.

Another category of phonological disorder is mainly due to neurological problems. As a result of such disorder, the muscles of the mouth do not allow the child sufficient fine motor control over the muscles to produce all speech sounds. It is often observed that a child with such phonological disorder is able to communicate if the child undergoes linguistic-based treatment.

The third category of phonological disorder is due to an unknown cause. This is often called developmental phonological disorder. Although the cause is not known, there are certain assumptions. Researchers have predicted that this disorder may result from slight brain abnormalities, a childs learning environment, and immature development of the neurological system (Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders, 2007).

Symptoms of Phonological Disorder

Symptoms of phonological disorder depend on the age of the child and vary considerably. It is often difficult to detect this disorder, as the child with phonological disorder develops speech sounds comparatively more slowly than his or her age group children. However, though late, he or she develops them in the same order. Therefore, it can be observed that speech that may be normal for a four-year-old child may be a sign of phonological disorder in a six-year-old.

Under normal circumstances, all normal children develop speech sounds in the same sequence. These sequences of sounds are classified into three main categories groups of eight sounds each: the early eight, the middle eight, and the late night. The early eight include consonant sounds such as m, b,, and p. The middle eight include sounds such as t, g, and chi, and the late eight include more complicated sounds such as sh, th, z, and Zh. (Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders, 2007).

In general, it is observed that as the age advances the child develops these sounds and many of them do not normally finish mastering the late eight until they are seven or eight years old. Even though they master all three levels of sound, there are some very common mistakes made by them. Some of the most common mistakes are the omission of sounds, (i.e., frequently at the end of words), the distortion of sounds, or the substitution of one sound for another. Often the substitution is of a sound that the child can more easily produce for one they find it difficult (Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders, 2007).

Treatment for Phonological Disorder

It is the job of a speech-language pathologist to diagnose, treat and provide services to children with communication disorders, including speech, language, voice, fluency, and literacy difficulties. In general, speech pathologists need to perform tasks such as identifying the exact nature and severity of each childs communication problems, which may require the use of special equipment and test plan and carry out treatment and management taking into account the age, social environment, and physical and intellectual abilities.

A speech-language pathologist is one who helps children with phonological disorders. Though the therapy may vary from child to child depending on an individual childs needs, it is mainly overcome by practicing sounds. These therapists demonstrate the physical ways that the sound is made. For instance, they show where to place the tongue and how to move the lips. It is often seen that repetition of the difficult sounds with the therapist produces good results.

There are serious debates among the therapists as to teach first the complex sounds or the simple sounds. Whatever the case is it is observed that when the child develops a sense of accomplishment when these sounds are mastered, and they are will more willingly continue with treatment and develops a sense of confidence (Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders, 2007).

The classic shift from articulation to linguistic and psycholinguistic research has not been accompanied by complete descriptive accounts of the distal causes or etiologies of child speech-sound disorders (Shriberg, 2003). However, today it is said that no matter what combination of difficulties a child with a developmental phonological disorder has, appropriate speech-language pathology treatment is usually successful in eliminating or at the very least, reducing the problem (Bowen, 1998).

It is essential that a child with speech-sound disorders is diagnosed and treated at a very early stage as the treatment for the phonological disorder is important not only for the childs development to be able to form speech sounds but for other reasons.

For instance, children who have trouble creating speech sounds may have academic problems in subject areas such as spelling or reading. Besides, these children may also be affected psychologically as they sound themselves different than their peers. They find themselves frustrated and ridiculed, and may become less willing to participate in common activities. Even if they attempt to mingle with other children, there are times when these children are made fun of.

Stoel-Gammon and Dunn (1985) have provided a precise summation of the characteristics of phonological therapy, saying that it: Phonological therapy is based on the systematic nature of phonology; is characterized by conceptual, rather than motoric, activities; and has generalization as its ultimate goal.

In a similar way, Fey (1992) suggested that phonological therapy approaches are designed to nurture the childs system rather than simply to teach new sounds. However, it is Grunwell (1988) who had captured the real meaning of what taking a phonological approach to intervention for developmental phonological disorders means when she wrote that, The defining characteristic of phonological therapy is that it is in the mind.

If we look at the history of interventions it can be said that the traditional treatments for children with phonological disorder involved a variety of interventions, but most of them arise from a motor-oriented framework (Klein, 1996b). Some of the techniques include the use of mirrors, tongue depressors, oral-motor exercises, sensory-motor training, modeling and imitation of speech and speech sounds, shaping via successive approximations, and chaining.

Phonologically based therapy or in other words linguistic-based treatment is a more recent approach to the treatment for phonological disorder (Creaghead, 1989; Fey, 1985). Fey (1992) stated that: phonological therapy approaches are designed to nurture the childs system rather than simply to teach new sounds. Researchers have noted several differences that can be noted between the traditional and linguistic-based treatment contrasts to the more traditional approaches in several ways. In fact, the traditional approaches focus on teaching the child to articulate given words or sounds correctly, the phonological approach focuses on having the child change his or her rule system, using cognitive techniques such as semantic images (Klein, 1996a).

Researchers have pointed out that phonological disorder may be characterized by poor development of the echoic repertoire that is defined by its point-to-point correspondence between the preceding verbal stimulus and the verbal response (Skinner, 1957). It is often observed that children with the phonological disorder are not able to when compared to same-age peers to display accurate point-to-point correspondence between words heard and words said. In such cases, the speech pathologist plans the treatment accordingly to focus on improving the echoic repertoire. Studies have proven that it is possible through a series of vocal imitation training (Lovaas, 2003).

In general, in vocal imitation training, children with the phonological disorder are trained to repeat sounds and words emitted by the therapist, using procedures such as shaping, chaining, and prompting. Once this step of therapy is complete and the child acquires correct articulation, the subsequent focus is made to generalize the item across personnel, stimuli, settings, and verbal classes. This is essential since the vocal imitation training only may not produce such generalization (McReynolds, 1981).

In fact, it can be seen that different therapists program generalizations across personnel, and teach the same label using the same training stimuli. To program generalization across stimuli, the therapist varies the stimulus materials during training, whereas to program generalization across different settings, training is carried out in different environments, such as at school, at home, and in the community (Sarokoff, Taylor, & Poulson, 2001). It should be noted that in order to optimize the effects of such training, a vital programming goal in vocal imitation training is to set up a transfer of correct articulation from trained words to untrained words and this kind of transfer may be established through further training (Osnes & Lieblein, 2002;).

Language development is part of their holistic development, emerging from cognitive, emotional, and social interactions between the child and the world around them. A question that often worries parents of children with this most severe form of articulation and Phonological impairment is, will my child ever speak? It is seen that an articulation and phonological disorder is the most commonly encountered type of communication difficulty.

These occur as either an isolated developmental problem or as part of a larger collection of difficulties such as language disorders, mental retardation, respiratory problems, neurological injuries, cerebral palsy, and orofacial anomalies. However, it should be noted that treatment can help a child with Phonological impairment to overcome the difficulties to communicate.

Conclusion

The childs physician will usually refer the child to a variety of specialists, including a speech-language pathologist, who performs a comprehensive evaluation of his or her ability to communicate and designs and administers treatment. No single treatment method has been found to successfully improve communication in these children. The best treatment begins early, during the preschool years, is individually tailored, targets both behavior and communication, and involves parents or primary caregivers. Finally, the goal of therapy should be to improve useful communication.

References

Bowen, C. (1998). Developmental phonological disorders: A practical guide for families and teachers. Melbourne: The Australian Council for Educational Research Ltd.)

Creaghead, N. (1989). Linguistic approaches to treatment. In N. Creaghead, P. W. Newman, & W. A. Secord (Eds.), Assessment and remediation of articulatory and phonological disorders (2nd ed., pp. 193216). Columbus, OH: Merrill.

Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders (2007) Phonological disorder. Web.

Fey, M. E. (1985). Articulation and phonology: Inextricable constructs in speech pathology. Human Communication Canada, 9, 716. (Reprinted in Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 23, 225232).

Fey, M.E. (1992). Clinical Forum: Phonological assessment and treatment. Articulation and phonology: An addendum. Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, 23, 277  282.

Geirut, J. A. (1998). Treatment efficacy: Functional phonological disorders in children. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 41, S85 S100.

Gleitman, L.R. 1986 Biological pre-programming for language learning. Pp. 120-151 in The Brain, Cognition, and Education. S.L. Friedman, K.A. Kilvington, and R.W. Peterson, eds. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

Grunwell, P. (1988). Comment on Helping the development of consonant contrasts. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 4, 57-59.

Klein, E. S. (1996a). Clinical phonology: Assessment and treatment of articulation disorders in children and adults. San Diego, CA: Singular.

Klein, E. S. (1996b). Phonological/traditional approaches to articulation therapy: A retrospective group comparison. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 27, 314323.

Lovaas, O. I. (2003). Teaching individuals with developmental delays: Basic intervention techniques. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

McReynolds, L. V. (1981). Generalization of articulation training. Analysis and Intervention in Developmental Disabilities, 1, 245258.

National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders. (1994). National strategic research plan. Bethesda, MD: Department of Health and Human Services.

Osnes, P. G., & Lieblein, T. (2002). An explicit technology of generalization. The Behavior Analyst Today, 4, 364374.

Sarokoff, R. A., Taylor, B. A., & Poulson, C. L. (2001). Teaching children with autism to engage in conversational exchanges: Script fading with embedded textual stimuli. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 8184.

Shriberg, L.D. (2003) Diagnostic markers for child speech-sound disorders: introductory comments, Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 17, 7, 501505.

Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Stoel-Gammon, C., & Dunn, C. (1985). Normal and abnormal phonology in children. Austin Texas: Pro-Ed. Inc.

The National Literacy Trust, (2007) Theories about how young children acquire and develop language. Web.

Jakobsons Essay Passage

The first part of this paper expounds on the book of Roman Jakobson Two aspects of language and two types of disturbances. In this assignment, I have chosen this passage from the above-named material and am going to put it into perspective according to my understanding of the matter. The passage is; If aphasia is a language disturbance, as the term itself suggests, and then any description and classification of aphasic syndromes must begin with the question of what aspects of language are impaired in the various species of such a disorder. This problem, which was approached long ago by Hughlings Jackson, cannot be solved without the participation of professional linguist familiar with the patterning and functioning of language. (Jakobson, 49)

Here Roman Jakobson is trying to emphasize and relates aphasia as a language disorder and various species disorders which impairs language understanding and speaking, this is mainly directed toward young children as these disorders are very much supposedly going to be seen mostly in them although there are also cases in the adults due to brain damage, this happens when the left Perisyvian region, Wernikes area and Brocas area included are damaged and the result is what causes aphasia. Aphasia here deters fluent speech and understanding of languages (Jakobson, 49).

In this passage, Roman Jakobson tries to alienate the aspect or the syndromes that bring about this disorder and how this can be solved. He is stating that this questions that have been addressed before by a certain scholar called Hughlings Jakobson long time ago and cannot be solved by one if they do not indulge professional linguist that is fashioned with functions and pattern of language.

Mont Blanc by Percy Bysshe Shelley

This second part of this paper is an explanation of how a chosen stanza from the poem; Mont Blanc applies from the Roman Jakobson passage above. According to the second stanza of the poem the Mont Blanc the original work of Percy Byshe Shelley. In relation to the thesis and essay of Roman Jacobson on the Two aspects of language and two types of disturbances, this stanza applies to this essay like the following;

The stanza is basically expounded on the forces that nature has and the impact it causes in our daily lives, instead of the narrator considering nature as benevolent and gentle he takes in the direction of the force that this nature force has in the human mind, this understanding is the same concept that Jacobson addresses while addressing language disorders which are environmentally affluence (Blanc). This concept in the human mind viewed as a representation of consciousness in nature is what the essay terms to the concept that is favorable for the understanding of languages and also being able to speak, as the narrator of this poem says The Arve river and the surrounding ravine complements the beauty of each other so does the speech and understanding does to each other as in the essay thesis.

The power of imagination is what both the narrator of the poem and the thesis in the essay by Roman Jacobson, the combination of sensory concepts is both expounded in this stanza as in the essay, the use of ideas in the mind as conscious power and source of imaginative thought that influence language and speech (Blanc).

Conclusion

Both Mont Blanc poem by Percy Shelley and the book of Roman Jakobson Two aspects of language and two types of disturbances, discuss the power of human thinking as a concept of understanding to cover things and relate to other things through language. Both concur that only a few who dont have disorders of languages can have the privilege to seething and be able to attribute them in languages and speech.

Work Cited

Jakobson, Roman. Studies on Child Language and Aphasia. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1971. Print.

Shelley, Percy. Mont Blanc. 2009. Web.

Major Psychiatric Disorder(s): F42 Hoarding disorder

Rationale (what did you see that supports the diagnosis?)

The client is a 52-year-old female who presents with anxiety symptoms. Tanya has a 24-year-old daughter who has instigated the counseling. The client meets criterion A because she experiences considerable difficulty parting with useless possessions (APA, 2013). Furthermore, the woman disregards expiration dates and consumes food items even if a safe period estimated by a manufacturer has elapsed. Tanya meets criterion B because she feels anxiety if she is unable to save her possessions. Criterion C is also met by the client since considerable areas of her house are cluttered to an extent that compromises their intended use (APA, 2013). Specifically, she has to rearrange her possessions to produce space for sitting. The client meets criterion D because the hoarding impairs her social life. The woman does not have underlying medical conditions that can explain her symptoms (criterion E). The hoarding behavior cannot be attributed to other mental disorders; therefore, criterion F is met. Despite mounting evidence to the contrary, Tanya does not recognize that her behavior is problematic.

Developmental Disorder(s): No diagnosis

Rationale (what did you see that supports the diagnosis?)

No diagnosis can be made since the woman used to be an active member of her community. Also, Tanya has a bachelors degree in biology.

Personality Disorder(s): No diagnosis

Rationale (what did you see that supports the diagnosis?)

The client was involved in many community groups, which reduces her chance of a personality disorder. Also, she does not report having mood swings or other symptoms that might have an overlap with personality disorders. Therefore, no diagnosis can be made at this point.

Medical Disorder(s): No diagnosis

Rationale (what did you see that supports the diagnosis?)

The client maintains that she does not have medical issues. She also denies taking any medications. There are also no signs of substance abuse. However, during anxiety attacks she experiences an increase in heart rate and perspiration; therefore, further investigation is needed to rule out any possible underlying medical disorders.

Client Strengths

The interview has helped to identify the following strengths:

1. Tanya has a supportive daughter who cares about her mental health.
2. The client has a high level of social intelligence, which is evident from her involvement in multiple social groups.
3. Tanya had a normal childhood.
4. The clients education provides her with many employment opportunities.
5. The woman was able to rebuild the house in a short period, which is a testament to her perseverance.
6. The womans ability to organize her environment can become an invaluable asset if she decides to seek employment.
7. Tanya had many friends before the hoarding started, which shows that she is capable of maintaining meaningful relationships with people.
8. She shows a high level of industriousness.

Comments/Differential Diagnosis. (Did you consider any other possible diagnoses? Identify them here, and discuss your rationale for not selecting them. You can also use this section to discuss additional observations that helped you with your diagnostic decision making.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) has been considered as a differential diagnosis. However, a key distinction between OCD and hoarding disorder is that thoughts associated with hoarding do not resemble obsessions in that they are not experienced as intrusive or unwanted (Frost, Steketee, & Tolin, 2012, p. 221). There is no regularity in Tanyas behavior. Moreover, the client does not regard her urge to hoard useless things as problematic. Another important distinction between the two conditions that have allowed rejecting the diagnosis is a lack of anxiety accompanying the obsession (Frost et al., 2012). Unlike clients with OCD, the woman only feels anxiety at the thought of eliminating the clutter. There is ample evidence pointing to the fact that the hoarding is preceded by a stressful event (Frost et al., 2012). Tanya lost a house and a husband, which could have triggered the disorder.

References

APA. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5^th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.

Frost, R., Steketee, G., & Tolin, D. (2012). Diagnosis and assessment of hoarding disorder. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 8(1), 219-242.

Basis for Diagnosis Observations

The client is a 40-year-old male whose manager advised him to seek counsel. Robin experiences marital difficulties that manifested themselves in separation with his wife three weeks ago. The man engages in absenteeism and does not know whether he is still employed. The client does not feel motivated to resume his studies in a graduate school and physical exercise in a gym. Robin meets diagnostic criterion A because the development of his emotional and behavioral symptoms started within three months of the onset of relational problems that had triggered the disorder (APA, 2013). The mans symptoms and behaviors are clinically significant because they cannot be aligned with the intensity of the stressor (B.1). Also, the clients reaction to the separation from his wife has resulted in significant impairment of his occupational/social areas of functioning (B.2) (APA, 2013). Robin meets criterion C because his symptoms cannot be attributed to criteria for other mental disorders nor they can be explained by a preexisting mental disorder (APA, 2013). Criterion D is met because the symptoms are not part of normal bereavement (APA, 2013). It is too early to judge whether the client meets criterion E.

Developmental Disorder(s): No diagnosis

Rationale: Robin is gainfully employed in the IT sector. Also, before the marital problems, the man was in graduate school.

Personality Disorder(s): No diagnosis

Rationale: The clients symptoms can be attributed to four out of five diagnostic criteria for adjustment disorders. A personality disorder cannot be diagnosed because before the onset of marital difficulties, Robin had a broad social circle, was in a mens volleyball team, and had a career plan. Furthermore, there was no association with social constraints or intrusive thoughts (APA, 2013). Other signs of personality disorders such as poor impulse control, frequent mood swings, and alcohol or substance abuse were also absent.

Medical Disorder(s): No diagnosis

Rationale: Aside from an ankle and knee injury, the client does not have any medical history. Robin used to engage in regular physical exercise. There is no sign of disturbance in sleeping and eating patterns. Therefore, at this point, an underlying medical disorder cannot be diagnosed.

Client Strengths

The following strengths were conceptualized during the interview:

1. The client pursues an advanced academic degree, which will allow him to broaden his career opportunities.
2. Robins ability to persevere despite difficulties is evident in his support of the children and the continuation of education.
3. The man refers to his primary group for support, which can provide him with multiple emotional and psychological benefits.
4. Robin believes that staying busy is normal.
5. The man has a supportive friend.
6. Robin does not report having suicidal thoughts.
7. The man is a member of a church, which can serve as a source of additional support.
8. The client believes that he is capable of overcoming the difficulty.
9. Robing is willing to recover.

Comments/Differential Diagnosis

An adjustment disorder with mixed anxiety and depressed mood has been considered as a diagnosis for the client. However, Robin does not experience anxiety; therefore, the diagnosis has been discarded. The most important observation that helped to diagnose an adjustment disorder with depressed mood was a termination of a romantic relationship with the clients wife. Taking into consideration the fact that the client is an Irish Catholic, he is at a higher risk for adjustment disorders since Catholics are exceptionally perceptive to a dissolution of marriage (Emery, 2013).

References

APA. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5^th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.

Emery, R. (Ed.). (2013). Cultural sociology of divorce: An encyclopedia (1^st ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

Case history

At first, it is important to discuss the history of this case as well as the symptoms displayed by the patient. Dr. P. was a music teacher who had difficulties in recognizing the faces of students and colleagues; nevertheless, he could easily recognize them by their voices. Thus, one can suppose that this person could not memorize visual information. However, this individual exhibited more disturbing symptoms. In particular, he could mistake water hydrants for the heads of children (Sacks, 1999, p. 9).

In the beginning, he thought that his eyesight had been impaired in some way. So, he decided to seek the assistance of an ophthalmologist. Nevertheless, the examination revealed that there had been no problem with Mr. P.s eyes. Moreover, it became apparent that his difficulties could not be resolved by an ophthalmologist. The problem is that this patient could confuse objects that had similar shapes.

For instance, Mr. P. could confuse a shoe and a foot (Sacks, 1998, p. 11). Apart from that, this individual could not interpret the meaning of an object. For instance, when looking at a glove, he could depict as a continuous surface that was infolded on itself, but he could not immediately name it (Sacks, 1999, p. 16). One should also keep in mind that Dr. P knew the word glove and its meaning. Furthermore, while looking at a rose, he could name different attributes of this flower. However, he could identify its name, only when he could smell it.

At the same time, Dr. P. did not have any problems in recognizing geometrical figures or naming different cards. Moreover, he could visualize schematic objects. For instance, he could play chess without looking at the board (Sachs, 1999, p. 17). Nevertheless, he could no longer read musical notation (Sacks, 1999, p. 13). Overall, these details are essential for assessing the problems faced by the patient. One should note that during the later years, Dr. P.s disease only intensified, but he was able to teach music during his entire life.

Neuroanatomy

In this case, one cannot localize the origins of Dr. P.s problems only to one hemisphere because different parts of the brain process and interpret visual signals. Much attention should be paid to the cerebrum because it includes various components that are essential for the retention and analysis of visual information.

It is possible to assume that temporal lobe is affected because this area is critical for memorizing visual information such as peoples faces (Freberg, 2009, p. 44). Apart from that, a physician should examine the functioning of the occipital lobe (Freberg, 2009, p. 44). It is necessary for analyzing and interpreting visual signals. Moreover, fusiform face area might have been affected because this part of the brain also plays a significant role in facial recognition (Goldstein, 2009, p. 96).

So, it is vital to apply various techniques that can be useful for identifying the potential causes of Dr. Ps disease. This disorder can be caused by various problems such as brain injuries, tumors and temporal lobe infarctions (Moore, 2008, p. 278). Each of them can pose considerable threats to the life of a person.

One may also need to search for lesions that can lead to the loss of visual perception; moreover, they can deprive people of their ability to interpret visual signals. Overall, it is possible to suppose that the visual cortex of Dr. P.s brain has been injured in some way. So, one should apply different neuroimaging methods that can highlight potential damages in this part of the brain.

Assessment of the patients state

In this case, I will need to administer a series of tests to evaluate the way in which this patient perceives images. In particular, Dr. P should perform the tasks requiring a person to name various objects. Much attention should be paid to the objects that have similar shapes; it is possible to consider such pairs as a hand and a glove, or a foot and a shoe. Additionally, I will need to give the so-called unusual view tests (Parkin, 1996, p. 43).

They are aimed at showing if people can understand that an object can be positioned in different ways (Parkin, 1996, p. 43). Overall, these activities are helpful for identifying possible deficits that affect the life of this patient. Furthermore, the patient should do different memory tests that can show how people can memorize different types of information. Finally, it is necessary to show if this individual can identify different objects by touch.

Overall, this examination should determine if other cognitive processes have been impaired in any way. Furthermore, one should ask this patient if he had recently experienced dizziness or severe headaches since they can be the symptoms of a tumor that may undermine visual perception (Moore, 2008). Overall, these steps are helpful for identifying the brain areas that can be endangered due to some reasons.

Nevertheless, it is vital to employ various neuroimaging techniques that can be useful for identifying the problems in the functioning of the brain. In particular, one should apply magnetic resonance imaging that can be regarded as the structural method. This approach is valuable for diagnosing brain tumors that often lead the problems with the recognition of visual images. Apart from that, it is possible to consider the use of the computed tomography.

This structural neuroimaging technique can show if a person has brain ischemia that causes temporal lobe infarctions. As it has been before, such infarctions can impair the ability to interpret visual signals. Furthermore, one should consider the use of neuro-vascular angiography since this method is useful for finding lesions that can also result in the inability to perceive images.

Overall, the information derived in these ways can be helpful for protecting a patient from further risks. Moreover, this discussion shows that prior to selecting a neuroimaging method, one should consider potential causes of this disorder and examine a certain brain area.

Additionally, it is possible to apply positron emission tomography or PET. It is a functional method of neuroimaging. This approach is useful for showing how different areas of the brain work at the time when a person performs a mental task such as recognition of visual patterns.

In this case, it is necessary to focus on the role of fusiform face area that plays an important role in the recognition of faces. In turn, PET can demonstrate if there are certain abnormities in the functioning of this part of the brain. In particular, it can indicate at lesions that block the activation of the occipital lobe and fusiform face areas.

Moreover, one can employ functional MRI. This functional neuroimaging method is useful because it helps to identify smaller lesions that can lead to this disorder. As a rule, they cannot be found with the help of structural neuroimaging methods. Additionally, they can show what areas of the brain are activated when a patient is engaged in cognitive activities such as identifying distinctions between images. Thus, these tools can help the physician to gain deep insight into the problems encountered by the patient.

Neural systems and diagnosis

The details included in this case study suggest that the visual cortex of Dr. P. brain is affected. It consists of several components such as primary and extrastriate cortexes. One can consider the model according to this cortex divides visual information into dorsal and ventral streams (Goldstein, 2009, p. 89).

The dorsal stream includes data about the movement of objects and their location relative to one another. In contrast, the ventral stream contains information that is necessary for the identification of an object. Dr. P. did have any difficulties in estimating distances between objects. So, one should consider problems with the ventral stream. The ventral stream is dependent on those parts of the brain that store memories (Goldstein, 2009).

For instance, it strongly relies on the temporal lobe. It is one of the details that should not be overlooked because Dr. P. cannot recollect the faces of other people. Overall, the hypothesis about two streams received considerable support from experimental studies (Goldstein, 2009). Moreover, this model is helpful for explaining Dr. P.s problems.

Under such circumstances, symptoms may not be sufficient for identifying the area that is affected. It is possible that a single lesion can lead to different visual impairments. It is one of the challenges that should be a considered a person who needs to give a diagnosis.

Still, one can argue that Dr. P. suffers from the disease that is known as prosopagnosia; this disorder can be described as the inability to recognize faces (Revlin, 2012, p. 112; Yantis, 2001). Apart from that, one can assume that he struggles with such as a disorder as dyslexia or the failure to recognize written symbols (Revlin, 2012, p. 112). At the point when Dr. P. sought medical assistance, he was no longer able to read musical notation. However, it is not clear if he retained his literacy skills. This issue has not been discussed in this case study.

However, there are other symptoms that should be taken into account. It is vital to focus on the inability to interpret the meaning of symbols. So, in this case, it is possible to speak about the so-called visual agnosia because it incorporates a broad range of problems related to the recognition of images (Farah, 2004).

In this case, one should focus on the category-specific agnosia. It means that a person cannot differentiate classes of objects. For instance, such people cannot see the distinctions between living beings and inanimate objects.

This description applies to Dr. P. who may confuse water hydrants and childrens heads. Apart from that, this individual cannot associate physical attributes of an object and its function. This argument is also relevant to the patient because he can see the attributes of a glove without understanding how it should be used. Thus, physicians should help this person overcome the symptoms of visual agnosia.

Cognitive systems

One should bear in mind that visual agnosia is often accompanied by various cognitive disabilities. However, Dr. P.s case illustrates that this disorder can exist independently.

Judging from the available description, the patient did not have any verbal impairment that could affect his communication with other people. Furthermore, this person retained his motor functions. Moreover, he remained a good musician. Overall, this individual did not display many of the symptoms that one can expect in such situations. It is one of the reasons why this case is so remarkable.

Nevertheless, one should concentrate on the potential memory deficits that can exacerbate his visual agnosia. If his temporal lobe is damaged in some way, Dr. P. may not be able to retain visual memories. It is one of the reasons why he could not memorize the faces of his students. Furthermore, it may be difficult for him to recollect the meaning of symbols such as the signs of musical notation or even letters.

Very often, there is no effective treatment for visual agnosia, especially if this disease is caused by lesions. Under the circumstances, the task of a therapist is to help a person adjust to this disorder. If other cognitive processes are not impaired, this goal can be achieved. For instance, a patient may be trained to apply different senses to identify different objects.

Overall, this case illustrates the complexity of visual disorders that take their origins in the malfunctioning of different brain areas. The main problem is that the origins of such illnesses can be very difficult to pinpoint. Additionally, it is necessary to administer various tests that are critical for identifying potential deficiencies affecting the life of a person.

Reference List

Farah, M. (2004). Visual Agnosia. New York, NY: MIT Press.

Freberg, L. (2009). Discovering Biological Psychology. New York, NY: Cengage Learning.

Goldstein, E. (2009). Sensation and Perception. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

Moore, D. (2008). Textbook of Clinical Neuropsychiatry. New York, NY: CRC Press.

Parkin, A. (1996). Explorations in Cognitive Neuropsychology. New York, NY: Psychology Press.

Revlin, R. (2012). Cognition: Theory and Practice. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.

Sacks, O. (1998). The Man Who Mistook His Wife For A Hat: And Other Clinical Tales. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.

Yantis, S. (2001). Visual Perception: Essential Readings, New York, NY: Psychology Press.