Category: Disease

Organelles

Organelles are structures in a cell that have specific functions such as energy production and controlling growth. These cellular structures are embedded in the cytoplasm of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms, they enable cellular processes to take place normally. Animal and plant cells have the same types of organelles. However, there are particular types found in animals while others are specifically in plants (Dashek & Miglani, 2017). For instance, lysosomes and centrosomes are found in animals only while cell walls, plastids, central vacuole, and chloroplasts are found in plants.

Animal Cell Organelles

• Nucleus
• Mitochondria
• Ribosome
• Vesicle
• Microfilament
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum
• Golgi apparatus
• Cytoskeleton
• Vacuole
• Cytosol
• Lysosome
• Centriole
• Plasma membrane

Functions of a Cell Organelle

Plasma membrane forms boundaries in a cell, it allows selective permeability of nutrients into and out of the cell using proteins. The nucleus assembles ribosomes, and it stores deoxyribose nucleic acid, which is a genetic code. In addition, this organelle controls the activities of all the other organelles and facilitates cell division, protein synthesis, and cell growth. The nucleolus synthesizes ribosomes while ribosomes are useful in the translation process when an amino acid is linked to the messenger RNA. The mitochondria produce energy (ATP) through oxidative phosphorylation.

The rough endoplasmic reticulum makes protein-membrane, which is transferred into a lumen. It also exports protein and synthesizes lysosomes. On the other hand, the smooth endoplasmic reticulum helps in breaking down glycogen. It also contains enzymes for detoxification. Golgi apparatus functions in the glycosylation process (protein modification) and the export of lysosomes. It also packages macromolecules into the vesicles. Cytoskeletons support the body and aids in movement. Vesicles transport materials such as enzymes across compartments and lysosomes function like a cell stomach by engulfing food particles through endocytosis and digestion (Delevoye et al., 2019). Microfilament gives strength to aid in the movement of the cell.

Examples of Metabolic Disorders Caused by Malfunctioning of Cell Organelle

Dysfunction or deficit of ribosomes in the body leads to the development of Treacher-Collins syndrome disorder. Ribosomes are vital in the synthesis of proteins, which are fundamental in cell survival. Its deficiency causes facial abnormalities like cleft palate, and ribosomopathy with mandibular hypoplasia. Patients with this condition are mostly anemic and they develop skeletal abnormalities. Malfunctioning of mitochondria in a cell causes MELAS syndrome, which is characterized by mitochondrial encephalopathy, lactic acidosis, and stroke-like episodes (Severiche, 2018). This illness reduces the cells ability to generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

References

Dashek, W. V., & Miglani, G. S. (Eds.). (2017). Plant cells and their organelles. John Wiley & Sons.

Delevoye, C., Marks, M. S., & Raposo, G. (2019). Lysosome-related organelles as functional adaptations of the endolysosomal system. Current opinion in cell biology, 59, 147-158.

Severiche, C. (2018). Diseases associated with specific cell-organelles. Web.

Hypothesis

The research utilizes seven hypotheses from the big five personality traits and the behavior that people have been portraying since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States. The concerns have been made regarding contracting the deadly respiratory virus, regulations enacted to prevent the spread of the virus, the preparatory behaviors of the individuals, and the consequences of the pandemic. The first hypothesis is that individuals with more concern will portray higher neuroticism. Second, individuals with higher neuroticism will get involved with the preparatory behavior related to the pandemic. Third, individuals with higher conscientiousness will engage in the preparatory behavior associated with the pandemic. Fourth, people with higher neuroticism will follow the precautions to avoid contacting COVID-19. Fifth, individuals with higher conscientiousness will follow the precautions set to avoid contacting COVID-19. Sixth, higher neuroticism will predict pessimistic estimates regarding the duration of the pandemic. Lastly, higher extraversion will predict pessimistic estimates regarding the pandemic period.

Design

The research used a quantitative research design where the participants were recruited to complete a compensated survey on an online platform named Dynata. The method used involves the selection of the participants the meet the set criteria of being over 18 years and residing in the USA. The study focused on recruiting individuals who have not been infected by the COVID-19 virus to be able to meet the requirements of the hypothesis being tested. Furthermore, the research design ensured that personality traits are not biased by having equal distribution of gender. This was attained by the implementation of the stratified sampling design.

Analysis

The research utilized a multiple linear regression to predict the personality traits behavioral and psychological responses. The model used is divided into two; the first used ethnicity, education, age, race, and gender as the covariates. In the second model, income was added to improve the prediction level of the personality. Furthermore, binary logistic regression was also used to determine the relationship between the individual outcomes and personal traits. The multiple linear regression and the binary logistic regression model are significant as they are suitable for predicting personality traits.

Answering Hypothesis

In this research, only four out of the seven hypotheses were answered. This includes the association of more concern and higher neuroticism, more precaution associated with high conscientiousness, and higher extraversion related to optimistic estimates of COVID-19 duration. Furthermore, higher neuroticism was associated with pessimistic estimates of COVID-19 duration. The research study did not meet the other three hypotheses as the outcomes from the research result could not provide the relationship. The researcher argued that the study could not support the hypothesis and hence could not be justified.

Limitations

Similar to other research, the study had various limitations that affected the outcome. First, the pre-test and post-test link may have affected the research outcome because of the selection strategy. This limitation influences the generalization of the finding. Furthermore, the participants were mainly from the United States of America, and this provides a gap as to whether the same findings can be applied to the rest of the population. This is affected by varying patterns between various populations from different parts of the world. Second, the questionnaire did not assess critical variables such as the knowledge regarding the COVID-19 pandemic. This variable has a significant impact on guiding the participants behavior. Lastly, the outcomes of the study were self-reported and broad. This is a significant limitation as individuals may tend to provide untruthful information.

Future Suggestions

The research suggests the usage of objective methods during data collection on personality. The use of mobile sensing devices will help refine the understanding of personality and pandemic behaviors. This will be important because it will record the relationship between the sound of the individual and the response that they are using to determine the potential response. Also, future investigations should utilize mediators such as emotion regulation consumption, preparedness, and hedonic consumption. This will help understand the participants behavior regarding a given choice.

Discussion

Since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in late 2019, many people have had various perspectives regarding the changes made to their lifestyles. The personality trait plays a critical role in explaining peoples behavioral responses during this period. The topic of psychological and behavioral reactions to Coronavirus and the role of personality has received excellent attention from various researchers. The variation in the patterns of behaviors, feelings, and thoughts significantly impacts how individuals respond and conduct themselves. The behavior patterns greatly vary from one individual to another, even when significant pressure is applied. Environmental conditions may shape them, but individual personality determines their outcome. The big five personality traits and their interactions result in varying responses when handling a situation that significantly impacts an individuals lifestyle, such as a pandemic associated with concerns, precautions, preparatory behavior, and persistent problems.

Being concerned about an activity, event, or anything that significantly impacts ones life is an essential measure for an individual. Individuals with high neuroticism and low conscientiousness are mostly concerned with health issues during the COVID-19 pandemic. Those with low agreeableness, high extraversion, and neuroticism majorly focus on their finances as the period had a significant impact on the working conditions of many people worldwide (Kroencke et al., 2020). The effect of the pandemic on the US economy and the community raised concerns among people with high neuroticism since they are majorly associated with concerns that mainly impact their wellness in society. Individuals having this trait have significant consideration of things that affect their well-being leading to increased attention on such issues. On the other hand, individuals with conscientiousness and agreeableness personality traits usually demonstrate self-control and preparedness, making them not worried about economic changes. Additionally, they are generally pessimistic about the outcome, which makes them less concerned. Those portraying more significant concerns are vulnerable to mental problems such as loneliness as they experience a significant change in their lifestyle.

Precautions are in events with consequences, and individuals are guided to adhere to the set rules. They are usually for the well-being of a person, community, and society. During the COVID-19 pandemic, several precautions were set up by the government, such as the mandatory wearing of masks in public places, social distancing, and sanitization. These measures were meant to ensure the safety of everyone as the pandemic is deadly and claims life daily. Individuals having low neuroticism, high openness, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and extraversion significantly followed the COVID-19 precautions (Gray et al., 2020). Following the set precautions and guidelines were much higher in people with higher conscientiousness and lowered in individuals with high neuroticism. This shows that the personality trait of conscientiousness is essential in shaping peoples lives. This makes them work well in situations where regulations are mandatory and where they are not. It is rare for these people to be found in cases where regulations are breached because of the consciousness associated with this trait; hence it is necessary to encourage conscientiousness development.

Preparatory behaviors normally result when an issue requires attention or concern, and it may have a significant impact at the individual, community, or national level. COVID-19 has raised significant concern among many people worldwide that some people stock products that will help them face the ongoing challenge. An individual with extraversion traits is strongly linked with preparations for the pandemic, while those with high conscientiousness were less involved in the preparation procedures. Individuals with high conscientiousness stockpiled fewer COVID-19 management products because they have a sense of responsibility to the community that makes them care for others more than themselves. This makes them positive because they believe that problems have a limited time, and instead of collecting for ones well-being, it is imperative to include other people. However, individuals with high extraversion traits may have stockpiled them in response to the set precaution (Aschwanden et al., 2020). This pandemic might have resulted in a significant problem that makes it difficult to follow the set guideline hence the need for maximum preparation. Additionally, this group followed the set precaution and guidelines practically well. This trait is essential as individuals possessing it can follow the established guidelines despite being in a challenging situation.

A persistent problem such as the COVID-19 pandemic has a negative impact on society. However, it takes strong people who believe in positivity to strive well when the problem is persistent and takes time before things return to normalcy. Individuals with high neuroticism traits are usually very pessimistic. It is challenging for them to believe that the problem has a life span and may end in due time. However, people with high extraversion and conscientiousness are very optimistic about the situation (Aschwanden et al., 2020). They believe that there will come a time that things will get back to normalcy, and this makes them strive well during this period as they become less prone to negative feelings. These traits are essential in handling day-to-day problems as they are associated with positive energy.

In conclusion, the big five personality traits have varying impacts on handling situations that are problematic to the individual. Being concerned about an issue that significantly affects ones life is majorly associated with high neuroticism. This results in psychological problems such as loneliness because of putting a significant consideration on the issue. During the pandemic, various guidelines and precautions were set up to curb the spread of the virus. Individuals with low neuroticism, high openness, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and extraversion followed the precautions effectively. People with high conscientiousness traits significantly followed the precautions, which portrayed the importance of this trait in people. Preparatory behavior was perceived during this period among individuals with high extraversion traits because of the problem of adjusting to the new guidelines. These individuals show the need for preparation as they are used to being active and socializing. Lastly, individuals with high conscientiousness traits are more optimistic regarding the problem than those with high neuroticism as they direct their energy towards positive thinking.

References

Aschwanden, D., Strickhouser, J. E., Sesker, A. A., Lee, J. H., Luchetti, M., Stephan, Y., Sutin, A. R. & Terracciano, A. (2020). Psychological and behavioural responses to Coronavirus disease 2019: The role of personality. European Journal of Personality, 35(1), 51-66. Web.

Gray, N., OConnor, C., Knowles, J., Pink, J., Simkiss, N., Williams, S., & Snowden, R. (2020). The influence of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental well-being and psychological distress: Impact upon a single country. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11, 1-12. Web.

Kroencke, L., Geukes, K., Utesch, T., Kuper, N., & Back, M. (2020). Neuroticism and emotional risk during the COVID-19 pandemic, 1-7.

Abstract

Heart diseases claim many womens lives though many women are not aware of cardiovascular risk factors. Survey was conducted on 534 women to determine the psychosocial factors that bar women realizing cardiovascular risk factors. The study revealed that few women are worried about developing heart diseases though a majority of middle aged women are motivated to modify their cardiovascular risk factor.

Problem Statement

Heart diseases are commonly associated with men. Various institutions dealing with the heart and heart related issues have tried to disseminate information to the public that heart diseases kill more women than people think. Despite the fact that heart diseases kill many women, many women are ignorant of the fact that coronary heart disease (CHD) is a leading killer disease of women (Galbraith, 2011).

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to examine both the psychological and social factors that act as barriers hindering women from recognizing the dangers and risk factors associated with cardiovascular hence take precaution to prevent the diseases (Galbraith, 2011).

Literature Review

Majority of the people in the U.S believe that heart diseases attack men only. Associations such as American College of Cardiology and the America Heart Association designed campaigns to educate the public that heart disease is at the fore front of claiming many womens lives. Previous studies reveal that such efforts have been futile though not entirely. According to Mosca et al as cited in Galbraith, (2011)

Minor improvements on womens awareness level of heart diseases have been observed since 1997.

Research Questions

Total number of women who participated in the interview was 534. There were five categories of psychosocial questions which made up a total of 60 questions. The five categories included: worry, personal cardiovascular awareness, general cardiac knowledge, motivation and general cholesterol knowledge (Galbraith, 2011).

Data Collection and Procedures

Commercially designed questions were used to obtain data from the respondents and this was done trough telephone interviews. Research sample was obtained using Random-dialing digit which gave an equal chance to all the telephone households in the U.S. computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing was used to ensure accurate population representation of women aged 18years and above (Galbraith, 2011).

Data Analysis

Descriptive statistics method were applied in establishing baseline demographic variables which included; education, ethnicity, geographic location, age and income. Twenty five univariate models were utilized to determine the significance of the relations between the psychosocial and demographic variables. Cronbach alpha was used to evaluate the scores. Multivariate level was also used in which both the demographic variables and the psychosocial scores were used as predictors in designing predictive models for the psychosocial scores (Galbraith, 2011).

Findings

The analysis showed that on average, women had the motivation to reduce cardiovascular risk factors and especially those aged 45 and above. On personal cardiovascular knowledge, family history was a key factor and many women who had a family history of heart diseases had taken the initiative to know about their cardiovascular risk factor status and most of them had checked their cholesterol levels. Analysis showed that very few women (8%) wee worried of the fact that they could develop heart diseases (Galbraith, 2011).

Limitations

Majority of the selected sample was from less educated women with low income levels thus locked out the average class. Analysis method were insufficient the sample was drawn from those households that had telephones only (Galbraith, 2011).

Conclusions

Women aged 45 and above have the motivation to modify their cardiovascular risk factor. Heart health campaigns directed to less motivated women would play a major role in increasing heart disease awareness.

Social Change Implications

Women would live longer and amount of money spent on hospital bills treating women with heart diseases would reduce (Williams, 2009).

Reference List

Galbraith, E., Mehta, P., Veledar, E., Vaccarino, V & Wenger, N. (2011). PubMed: Women and Heart Disease: Knowledge, Worry, and Motivation. NY, Mary Ann Liebert Inc. Web.

Williams, R. (2009). Self-help Articles: Social Factors Impact Risk for Heart Attack and Disease. Web.

The causes of diseases can be divided into many groups according to the type of impact. Iatrogenic refers to the reasons that arose as a result of a medical intervention due to a medical error in the diagnosis or treatment. The result of such intrusions can be violations of the physical structure of a person. An example of such a disease is aplastic anemia, which can develop from the improper use of drugs or radiation (Banasik, 2018). In this case, the risk factors are the doctors themselves and their negligence, and the elimination of this risk can only be carried out by improving staff qualifications. Since diseases of this group are associated with medical procedures, doctors should use all possible means of analyzing the patients condition to exclude the likelihood of error.

Idiopathic diseases are also unique because they are diseases of an unstudied or spontaneous nature. Modern medicine reveals more and more features of the human body; however, some of its mechanisms are still unknown. Idiopathy may not occur in all people, as some causes of the disease may be known. However, for other patients, the condition can be chaotic, and then the case is called idiopathic, as, for example, in the case of hypoparathyroidism (Banasik, 2018). In this case, risk factors cannot be tracked by any methods at all, since the disease manifests itself in a completely unexplored way.

Finally, multifactorial diseases are a combination of many genetic factors coupled with environmental influences. The same term can also describe the human bodys features, such as blood pressure or height (Banasik, 2018). The list of diseases falling into this category is extremely wide  from schizophrenia to dandruff. For the same reason, the allocation of risk factors is also problematic. They are divided into three main categories: environmental, related to human DNA, and complex factors.

Although the analysis is complicated in many cases, there is a combination of parameters that are the basis for determining any disease. Structural and physiological parameters make it possible to make an initial assessment of the human condition. Biochemical analyzes allow learning more about the patients internal structure and identify risks hidden from the naked eye. Finally, a genetic study enables the analysis of the structure of the human body. It reveals hidden predispositions to certain diseases, for example, inherited. Each of these methods should be used to get a complete picture of the patients health.

Reference

Banasik, J.L. (2018). Pathophysiology (6^th ed.). Saunders.

The case study of Bunistan deals with the outburst of communicable diseases because of the incidence of earthquake and flooding events in a small space of time. It is to be mentioned that the place was already afflicted with civil strife. This report aims to offer details of basic information to be collected, prioritize that information, and provide validation for consideration in the context of the crisis.

Basic information to be collected and their description. During the period of complex emergencies, the affected persons require to be provided with shelter, food, water, sanitation, and basic healthcare services. Critical information should be collected to rapidly assess the emergency situation regarding the disease outbreak, prevention of the occurrence of epidemics, presence of forceful supervision coordination, outbreak control mechanics, and overall disease management (Toole & Waldman, 1997).

The rapid evaluation of the outbreak includes knowing the degree of urgent situation and risk of diseases, the type of likely intervention and priority actions, plan execution, and providing sufficient information to the external assistance agencies for support mobilization. The prevention aspects include spot preparation, provision of shelter camps, basic clinics, water, food, sanitation, control of vectors and mass vaccination arrangement. The supervision system should be easy, satisfactory, flexible, and condition-specific. It allows for the methodical collection, analysis and scrutiny of data for proper health interventions. One needs to identify priority health areas, analyze mortality and morbidity rates, identify outbreaks and observe response, study trends in disease rates, provide ample information to help agencies for aid. The outbreak control system must look strictly for diseases such as cholera, measles, shigellosis, malaria, DPT, typhoid, yellow fever, etc (Indian Council of Medical Research, 2011). Lastly, the overall disease management system should contain grounding of the outbreak by holding health meetings, formulating response plans, keeping stocks of i.v. fluids, antibiotics and vaccine stocks, having isolation wards and lab support; detection of the outbreak by having an early warning system, taking of affected individuals samples and arrangement of weekly reports; the response team needs to verify the outbreak, then stimulate the team for study and control the outbreak. Appraisal of the situation would include the study of containment measures, timeliness of response, change of health policy if the need arises and writing the outbreak report (World Health Organization, 2011).

Prioritizing the information and the rationale for consideration. In the context of the given crisis, there was flooding after the earthquake which worsened the outbreak situation, and provided for enough breeding grounds for disease vectors and thus in the rapid dissemination of the disease. The priority area should be to set up a highly efficient mass immunization program. The priority information would include the availability of stockpiles of vaccines, antibiotics, ORS; availability of isolation wards, enough support staff and health volunteers, and sampling kits containing materials for meeting immediate medical care like syringes, gloves, icepacks, serum tubes, specimen collecting tubes, etc. (Salama P. et al, 2004). This information should be supplied along with the weekly reported disease incidence and resulting deaths. The rationale for considering this information as important is to control the outbreak from turning into an epidemic and save more lives which could be possible, given the threat. The public, private and community relationships for imparting health education and ensuing action must be fully established to control disease outbreaks (Connolly M. A. et al, 2004).

References

Connolly M. A. et al (2004). Communicable diseases in complex emergencies: impact and challenges. Lancet, 365(9462): 842-843. PMID: 15567014

Indian Council of Medical Research. (2011). Communicable Diseases. Web.

Salama P. et al (2004). Lessons learned from complex emergencies over the past decade. Lancet, 364(9447): 1801-1813. PMID: 15541455

Toole M.J., & Waldman R. J. (1997). The public health aspects of complex emergencies and refugee situations. Annu Rev Pub Health, 18: 283-312. PMID: 9143721

World Health Organization. (2011). Health Action in Crises. Web.

History of Lyme disease

Lyme disease was first detected in the Lyme district in Connecticut, United States. The disease occurred in form of rheumatoid arthritis. It puzzled researchers and medical practitioners because it was a new disease with an unknown cause. Researchers began searching for the cause in 1977and their first guess was the deer tick. Children had reported being bitten by ticks before the emergence of disease symptoms. The cause of the disease was discovered in 1981 by researchers at Rocky Mountain Laboratories in Montana.

Cause of the disease

Lyme disease is caused by three species of bacteria that belong to the genus Borrelia. The three species include Borrelia burgdorferi, Borrelia afzelli, and Borrelia garinii (MedlinePlus, 2012).

Organism and mode of transmission

Lyme disease is transmitted by ticks belonging to the genus Ixodes. The mode of transmission involves bites by infected ticks (CDC, 2012). They inject bacteria into the body of a host.

Epidemiology of Lyme disease

The disease was first discovered in 1977 in Connecticut, USA. Research studies have revealed that Lyme disease is endemic in many areas of the Northern Hemisphere. Since the discovery of the diseases etiology in the 1980s, cases of the disease have since increased in Europe and the United States. For example, it is one of the rapidly growing infectious diseases in the US. The disease mainly affects young people between 10-19 years. Its prevalence is higher in Asia than in other continents.

The disease process in the human body

Ticks of the genus Ixodes transmit spirochetes of Lyme disease to humans through bites. The bacteria spirochetes are then transmitted through the skin together with the ticks saliva (CDC, 2012). After transmission, the bacteria undergo an incubation period of between one and two weeks. Infection may cause erythema chronicum migrans, a type of rash that spreads rapidly on the skin. This happens in case the infection has not yet spread to other body regions. Infectious bacteria are injected into the host body by an infected tick through the skin (MedlinePlus, 2012). The saliva of the tick contains substances that induce immunity at the site of infection thus offering the bacteria protection against the immune system of the host (CDC, 2012). The spirochetes increase in number and spread to other parts of the body. Symptoms are caused by a reaction of the host immune system to substances secreted by the spirochetes. The hosts body is unable to produce neutrophils on the region of infection thus allowing spirochetes to proliferate throughout the body. The spirochetes are carried through the bloodstream to other body organs where they cause infections (MedlinePlus, 2012).

Treatment

Treatment is aimed at either reducing the population of bacteria in the body or eliminating them. The disease is effectively treated using antibiotics (MedlinePlus, 2012). The choice of antibiotics depends on the development stage of the disease and the health status of the patient. Common antibiotics include Doxycycline, erythromycin, and ceftriaxone. Doxycycline is used for adults while erythromycin is used for pregnant women. Amoxicillin is used for children. Therapy remedies such as hyperbaric oxygen therapy have been suggested as methods of treatment although scientific evidence does not exist to prove their effectiveness and reliability. A vaccine is currently available for Lyme disease though it does not provide full immunity to all age groups. The recombinant vaccine offers immunity against Lyme disease (MedlinePlus, 2012). The vaccine (LYMErix) offers full immunity to children and only partial immunity to adults. After its development, the vaccine was not widely used because it was very expensive and many people could not afford it.

References

CDC. (2012). Lyme Disease. Web.

MedlinePlus. (2012). Lyme Disease. Web.

The rate of death among children worldwide is a global issue of concern. Children die from various causes. These causes include Malaria, Malnutrition, Pneumonia, HIV/AIDS, and measles (Wolter, 2007). Other potential but rare causes include psychological trauma, terrorism, earthquakes, civil wars, religious ideologies and food poisoning. In Africa and other poverty-prone regions, the majority of children do not receive proper medical treatment and sufficient nutrition. There has been a global campaign for breastfeeding to mitigate the trouble of malnutrition.

Child death pattern differs from one area to another because of the economic endowment of the region and the prevalence of a certain disease. For example, in regions prone to Malaria, deaths are higher than in the less prone areas. The death pattern in famine-stricken areas differs from the well-fed regions. In certain low-income communities, lack of education has led to the death of as opposed to areas with high literacy (Ellen, 2000). There are communities whose religions prohibit medical treatment. There have been cases of children dying after their parents refused to seek medical attention.

The most affordable mitigation against the death of newborns is proper nutrition for the mothers, proper post-natal examination, and adequate breastfeeding (Bassani et al, 2010). Many parents have not yet realized the importance of breastfeeding even after serious campaigns promoting it. Humanitarian organizations can intervene in cases involving poverty and cases where natural disasters cause infant mortality. Another way to mitigate infant mortality is by sensitizing the public about family planning to minimize the effect of poverty on childrens deaths. It is important to note that at this stage, children easily succumb to Malaria and Pneumonia. There should be more efforts to control Malaria cases by providing Mosquito nets and by educating people about pneumonia. Parents ought to visit VCT centers to know whether they are HIV positive or negative because, before birth, it is possible to prevent mother-to-child infection, thus, saving the lives of children. Parents can contribute to the fight against child mortality by focusing on preventive measures. The prevention method is more cost-effective than the attempts to administer treatments to illnesses.

For children below the age of five, the most affordable way to mitigate their deaths is to ensure that they receive proper medical attention and immunization. They should also be well fed and protected from mosquitoes to minimize chances of Malaria. At this stage still, children die from Pneumonia-related cases. Parents require education concerning Pneumonia prevention. Concerning income, communities require economic empowerment programs to boost their earnings and enable them to access necessary resources including food (Fleiss, 1981). This can be in the area of crop farming, fishing, dairy and poultry farming. This means families will acquire food without necessarily having to spend money. Preventive measures are more cost-effective than treatment of diseases (Lopez et al, 2006).

To prevent child mortality without necessarily increasing incomes, parents need to commit themselves to adequate family planning and proper feeding. They need to invent community-based empowerment projects so that they can access food locally and naturally. They can also participate actively in the fight against Malaria, HIV/AIDS, Measles and Pneumonia by implementing simple instructions such as using warm clothes to avoid cold and using mosquito nets. Parents can minimize child mortality even when they have low incomes.

References

Bassani, D. G., Jha, P., Dhingra, N., Kumar, R. (2010). Child mortality from solid-fuel use in India: a nationally-representative case-control study. New Delhi: BMC Public Health.

Ellen, I. (2000). Is segregation bad for your health? The case of low birth weight. In: Brookings-Wharton Papers on Urban Affairs. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press.

Fleiss, J. L. (1981). Statistical methods for rates and proportions. (2nd ed). New York: John Wiley and Sons Inc.

Lopez, A. D., Mathers, C.D., Estate, M. Jamison, D.T., Murray, C. (2006). Global burden of disease and risk factors. New York: Oxford University Press.

Wolter, K. M. (2007). Introduction to variance estimation, (2nd edn). New York: Springer.

Food fortification with missing vitamins, macro- and micronutrients is a serious intervention in the currently existing structure of human nutrition. The need for such intervention is dictated by the environmental factors associated with changes in the composition and nutritional value of the food we use, as well as the transformation of our way of life connected with the decrease in physical energy. Such products as bread, milk, salt, sugar, drinks, and baby food can be attributed to the food fortified products.

In this paper, the products that can be enriched with proposed elements were considered. These micronutrients are vitamin A, zinc, iron, and folic acid. And flour, milk, and vegetable oil were chosen as the three universal products for fortification.

Iron is an essential micronutrient required by the body as part of the hemoglobin of red blood cells that deliver oxygen to the brain, heart, and all other organs and tissues of man. In general, iron enters the human body during meat and fish products eating. If the power supply does not satisfy the bodys need for iron, iron deficiency anemia is developing. The cheapest way of food fortification with iron is enriched flour. Fortification of flour with iron and folic acid does not pose a risk to human health, but, at the same time, has a certain advantage. Eating bread and pasta from such flour cannot lead to an overdose of iron or folic acid. These additives will not harm the quality of bread and pasta. They are resistant to heat treatment unlike iron and folic acid in natural products. Tea and coffee are the products that block the admission of iron and folic acid into the body. It is important to drink them within an hour after eating.

Zinc is essential for bones formation; it helps treat difficult healing wounds in patients with diabetes or people with poor blood circulation. With the help of zinc, it is possible to eliminate the loss of taste, and reduce cholesterol deposits. Zinc also promotes mental alertness and helps in the infertility treatment. Zinc is absent in the white flour. Therefore, it becomes necessary to fortify flour with zinc.

Milk can be fortified with vitamin A, iron, and folic acid. Vitamin A deficiency is a public health problem particularly in Africa and Southeast Asia. Vitamin A lack is the main cause of avoidable blindness. Everyone eats such products as vegetable oil and butter every day. In this case, the issue is solved with a deficit of vital substances in the human body by enriching fat products with vitamin supplements. Fats that do not contain vitamin A (oil, margarine) need to be fortified with vitamin A. Vitamin A in fortified oil in most of the first and second courses remains at 70-80% with the addition of vitamin E. Therefore, in fats and oils which are rich in vitamin A, it is necessary to introduce natural antioxidants like vitamin E. The sunflower oil which contains the concentrate of vitamin A and 0.7% of vitamin E after a year of storage has almost the same amount of vitamin A.

The effectiveness of the consumer products fortification is long enough and convincingly demonstrated. It is frequently made with the help of standard and well-established sets of vitamins or prepared mixtures. However, the convincing evidences are necessary to ensure the necessity of the micronutrients implementation in all cases.

Introduction

Years of evolution have led to the fact that every minute is threatened by thousands of infectious agents to cause both small skin irritation and death. Three cohorts of microorganisms, viral, bacterial, and eukaryotic, can be identified as having pathogenic effects on individual health. It seems that the search for medicines and the detailed study of infectious diseases should become fundamental tasks of modern medicine. This creates the need for an in-depth study of the theoretical material on this issue, which is the purpose of this research paper.

R. lyssavirus discovery

One of the most dangerous viral diseases, rabies, still does not have universal therapy, so it takes more than 59000 lives annually. Ancient Roman doctor Aulus Celsus wrote about rabies as a disease that affected humans conscious activity and forced them to hydrophobia (Tarantola 4). In 1885, the microbiologist Louis Pasteur made a scientific breakthrough (Offord). In particular, the scientist made a risky experiment on the primary vaccination of a boy with subsequent infection, as a result of which the child survived, and the man became world-famous.

H. pyloris discovery

The penetration of bacteria into the body is associated with serious intestinal infections, among which the most common pathogen is H. pylori, which has the potential to develop into inoperable diseases of the digestive system. The history of the study of bacteria associated with stomach gastroenterological research. Two scientists, Marshall and Warren, put the final touch to the bacterial research history, having managed to cultivate and identify H. pylori in 1983 (Marshallc 8). Since the bacteria was isolated and its genome sequenced, scientific research has continued to investigate H. pyloris pathogenesis.

T. rubrums discovery

One of the largest groups of pathogens is eukaryotic cells. Fungal diseases are known to be among the most common diseases, taking up to 1,5 million human lives each year. In particular, the pathogen Trichophyton rubrum is considered to represent colonial fungal microorganisms causing ringworm and skin itching. According to Natalia and Peters, eukaryote was first described by the famous Swedish physician Malmsten in 1845 (1). Since then, medical professionals have studied this colonial fungus thoroughly.

Signalment history

R. lyssavirus

Traditionally, rabies cause panic in public, as it is almost 100% likely to kill a patient. The pathogen infection is zoonotic and is usually transmitted from wild animals to humans. The virus enters the body of an animal: even in the incubation period, R. lyssavirus is contagious, so if an infected animal has bitten a human or otherwise transmitted pathogenic saliva, there is a high probability of infection. According to WHO, 99% of all rabies cases are transmitted through dogs (Rabies). The viruss main area of increased mortality are countries in Africa and West Asia, especially those with low incomes. These statistics appear to be related to the low availability of medicine in these countries or the unpopularity of vaccination.

Obviously, with the development of medicine, the total number of rabies-related deaths has been steadily declining. While the CDC provides data on the number of known cases among Americans showing that the clinical picture of a patient is male, aged 45 years, the WHO states that most patients are under 15 years old (Human Rabies; Rabies). The data confirm that the epidemic is global and universal and that there is an urgent need for a cure.

H. pylori

The world epidemiological picture for a bacterial disease looks different. First of all, it is essential to recognize that diseases have a high degree of infection caused by the lack of hygiene culture among the population. H. pylori enters the host through the mouth: the primary infection sources are unwashed food, contaminated water, and dirty hands. An unusual situation is formed around the prevalence of the pathogen: according to Bjorkman, more than 50% of the population is infected (Bjorkman). Furthermore, as in the case of R. lyssavirus, the main points of the epidemic are low-income countries, such as Africa and South America. Finally, there is a fantastic pattern in the context of age  with each year, the probability of a positive serological response increases by 0.3-1.0% (Sultan). This suggests that older people are a vulnerable category of the population.

T. rubrum

The highest complexity of demographic analysis is the fungal infection caused by T. rubrum. According to the American Society for Microbiology, about 15% of adults worldwide are exposed to surface fungal infections, although quantitative studies indicate the prevalence of infection among adolescents under 14 (Invasive Fungal Infections; Araya 291). Moreover, Handler reports atypical eukaryotic disease for the Northern European regions and high prevalence in Africa and India. Ringworm is highly contagious and is most often transmitted from street animals to humans by physical contact.

Clinical signs and symptoms

R. lyssavirus

The first signs are detected at the bite site in the initial period: the wound swells up, turns red, itchy. Patients often have a general malaise, high temperature, and sleep disturbances. The infection progresses, and over time, the patient acquires hydrophobia with painful muscle cramps of the throat and larynx. Then, psychomotor excitement occurs: the patient behaves aggressively, experiencing hallucinations, and increased salivation. Death comes from cardiac arrest or paralysis of the respiratory center.

H. pylori

Since the bacteria entered the patients stomach, the stage of active metabolism begins the products of which expose the natural microflora of the body to severe stress. Then, inflammation begins, which can be expressed asymptomatically or develop into more pronounced forms  gastritis, ulcer, or even stomach cancer. The main symptoms that indicate an infection in the body are lower abdominal pain, nausea, heartburn, and increased gas emission.

T. rubrum

Since ringworm is a superficial form of fungal infections, it is possible to detect disease development signs during dermatological examination. T. rubrum is observed as a bright spot with clear boundaries. The lesion areas morphology looks like a bubbly pink rash, but the ringworm is spreading in the foci. If there was hair at the spots growth site, it breaks down and falls out due to the hair follicles loss of nourishment. It is worth noting that the stain itches heavily, so patients often tear the focus, which leads to rot and dark crust formation.

Differential diagnosis

R. lyssavirus

Rabies has symptoms that are difficult to confuse with alternative diseases. The final diagnosis depends not only on the physicians suspicions and the stage of infection but also on histological analysis. However, if the patient has any doubts about their health in the first weeks after the bite, they can consult a doctor  but it is essential to recognize that primary stage symptoms are similar to common diseases such as seasonal flu (What are the Signs). The patient has discomfort, weakness, restlessness, and fever, so the development of R. lyssavirus cannot be unequivocally stated.

H. pylori

Due to the multidimensional nature of the infection caused by H. pylori, it is difficult to speak of a misdiagnosis. It is known that depending on the type of bacteria, the patients immune response, and other aggravating circumstances, the infection may develop into a gastric and intestinal ulcer or cancer. However, Furuta et al. suggest that it is not uncommon for clinical practice to have a diagnostic error with autoimmune gastritis (376). In particular, about 1/5 of all patients are misdiagnosed as vectors of H. pylori, while they are not.

T. rubrum

It often makes a misdiagnosis in the case of ringworm, as there are several similar forms of fungal infections. Biggers says, the red circle on the skin might not be a ringworm. In other words, instead of T. rubrum, eczema, granuloma, psoriasis contact dermatitis, Lyme disease, and pityriasis rosea may cause itchy skin stains. The likelihood of an error in the case of ringworm is high, so it is necessary to consult a doctor and histological analysis to determine the pathogen.

Diagnostic tests

It is clear from the above that conducting diagnostic tests when determining the pathogen is relevant. Diagnosis of rabies is based on specific laboratory tests, detection of viral antigens, or occipital biopsy by immunofluorescence, detection of rabies virus antibodies, and cerebrospinal fluid PCR. H. pylori diagnostic methods include blood antibodies, a urease breath test, and biopsy. Finally, traditionally ringworm is diagnosed by screening, laboratory, and instrumental testing. Tests include microscopic methods: under the microscope, the skin lesions flakes show the winding threads of mycelium.

Specific treatment and prognosis

R. lyssavirus

At present, rabies is considered an incurable disease and therapeutic interventions are palliative and aimed at alleviating the patients condition. Patients are prescribed medications to reduce the intensity of symptoms: sleeping pills and anticonvulsants, painkillers, tranquilizers. The experimental treatment, which has proved successful in only one case, was carried out by introducing the patient into an induced coma (Zeiler and Jackson 44). In this condition, the patient was injected with immunostimulating drugs that promoted antibody production. A week after the human nervous system was shut down, the immune system collected enough material to fight the virus, but repeated attempts at this technology have produced little or no results.

H. pylori

When discussing the effectiveness of therapy, it must be noted that this bacteria is extremely common among the worlds population. Despite the success of therapy, in some cases, it is not recommended to treat a bacterial infection, because experts believe that the bacteria can become a natural part of the microflora (Chey 1829). In case of the treatment, the patient is prescribed antibiotic drugs in addition to the proton-pump inhibitors. The inhibitor molecules prevent the production of a hydrochloric acid. Meanwhile, prescription antibiotics include Azithromycin and Levofloxacin, but Amoxicillin is more effective (Helicobacter pylori). The actions of the drugs are bactericidal, so there is a disturbance of the cell wall, leading to the pathogens destruction. Side effects are expressed in allergic reactions, nausea, and palpitations. Moreover, to normalize the functioning of GIT, the patient must follow a special therapeutic diet that excludes fatty, salty, and spicy foods throughout the treatment.

T. rubrum

The ringworm is supposed to treat the hearths both locally with ointments and by taking medication inside. The mechanism of action of antifungal drugs, such as Gris-PEG or Terbinafine, is aimed at destroying the fungus and colonies. Typically, antibiotics specifically inhibit early cell biosynthesis, which leads to fungus death (Dock and Nall). Side-effects are rare when taking medication, although headaches and taste disorders may be noticeable. Ringworm is a cured form of infections, consequently, with adequate intake of antimicrobial agents, the patient has an excellent chance to get rid of the illness.

Preventing and control

First of all, persons suspected of viral infection carry out local wound treatment with soapy water washing and concentrated iodine alcohol. The prevention of rabies in humans is carried out with anti-rabies vaccines. The developed course of vaccination against virus is appointed only based on clinical and epidemiological data, which are later joined by laboratory examination results of the bitten animal, if any. In order to prevent the development of bacteria, the population is advised to observe hygienic rules and diets. It is essential to wash hands thoroughly before eating, use only personal hygiene items and fully cure existing gastrointestinal pathologies. If the infection is suspected, fried, smoked, salty, fatty, and pickled dishes and any spices should be avoided. Meanwhile, if a family member has been infected with ringworm, it is recommended that the room be disinfected. The patient should not contact any until they are fully recovered, as the disease is extremely contagious. To protect oneself, it is necessary to observe hygiene rules and not to come into contact with street animals. Finally, it is critical to undergo routine preventive medical examinations.

New research

The development of medicine continues, so new experimental methods of treatment of patients are still being identified. In 2019, clinical trials on Favipiravirs prescription for laboratory mice infected with rabies (Banyard 4687) were completed. The results demonstrated high efficacy of the antiviral drug, although questions remain on how to scale this effect on the human. However, scientific sources literary analysis did not reveal experimental methods of treatment of bacterial and eukaryotic disease.

Conclusion

To sum up, it is worth noting that the spectrum of infectious diseases that can cause harm to human health is extensive. In the case of care for a patient with rabies, it would be necessary to ensure immediate hospitalization in the room with limited light and noise penetration. The patient should be given a drink, although they have hydrophobia. Medical personnel work with the patient wearing gloves and a mask, as the patients saliva contains the virus. Patients with H. pylori and T. rubrum should be told about the importance of following medical rules, the diet, and the course of medication. Specific care would include monitoring antibiotics, encouraging smoking cessation, and necessary nursing procedures such as catheter setting, physiological measurements, and condition assessment.

Five questions

As a nurse, it is vital to properly approach the procedure of patient care and interaction with their family. In order to ensure proper and sufficient care for patients with rabies, stomach upset, or deprived of life, there are five questions that may be applicable in clinical practice. For ease of reference, the questions are given in Table 1.

Table 1. A list of questions that can be asked by the patient and their family in clinical practice:

Works Cited

Adams, Natalia, and Helene Peters. The Occurrence of Athletes Foot (Tinea Pedis), Caused by The Dermatophytic Fungus, Trichophyton rubrum Malmsten 1845, Amongst Athletes at Brewton-Parker College. Georgia Journal of Science, vol. 75, no. 1, 2017, pp. 1-14.

Araya, Shambel, Betelhem Tesfaye, and Desalegn Fente. Epidemiology of Dermatophyte and Non-Dermatophyte Fungi Infection in Ethiopia. Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dermatology, vol. 13, 2020, pp. 291-297.

Banyard, Ashley C., et al. Re-evaluating the Effect of Favipiravir Treatment on Rabies Virus Infection. Vaccine, vol. 37, no. 33, 2019, pp. 4686-4693.

Biggers, Alana. The Red Circle on Your Skin Might Not Be a Ringworm. Healthline, 2019, Web.

Bjorkman, D. J. Global Prevalence of Helicobacter pylori. NEJM Journal Watch, 2017, Web.

Chey, William D. Helicobacter pylori: When We Should Treat&. American Journal of Gastroenterology, vol. 114, no. 12, 2019, pp. 1829-1832.

Dock, Elly and Rachel Nall. Everything You Want to Know About Ringworm. Healthline, 2019, Web.

Furuta, T., et al. High Incidence of Autoimmune gastritis in Patients Misdiagnosed with Two or More Failures of H. pylori Eradication. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics, vol. 48, no. 3, 2018, pp. 370-377.

Handler, Marc Zachary. What is the Global Incidence of Tinea Capitis (scalp ringworm)? Medscape, 2020, Web.

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) Infection? Mayo Clinic, 2020, Web.

Human Rabies. CDC, 2020, Web.

Invasive Fungal Infections: A Creeping Public Health Threat? American Society for Microbiology, 2018.

Marshall, Barry. A Brief History of the Discovery of Helicobacter pylori. Helicobacter pylori, edited by Hidekazu Suzuki, Robin Warren, and Barry Marshall, Springer, 2016, pp. 3-15.

Offord, Catherine. The Rabies Vaccine Backstory. The Scientist, 2016.

Rabies. World Health Organization, 2018, Web.

Santacroce, Luigi. What is the Mortality Rate for Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) Infection? Medscape, 2019, Web.

Sultan, Mutaz. Which Age Groups Have the Highest Prevalence of Helicobacter pylori (Hp) Infection? Medscape, 2018, Web.

Tarantola, Arnaud. Four Thousand Years of Concepts Relating to Rabies in Animals and Humans, Its Prevention and Its Cure. Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease, vol. 2, no. 5, 2017, pp. 4-21.

What are the Signs and Symptoms of Rabies? CDC, 2019, Web.

Zeiler, Frederick A., and Alan C. Jackson. Critical Appraisal of the Milwaukee Protocol for Rabies: This Failed Approach Should be Abandoned. Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences, vol. 43, no. 1, 2016, pp. 44-51.

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) alludes to two lung sicknesses, constant bronchitis and emphysema, that make it difficult to relax. Smoking is the most well-known reason for COPD, yet breathing used smoke, dust at work, or vapor from ovens, radiators, or synthetic compounds can likewise cause it (Howcroft et al., 2016). Aspiratory restoration programs instruct patient approaches to help improve patient manifestations. This may include schooling about their condition, practice preparing, social help, and guidance on breathing strategies (Effing et al., 2007). Projects change, however many include going to gatherings on more than one occasion per week for 8 to 12 weeks (Effing et al., 2007). Toward the finish of a program, the patient will be given a remedy for proceeding with the activities all alone. Aspiratory recovery programs have appeared to improve an individuals capacity to work out, upgrade personal satisfaction, and lessen the recurrence of COPD intensifications (Effing et al., 2007). Indeed, even individuals with extreme windedness can profit from a recovery program.

Almost certainly, selfmanagement instruction is related to a decrease in medical clinic affirmations without any signs of inconvenient impacts in other result boundaries. This would in itself as of now be a sufficient explanation behind suggesting selfmanagement training in COPD (Howcroft et al., 2016). Utilization of COPD fuel activity plans with a solitary short instructive segment alongside continuous help coordinated at the utilization of the activity plan (Howcroft et al., 2016). Nonetheless, without a far-reaching selfmanagement program, lessens inhospital medical services usage and builds therapy of COPD intensifications with corticosteroids and anti-microbials (Howcroft et al., 2016). Attendants working in emergency clinics more as often as possible partake in diagnosing COPD than those working in outpatient foundations.

Medical attendants exercises comparable to patients experiencing COPD have a mostly instructive nature, yet sadly they are easygoing, incidental and spontaneous. Arranged and formal incorporation of attendants during the time spent acknowledgment of wellbeing advancement programs for patients with COPD is suggested (Güell et al., 2017). Different pharmacological treatments have demonstrated valuable in decreasing the number of intensifications and clinic admissions (Güell et al., 2017). Additionally, different mediations, like patient instruction for self-administration, the emergency clinic at home for chosen patients, release arranging from the medical clinic to home, and exercise remedy during clinic stay have shown benefits in patients hospitalized for COPD (Güell et al., 2017). Pulmonary recovery in stable patients showed a decrease in confirmations for related respiratory disease, close by a half decrease in the length of stay at whatever point hospitalization was required and a decrease in the number of intensifications (Howcroft et al., 2016). Therefore, it can be inferred that current restoration techniques and policies for medical personnel prove to be efficient in maintaining the condition of adult patients.

In conclusion, it is crucial to apply an evidence-based approach in the medical care of adult patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. With the help of the proper health promotion and restoration procedures and various procedures for sickness, the board has shown a 40% decrease in COPD hospitalizations and a comparative decrease in interviews at the crisis office, albeit not all examinations have shown comparable outcomes, most likely due to contrasts between programs. Aspiratory recovery started during hospitalization for COPD intensification or soon after release essentially diminished the probability of rehospitalization. A definitive objective of wellbeing rebuilding is to balance reformist practical impediments following the debilitation of the respiratory mechanical assembly, hence permitting a more dynamic way of life.

References

Effing, T., Monninkhof, E. E. M., van der Valk, P. P. D. L. P. M., Zielhuis, G. G. A., Walters, E. H., van der Palen, J. J., & Zwerink, M. (2007). Self-management education for patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. Web.

Güell, M.-R., Cejudo, P., Ortega, F., Puy, M. C., Rodríguez-Trigo, G., Pijoan, J. I., & Galdiz, J. B. (2017). Benefits of Long-Term Pulmonary Rehabilitation Maintenance Program in Patients with Severe Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. Three-Year Follow-up. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 195(5), 622629.

Howcroft, M., Walters, E. H., Wood-Baker, R., & Walters, J. A. E. (2016). Action plans with brief patient education for exacerbations in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. Web.