Environment: As millions of people can die due to influenza pandemic, there will be serious impact on environment. Besides, birds and mammals are also in danger. Mass production of drugs can lead to the pollutions of the environment. The developing countries as the areas where pandemic can arise will be in collapse and became isolated.
Culture: This article does not discuss cultural issues, for instance, the impact of the cultural background and national peculiarities on the pandemic prevention.
Governance and Security (Politics): This article suggests governments pay more attention to the problem of influenza pandemic and provide more effective preventive measures. The preventive measures should be developed with help of government. As an example, the author says about Chinese government that was unable to stop panic among citizens, to provide enough medical support and information.
Resources and Development (Economics): Influenza pandemic would have a serious impact on the global economy. Global, national and regional economies will be changed due to the trade of drugs; many countries will be not available for traveling. Moreover, there will be serious impact on the airline industries. Developed counties will have an advantage, as they will be able to use their resources in order to supply their citizens with the vaccine.
Critique and Reflection
This article was written in 2005 when the fears about influenza pandemic and the new stamp H5N1 were more serious than today. I agree with the author when he says about the necessity of providing more preventive measures and supply people with vaccine; however, I disagree about the fear that there is huge possibility of pandemic that may lead to the catastrophic consequences.
According to the present article, the future of mankind seems terrible. The author claims that such pandemic will kill millions of people, as it already happened before in the past century. This issue can have the dramatic impact on the global society, including the economical problems and psychological barriers and fears.
However, today, it is easy to hear another opinion that this problem is not as serious as people may think. Besides, this issue is not studied well yet; therefore, it is early to make the conclusions and predict such terrible scenario. Thus, Brown indicates that scientists still argue about the characteristic of the new stamp of influenza ( Lab-engineered bird flu virus may be less deadly than thought or not ).
Besides, in the other article, Brown and Vastag say that it is better do not make a large discussions about the research of influenza: The potential harm of publishing the research on H5N1, or avian, influenza in full exceeded the potential benefits, the board wrote, adding its decision was unanimous ( Recommendations to censor bird flu research driven by fears of terrorism ).
Osterholm published his article seven years ago, and we can notice that since that time the world did not face with a serious threat of pandemic. Besides, statistics say that only 600 people only have become ill from H5N1 since 1997 and most of them live in South Asia (Vastag and Brown 2012). Therefore, I cannot agree with the statement that we are close to the pandemic which can lead to the serious changes within the global economy.
According to the information of Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Northern Hemispheres 2012-2013 seasonal influenza vaccine contain the special vaccine for an A/California/7/2009 (H1N1)pdm09-like virus ( Vaccine Selection for the 2011-2012 and 2012-2013 Influenza Seasons ). Vaccination is a good preventive measure which helps people to control disease. Therefore, I think the society should not be afraid of the possible pandemic.
Works Cited
Brown David. Lab-engineered bird flu virus may be less deadly than thought or not. The Washington Post. Web.
Osterholm, Michael T. Preparing for the Next Pandemic. Foreign Affairs, 2005. Web.
Vaccine Selection for the 2011-2012 and 2012-2013 Influenza Seasons. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Web.
Vastag Brian and David Brown. Recommendations to censor bird flu research driven by fears of terrorism. The Washington Post. Web.
Key Environmental Health Burdens and Non-Communicable Disease
Epidemiological review of an environmental issue from a global health perspective
Indoor air pollution is one of the most frequently discussed environmentally-related issues. The lives of about half of all people depend on the conditions under which cooking and heating processes are organized. Indoor air pollution from the use of harmful solid fuels causes about 1,5 million deaths from pneumonia and about 2,7 million death from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. In India, more people die because of asthma in comparison to any other country (The Editorial Board, 2014). Such numbers should make people understand the importance of control over the indoor air pollution issue to avoid health problems as well as many other domestic problems.
How would you help people in Guatemala to adopt the use of better stoves?
First, people in Guatemala should know about the threats that come from their stoves, this is why they need special brochures or other informative sources, where the indoor air pollution issue is discussed. Second, not all people may allow themselves to buy better stoves, this is why they may try to use dried fuels, maintain their chimneys, or place their kitchens far from houses. Finally, the stoves may be improved by the use of appropriate fuel or choose special electric stoves that do not influence human health.
How would you expand access to low-cost sanitation in Nepal? Why? What would constrain the people in Nepal from investing their resources in improved low-cost sanitation?
The access to low-cost sanitation in Nepal may be expanded due to the involvement of the public and private sectors or such organizations as NGOs. Public demand for toilets is obvious, and the private sector may be encouraged to set the standards and follow certain techniques. Still, people may not want to invest their resources as they know that public sectors can do it or they know a little about the threats of poor sanitation and the importance of good hygiene.
Unintentional Injuries and Their Relation to the Global Burden of Disease
How important are unintentional injuries to the global burden of disease?
Unintentional injuries turn out to be one of the leading reasons for unexpected deaths in the whole world. In 2013, more than 3,5 million people died because of such injuries (Smith, 2015), and the number of people, who become disabled, is hard to imagine. The importance of this issue lies in the fact that such injuries are hard to control and impossible to predict. Some people cannot even understand that their organism suffers and requires a certain treatment. Besides, unexpected financial costs on treatment may create another problem based on the unintentional injuries issue.
What are the most important unintentional injuries that affect children?
Many unintentional injuries may affect children, still, parents should know the most frequent and dangerous to avoid them. These injuries come from wrong motor vehicle traffic, the cases of suffocation, drowning, and poisoning, inabilities to control fires and serious burns as a result, unexpected falls that lead to invisible injuries, and even sports harm because of parental neglect or unwillingness to check childs health status.
What is Haddons matrix? How would you use this matrix to assist you in analyzing accidents?
Haddons matrix is a theoretical foundation that prevents injuries from using understanding their reasons and features. It consists of several stages: the analysis of a host (a person, whose behavior leads to an accident, a vector (a cause of an injury), and the environment of an accident. This matrix may be used to analyze accidents in case several particular examples are taken into consideration, the components of the accident are identified, and their possible interactions are evaluated to identify different situations and get an ability to predict and overcome them. For example, car accidents may be used to explain to the drivers the risks of breaking the rules on a road.
Since birth, I have not experienced any form of chronic illness that could threaten my life, and thus I did not know how it feels to have a chronic disease. Together with my friends, we used to attend many social events where I acquired some trendy behaviors. My friends showed me how to smoke a cigar, and I eventually started to smoke it. The experience of smoking a cigar and interacting with friends at social events was very enjoyable. I never missed a single social event that my friends attended because we shared many things with them. The experience that I underwent when I interacted with friends was so enjoyable that I could not afford to stay without my friends. The most memorable experiences in my life are the ones I shared with friends at various social events. I did all the activities that my friends performed and I enjoyed every bit of them. During my youth, all the activities that I performed involved my friends and they were very enjoyable.
Given that social events dominated my childhood, I did not manage to attend school during my childhood. While other children were busy attending school, I was busy socializing with other children who did not bother to go to school. In this view, I received my general education development (GED) during my adulthood. GED motivated me to pursue my education just like my peers because education is essential for one to get a decent job and live a good life. After receiving my GED, I was privileged to get a job in a survey company. The job was very exciting as I interacted with people physically or through the phone when asking questions or administering questionnaires. The job equipped me with communication and research skills, as I was able to acquire essential skills. Owing to the nature of work that I performed, the company promoted me to be a team leader, where I led a team of researchers to perform various tasks. The position of the team leader enhanced my leadership skills since I was able to make remarkable accomplishments.
When I was working in the survey company, I started to become sick. The signs and symptoms of the sicknesses were shortness of breath, frequent coughing, production of sputum, and chest pains. When the signs and symptoms persisted, I decided to visit the doctor who informed me to perform some diagnosis. The laboratory technologists performed a chest scan and analysis of sputum to diagnose the cause of the symptoms and signs that I experienced. I was not worried at all about the nature of sickness that I was suffering from because I have not been sick for a long time. However, when the diagnostic results came out, the doctor told me I was suffering from a chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). The word chronic shocked me since I thought I was going to die soon. I felt sad to note that I was suffering from a chronic health condition.
Since I discovered that I was suffering from COPD, I began wondering how I would cope with the condition and manage it effectively so that I could live happily again. When I inquired from the doctor, he told me I could manage the condition by quitting smoking, using medications, utilizing oxygen therapy, and eating a healthy diet. The first thing I had to do was to quit smoking cigar because I was already addicted. The doctor gave me some medications that enhanced dilation of the bronchioles, and thus eased breathing difficulties that I constantly struggled to overcome. Oxygen therapy was also essential to support breathing and prevent the occurrence of oxygen tension, which threatened to kill me. I did not know oxygen therapy until when the doctor sent the equipment, a portable oxygen tank, to my house. When I saw the equipment, it shocked me since I thought that it was going to die soon. It was so hard to understand how I could survive using the equipment and medications as life seemed quite unbearable again for me. Fortunately, my sisters encouraged me to manage the condition well. Moreover, when I noted that many people are suffering from the same condition, I learned a lot from them regarding the management of chronic disorders and living a happy life, just like everybody.
Living with COPD was very hard since I had to struggle in life just like anyone. The chronic condition limited the nature of jobs that I could do and the social activities I could perform. I eventually got a job in a manufacturing company that dealt with automotive parts. Although I started at the level of the assembly line, I managed to gain promotion within eight years and became a team leader. While working, I started to attend school on a part-time basis until when the company shut down and I became a dislocated worker. Consequently, I entered into the program of dislocated workers, which helped me to attend school on a full-time basis. Going back to school was very exciting as I was assured of a bright and happy future.
Observations and Reflections of My Experiences
As I have never faced any major illness in my life, I overlooked the essence of good health in the growth and development of a person. I did not know that good health makes life interesting and enjoyable. Since I had good health, I socialized with as many friends as possible, and nothing hindered me from enjoying every bit of social activities that my friends perform. My friends introduced me to smoke a cigar, which I started as a leisure activity, but I gradually became addicted to it. I was very innocent because I never bothered knowing about the consequences or side effects of smoking cigar. Owing to my innocence or rather an ignorance, I indulged in the habit of smoking cigar. Apart from smoking, I engaged in other social activities that I came to realize that they affected my growth and development during adolescence.
My childhood was unique because I did not attend a school like other students. When I saw other students going to school, I did not see the need for learning. As I frequently observed children in their school uniforms, I admired them, but I did not want to attend a school like them. When I grew up, I started to note that education was essential in my life and I commenced general education development (GED). Though I received GED when I was already an adult, it inspired me to pursue a meaningful life. GED was essential in my life because it helped me to secure a job in a survey company. When I acquired GED, I realized the meaning of education in improving the lives of people in all stages of learning. The survey company gave me a platform where I engaged with many people in all occupations. My job entailed interviewing people on the phone and administering questionnaires, which enhanced my communication and research skills. In essence, the job enhanced my stature as a worker for the company promoted me to be a team leader owing to my great leadership skills.
I started to realize I was sick when I was working in the survey company because I experienced breathing difficulties, frequent coughing, chest pains, and the production of sputum. When I sought medical attention, the doctor informed me that I was suffering from a chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Since I did not know the nature of the disease, I had to inquire from my doctor who explained to me that I was suffering from chronic disorder due to the malfunctioning of the lungs. The doctor further told me that smoking cigar predisposed me to a chronic disorder, and thus I should quit smoking so that I could manage the condition well and lengthen my life. When I heard about my condition, I noted that I was suffering from a very serious condition, which my lifestyle contributed to its occurrence. The doctor also advised me to eat a healthy diet so that I could improve the condition of my lungs, which was deteriorating with time. Moreover, the doctor gave me medications and an oxygen tank. When I saw the oxygen tank in my room, it made me realize the severity of the condition in my life, as it reminded me that I had to comply with all the instructions from my doctor.
When my friends heard that I was sick, they ran away from me because most of them did not bother to visit me, and thus I found myself lonely. The people who encouraged me to continue living a meaningful life are my sisters who visited me constantly. My sisters gave me the moral support that I needed and made me manage my condition well. Since I wanted to live like other people, I had to secure a job though I was unable to perform all kinds of tasks. Eventually, I decided to work in a manufacturing company, which is an automotive company. In the company, I performed very well and gained promotion within eight years. Unfortunately, the company shut down due to the recession, and I was compelled to become a dislocated worker. Since I had attended school on a part-time basis when I was working, the dislocated program of workers helped me to attend school on a full-time basis. Attending school enhanced my hope in life given that education was the only way that I could use to improve my health condition and live happily.
Formation of Abstract Concepts and Generalizations
Basing on the concrete experience and reflective observation, it is evident that I was suffering from a chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). COPD is a disease that affects the lungs and prevents them from functioning normally. According to Warren (2009), the main signs and symptoms of the chronic disorder are coughing, production of phlegm or sputum, dyspnea, difficulties in breathing, and enlargement of airspaces and bronchioles. These signs and symptoms are life-threatening because they indicate the extent to which COPD have destroyed lungs, and thus preventing them from functioning effectively. COPD damages the lungs and reduces their ability to supply the required amount of oxygen in the body, which consequently causes low oxygen tension in the blood and tissues. Low oxygen tension means that the body is unable to conduct metabolic and physiological activities optimally, and therefore, makes an individual experience systemic complications.
Furthermore, the analysis of concrete experience and reflective observation indicates that the nature of life that I lived predisposed me to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Since I smoked the cigar, it became evident that it predisposed me to COPD. Warren (2009) states that cigarette smoking, dust particles, and air pollution are major causes of COPD among the population. In this view, since I engaged in numerous social activities, smoked cigar, and worked in the survey and manufacturing companies, I exposed myself to substances that cause COPD. Moreover, since I was innocent and did not care about the nature of activities or substances that I indulged myself in them, they cumulatively contributed to my condition. Given that I got my GED when I was already an adult, it implies that I was very ignorant about life and the essence of education during my childhood. Overall, the nature of life that I lived and the lifestyle I gained coupled with my ignorance predisposed me to COPD
In the experience of diagnosis, treatment, and management of COPD, the doctor advised me to stop smoking cigar, eat a healthy diet, take medications, and use oxygen therapy. Qaseem et al. (2011) state that, the objectives of treatment and management of COPD are to reduce the decline in the functions of the lungs, prevent deterioration of the lungs, reduce the frequency of hospitalization, relieve disabling effects of dyspnea, enhance activity tolerance, improve quality of life, and eventually prevent mortality. In this view, to quit smoking is an intervention that helps in halting the progression of COPD, while eating a healthy diet is an intervention that aids in improving the health status of the lungs and the general body. The use of medications and oxygen therapy is important because it enhances the management of COPD. The medications reduce the occurrence of breathing difficulties, while oxygen therapy relieves the lungs from straining during respiration.
Since COPD is a chronic disorder, it requires effective management interventions. For the interventions to be effective, the patient requires essential moral support. From the concrete experience, my sisters and the doctor gave me moral support, because they encouraged me to live a normal life and ensured that I took great care of myself by adhering to the required treatment and management practices. Moreover, working in the survey and manufacturing companies enhanced my morale in life because they promoted me as a way of appreciating my contributions. Although I became a dislocated worker, the dislocated program of workers enabled me to pursue my studies. Hence, education revived my hope and dream of living a quality life.
Application of Concepts in New Situations
Given that my past lifestyle predisposed me to COPD, I will try to live a healthy life that is free from factors that can deteriorate my condition. First, I will stop smoking a cigar because it mainly causes COPD. As I interacted with many friends who suffered from COPD, most of them confessed that they smoked tobacco and cigar, which made them acquire COPD. Moreover, the doctor informed me that the smoking cigar was the main cause of COPD. On this basis, the only means of halting or reducing the progression of COPD and saving my life from the chronic condition is to quit smoking and live a healthy lifestyle. Additionally, the doctor advised me to eat a healthy diet so that I could improve the condition of my lungs, which was deteriorating with time. Essentially, I need to change my lifestyle so that I can manage the disorder effectively.
In the treatment and management of the disorder, I will utilize medications and oxygen therapy. Medications such as anticholinergics and beta-agonists are applicable in the management of COPD because they reduce the occurrence of breathing difficulties, which is the main symptom associated with COPD. The use of oxygen therapy is very important in the long-term management of COPD as it reduces the strain caused by low oxygen tension. According to Qaseem et al. (2011), clinical guidelines require the use of oxygen therapy because clinical evidence shows that daily supplementation of oxygen for about 15 hours or more aids in the maintenance of oxygen pressure at the level above 60 mm Hg. Consequently, the maintenance of oxygen pressure level above 60 mm Hg reduces the mortality of patients significantly. In this view, I will ensure that I utilize oxygen therapy optimally to enhance the functioning of my lungs and consequently lengthen my life.
Regarding the occupation, I will continue with my studies so that I can achieve a good grade that will enable me to secure a decent job that does not affect my health. As I worked in the manufacturing company that dealt with automotive part parts, it was not good because it entailed tough activities, which my body was unable to perform due to COPD. Warren (2009) also notes that dust particles in manufacturing industries have deleterious effects on the human lungs because they predispose people to COPD. This means that I will choose occupations that will not degenerate my health condition. Therefore, education is the only way that will help me decide on the nature of occupation that is good for my health.
References
Qaseem, A., Wilt, T., Steven, W., Hanania, N., Criner, G., Molen, T., & & Marciniuk, D. (2011). Diagnosis and Management of Stable Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary
Disease: A Clinical Practice Guideline Update from the American College of Physicians, American College of Chest Physicians, American Thoracic Society, and European Respiratory Society. Annals of Internal Medicine, 55(3), 179-191.
Warren, C. (2009). The nature and Causes of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A historical Perspective. Canadian Respiratory Journal, 18(1), 13-20.
The concept of disease can be defined in different ways, depending upon the approach and the most important criterion chosen by scholars. Whereas both value-requiring and dysfunction-requiring definitions of the concept of disease are applicable to particular cases but inappropriate for others, they should, therefore, be combined for constructing a complex concept.
The first value-requiring definition of disease offered by Lester King is based on the culturally-relative values. Therefore, according to this definition, the condition can be regarded as a disease if it is assumed so by the community. For example, masturbation or slaves desire to escape was condemned by the society of the nineteenth century, but are regarded as normal today (Schwartz, 2005, p. 5). On the other hand, the Chinese practices of foot-binding, which deformed peoples feet and left them unable to walk, were considered normal in the past. Therefore, this value-requiring definition of disease does not pass the test of the time and makes the definition rather confusing.
Another value-requiring definition, offered by Culver and Gert, focuses on objective values and uses the aspect of harm as the main criterion for distinguishing between healthy and unhealthy conditions. This definition assumes that disease means that a person suffers or is at increased risks of suffering. In that regard, in the case of Mr. Smith discussed at the beginning of the article under analysis, had a malady not only when he had a fever, but also when he had a running nose because he was already under the risks of the further spread of infection in his body. However, in the frames of this value-requiring definition, pregnancy can be regarded as a malady because it can result in serious complications and even death. Similarly, the slaves escape or even dark skin of an individual can lead to negative social implications and increased risks, and therefore can be regarded as maladies. Though this value-requiring definition focuses on objective values, it has a number of limitations.
Alternatively, dysfunction-requiring approaches to the definition of the disease use the presence of biological dysfunction as the main criterion for the definition of impairment (the term offered by Boorse, who promoted the idea of eliminating the value judgments from the definition of disease). Importantly, this approach uses statistical data and considers the specifics of the reference class to which an individual belongs. In that regard, Mr. Smiths pneumonia can be regarded as impairment because it leads to the organisms partial dysfunction. However, the main challenge for Boorses theory was the statistical calculation of what is normal functioning for a particular class of living beings. For instance, if a particular segment of the human brain is responsible for being attracted by the opposite sex, the phenomenon of homosexuality can be regarded as impairment because it is associated with the failure of the segment of the brain to function like in the rest of the representatives of the brain.
The solution to the limitations of both value-requiring and dysfunction-requiring approaches was offered by Wakefield who combined these theories, creating a concept of harmful dysfunction. According to this approach, a disorder is a condition which deprives an individual of certain benefits and leads to his/her inability to perform a certain natural function, prescribed by the evolutionary stage of the organism.
Therefore, due to the limitations of value-requiring and dysfunction-requiring theories, their combination in the form of the concept of harmful dysfunction offered by Wakefield can be an effective solution for defining the concept of disease or the synonymous terms used by different theoreticians.
This paper focuses on the interview conducted with a person suffering from an allergy. The aim of such a conversation is to explore patient experience and contribute to disease awareness of health care providers. First, the topic of allergy was introduced based on scholarly sources and available data. Second, the method of the interview was identified, and the key points of this process were determined. The following section of results includes information presented by the interview and involves her experience regarding the course of the disease, its occurrence and treatment, and the limitations it set on her life. Ultimately, discussion synthesizes patient experience and data revealed from the literature to identify essential insights. It is concluded that the patient perspective is rather important in understanding his or her health condition and providing the relevant treatment.
Allergy is a complex of reactions to the pollen of plants, woolen of animals, some foods, etc. The disease is manifested by rhinitis, conjunctivitis, dermatitis, and asthmatic bronchitis of an allergic nature. It is characterized by swelling of the mucous membranes of the nose and eyes, nasal congestion, runny nose, sneezing, coughing, suffocation, itching, and skin rashes. Without proper treatment, allergy has a progressive nature and can even transform into bronchial asthma. It can be called one of the most common diseases all over the globe. This seasonal disease occurs in approximately 15 percent of the population (Adkinson et al., 2014). In addition, patients with allergy often have a cross-allergy: along with pollen, the cause of the allergy can be food allergens. For example, with an allergy to birch pollen, there will be a cross-allergy to apples, carrots, and peaches. The disease occurs against the background of the increased sensitivity of the immune system to allergens. For instance, there are more than a hundred weeds and cultivated plants, the pollen of which can cause hay fever.
Method
The study of the patient experience with an allergy is based on the interview with Mrs. Wilson aged 56. Being a friend of the researchers family, she was invited to tell about her disease voluntarily. The interview list was prepared in advance and composed 15 questions. It was important to provide the interviewee with this list before the conversation so that she had some time to ponder over the questions and then provide full answers. The day and place for the interview were chosen to ensure comfortable conditions for Mrs. Wilson. The process of the interview, namely, one hour was recorded to keep the main ideas and reflect on them in the discussion. No deception of any kind was used during the conversation. No personal data or artifacts were collected from the respondent in terms of securing confidentiality. After the interview, audio records were properly analyzed and interpreted based on scholarly sources.
Results
In writing the research results, it seems useful to stay close to the words used by the interview to reveal her experience. Answering several questions regarding her disease occurrence and diagnosis, Mrs. Wilson stated that she suffers from allergic rhinitis to dogs, pollen, and dust as well as citruses from her childhood. She was diagnosed with allergy and offered traditional treatment, the main idea of which was to avoid allergens. Nevertheless, her reactions to the mentioned factors became more severe with time. After a choking attack a couple of years ago, Mrs. Wilson was hospitalized and diagnosed with allergic bronchitis. Since that period, she lives with some barriers that interfere with her daily life and limit it (K. Wilson, personal communication, September 29, 2017). For example, it was revealed that she has to take antihistamines and bronchodilators to facilitate her health condition and cope with allergy attacks.
Mrs. Wilson was also asked to reveal her views on the prevention of allergies. To prevent household allergies, she cleans up more often, avoiding some aggressive detergents and cleaners. The patient tries not to abuse fluffy blankets and long-lasting carpets. If pollen allergy occurs, she tries to go outside after two oclock in the afternoon, when the activity of pollen ejection fades. Mrs. Wilson was also recommended to do adequate physical exercises and avoid stress. Namely, the patient visits a gym twice a week and exercises in a special group for people suffering from similar diseases.
Speaking of the treatment of allergy, the interviewee stated that it is necessary to minimize contacts with the allergen. Mrs. Wilson stated that she trusts her physician and family nurse, fully relying on their experience. She was advised to decrease the time spent on the street, especially in dry and windy weather, exclude certain foods from the diet that may cause allergy. The most effective means in the combat against this disease is allergen-specific immunotherapy. The treatment regimen provides the introduction of increasing doses of an allergen into the patients body (K. Wilson, personal communication, September 29, 2017). As a result of such treatment, the sensitivity of the patients body to the allergen was reduced. Specific immunotherapy can be carried out simultaneously with taking medications. Mrs. Wilson clearly stated that the last intervention was the most effective one. After three courses of such treatment, she felt that the symptoms became less severe.
Discussion
In recent decades, there has been a marked increase in the incidence of allergies. There are various theories explaining this phenomenon. According to the theory of the influence of hygiene, strict compliance with cleanliness rules deprives ones body of contact with many antigens, which causes a weak development of the immune system (Adkinson et al., 2014). More to the point, plenty of chemical products can act as allergens and create the prerequisites for the development of an allergic reaction by disrupting the function of the nervous system and endocrine system. The case of Mrs. Wilson shows that her respiratory allergy manifests after exposure to the allergen in the body during breathing. These allergens are different types of gases, pollen, or dust.
Consistent with Silva et al. (2014), the patient experience illustrates the importance of prevention. Physical exercising and stress avoidance are used to strengthen the body and increase its resistance to allergy and its exacerbations. However, if moderate physical activity contributes to health, intensive training, on the contrary, can have a negative effect. Fatigue is also unfavorable. Patients with an allergy should try to avoid nervous breakdowns as severe experiences can strengthen the existing allergic disease or even cause a new, in particular, bronchial asthma and certain types of skin lesions (Silva et al., 2014). In this connection, the interview enlightens the role of allergy prevention and potential ways to implement in ones life.
As for treatment experience identified by Mrs. Wilson, it provides insight on the effectiveness of several options, the most useful of which was immunotherapy. Indeed, immunity defenses the body, namely, its resistance to various infections or foreign substances. As noted by Adkinson et al. (2014), it creates resistance to the effects of bacteria, viruses, or toxins due to the system of adaptations and reactions, some of which are inherited, and others are acquired in the course of life. The main principle of allergen-specific immunotherapy is the deliberate introduction into the body of an allergen, to which a person reacts. If usually, a person encounters a causal allergen uncontrollably, immunotherapy provides a clear schedule of attending an allergist and contacting with allergens strictly in therapeutic dosage.
It is also important to point to the nature of relationships between the patient and her care team. As it is seen from the interview, the patient is satisfied with the services and the approach selected by them. She clearly understands her disease and follows the recommendations provided by the experts that allow her to cope with allergy symptoms. It becomes evident that the quality of care is rather critical for the patient and her health outcomes. Therefore, it is possible to conclude that patient-caregiver collaboration is one of the most important conditions of the effective treatment that is consistent with Adkinson et al. (2014). The findings of this interview are likely to contribute to the increase in allergy understanding in adults. Focusing on patients experience, caregivers will better comprehend their needs and expectations, thus providing the most appropriate care possible. As it was mentioned by the interviewee, she had to change a number of allergists before finding the one who could understand her needs and choose the treatment that helped. To avoid such a pursuit, it is essential to apply the method of interviewing in identifying patients health problems.
References
Adkinson, N. F., Bochner, B. S., Burks, A. W., Busse, W. W., Holgate, S. T., Lemanske, R. F., & OHehir, R. E. (2014). Middletons allergy: Principles and Practice (8th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Health Sciences.
Silva, D., Geromi, M., Halken, S., Host, A., Panesar, S. S., Muraro, A.,& Dubois, A. E. J. (2014). Primary prevention of food allergy in children and adults: Systematic review. Allergy, 69(5), 581-589.
Neurotransmitters are chemical substances that allow the transmission of information from the brain to the body through neurons (Carlson, 2010). In most cases, neurotransmitters are found at the axon of the neurons. According to evidence derived from empirical research, it is apparent that the human body contains millions of neurotransmitters that link the brain to the body. This chemical substance affects the physiological and physical occurrences of the body, such as mood, anxiety, sleep, appetite, aggression, and fear (Carlson, 2010).
Additionally, neurotransmitters are of different kinds and thus have different effects on the postsynaptic membranes. Examples of such chemicals include epinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin. In some cases, the degeneration of neurons affects the way information is transmitted in the body. This paper explores a condition that arises due to a neurological disorder in the body.
An example of a disease that results from neurological disorder is Parkinsons disease (Carlson, 2010). This is a condition where the central nervous system degenerates, thereby leading to movement disorder. It is imperative to note that individuals affected by the disease depict several symptoms. Such symptoms include limb stiffness, trembling, impaired balance, and slowed movement. Research done indicates that the symptoms persist and worsen, thus become more pronounced in the patients anatomical features (Carlson, 2010).
In this case, patients experience difficulties when walking, talking, and simple performing chores. There are other minor symptoms accompanied by the illness. Examples include memory loss, slow thinking, depression, speech disorder, urinary complications, and constipation. Evidence has shown that Parkinsons disease is hereditary (Carlson, 2010). Sporadic cases reported have confirmed that the disease can occur through genetic mutation. However, out of a controversy held by scholars, it is perceived that the disease occurs due to the effect of both nature and nurture factors.
Apparently, there are possible risks associated with failure to identify the cause of the disease to be neurological disorders. According to research done, ignoring the fact that Parkinsons disease is caused by neurotransmitters disorder has put more people at risk (Carlson, 2010).
Families associated with Parkinsons cases incline on avoiding environmental toxins and ignore the genetic susceptibility. Additionally, medical practitioners are likely to provide patients with the wrong diagnosis, especially when they ignore neurological examination (Carlson, 2010). Moreover, medication given might cause a serious side effect on patients. This is due to the fact that certain medications might prolong the degeneration of the nerve cell rather than creating a remedy for the condition.
In some cases, the condition might become more disabling since there is no positive response to drugs given. This calls for surgery in order to improve overall health. Failure to consider that neuron disorder could be responsible for any notable complication might not improve the patients health (Carlson, 2010). It is apparent that different symptoms depend on the part of the brain affected. Environmental oriented treatment might not influence brain stimulation (Carlson, 2010). In this case, the condition of the brain continues to deteriorate, reducing the patients mental competent.
Other than medical treatment for people with Parkinsons disorder, there are lifestyle changes that can be used to improve health. Such include proper-balanced diet, physical therapy and exercise (Carlson, 2010). In this case, when the agent causing the disease is ignored therapists are not able to prescribe proper lifestyle changes for the patient. For instance, during therapeutic exercises, therapists will fail to consider that poor articulation of body movement is as a result of neural disorder (Carlson, 2010).
Unrewarding efforts especially for training people with speech disorder can be very frustrating. Therefore, we may not ignore the fact that neural disorders are responsible agents for Parkinson disease. By so doing, healthcare providers will be in a position to use integrated strategies to decimate the spread of the disease that may be aggravated by both heredity and nurture factors.
Reference
Carlson, N. (2010). Physiology of behavior. New York: Pearson Education, Inc.
In the article Cellular Metabolism and Disease: What Do Metabolic Outliers Teach Us?, DeBerardinis and Thompson (2012), provide a comprehensive overview of the role of three different types of metabolism (catabolism, anabolism, and waste disposal) in biological and physiological pathways in the human body, their relationships with cellular processes, and contribution to the development of multiple diseases. The researchers observe that since cellular functions are deeply interrelated with metabolism, any metabolic abnormality can have a ripple effect extending to other systems and may have a very long reach, often triggering disease progression.
Nowadays, researchers and scientists are aware of multiple heritable metabolic abnormalities and anomalies, which induce such conditions as alkaptonuria, albinism, and others. Inborn errors of metabolism affect almost every single biochemical pathway and organ system in the body. Therefore, they may result in a wide range of phenotypes embracing clinically silent abnormalities in metabolite abundance, chronic/progressive accumulation of toxic macromolecules, and severe, acutely life-threatening states of bioenergetic catastrophe (DeBerardinis & Thompson, 2012, p. 5). DeBerardinis and Thompson (2012) consider that in a similar way, metabolic errors may provoke such diseases as cancer because clinical research continues to reveal the abundance of glucose and lactate in tissues affected by tumors. It means that cancer may be regarded as one of the vivid examples of diseases defined by genetic, pathological metabolic distortions, which contribute to malignant transformations and growth of tumors.
The summarized study demonstrates that metabolism is largely defined by genetic factors. Since more and more evidence showing its connection to the development of diseases appears, new ways of disease prevention, early diagnosis (e.g., through metabolic imaging), and treatment can be developed in the future. It is valid to presume that these new technologies will be created on the junction of such a procedure as metabolic profiling and genomic studies.
Commentary
The evidence provided by DeBerardinis and Thompson (2012) in their article can relate to the experience of many individuals. Even though people may not be aware of a significant role of sound metabolism in the maintenance of their health, even a slight look into its nature can reveal the truth of this essential process. I first became familiar with the effects of metabolic perturbations on health when one of my family members was diagnosed with diabetes type 2. After this, a long-term investigation of the disorder and factors contributing to it commenced. It became apparent that abnormal glucose metabolism is one of the major processes of triggering diabetes development. An obvious conclusion made based on this finding relates to the fact that diabetes can be prevented through the maintenance of proper carbohydrate metabolism in the body, i.e., through healthy nutrition and dieting.
The study by DeBerardinis and Thompson (2012) implies that, although not in every disease the influence of metabolic perturbations on its progression is as clear as in diabetes, many of the conditions can be controlled through the improvement of metabolism in a particular organ system or the body as a whole. The data discussed by the researcher prompts some promising topics for research because by investigating the part in which metabolic mechanisms take place, the occurrence of multiple disorders may be life-changing for many individuals with conditions that are difficult to cure nowadays. For instance, I have recently learned that fibromyalgia involves hundreds of abnormalities in catabolism. At the same time, many people with this diagnosis remain undertreated due to widespread uncertainty regarding its nature. Thus, further research of underlying metabolic anomalies in fibromyalgia or any other disease may consequently help improve the quality of life of thousands of people and return them to normal life in the future as new methods of treatment will be introduced to clinical practice.
Chikungunya is a dangerous viral disease, frequently re-emerging in Africa, Asia, and South America. The RNA virus (the alphavirus genus of the family Togaviridae) is transmitted by infected female mosquitoes and brings about severe joint and muscle pain, fever, nausea, rash, fatigue, and headache. The symptoms may vary in intensity and duration. Although some of them can be relieved, the disease is still incurable. Its name comes from Kimakonde language and can be translated as becoming contorted (Weaver & Lecuit, 2015).
History of the Disease
The history of the outbreaks of chikungunya can be summed up as follows (Weaver & Lecuit, 2015).
1952 the first recorded outbreak of the disease in the region of southern Tanzania.
1999-2000 a two-year outbreak in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
2005 an outbreak in the Indian Ocean region.
2006-2007 an outbreak in India, which spread to Indonesia, Myanmar, Thailand, and Maldives. 1.9 million cases were reported during the period.
2007 a localized outbreak in the north-eastern region of Italy (the first reported case in Europe). 197 cases were recorded.
2013 local transmission in France (the French part of St. Martin in the Caribbean region).
2013-2015 first reported cases in the Americas. By 2015, more than 1.3 cases were suspected in the Unites States, Latin American countries, and the Caribbean islands; 191 deaths were attributed to the virus.
2014 outbreaks in France and in the Pacific islands, American Samoa, Kiribati, French Polynesia, Cook Islands, and Marshall Islands.
2015 693,000 suspected cases (of which 38,000 were confirmed) with the biggest burden in Colombia.
2016-2017 350,000 suspected and 147,000 confirmed cases in Colombia, Brazil, Argentina, Kenya, Pakistan, and Bolivia.
Disease Spread: Implications
Chikungunya continues spreading rapidly across the planet owing to globalization. If scientists do not manage to stop this tendency, the following implications are inevitable:
The Caribbean islands and Latin America will have enormous life losses since the disease outbreaks there have continuously been reported there since 2013 (Lanciotti & Valadere, 2014).
Since the infection is frequently misdiagnosed as dengue fever (both conditions reveal the same symptoms, including headache, joint and muscle pain, and rash), a lot of patients are at risk of receiving wrong treatment. Dengue can develop into terminal complication if mistaken for chikungunya. On the contrary, if chikungunya is diagnosed as dengue, the therapy applied may aggravate joint pain, which can persist for months (Musso & Gubler, 2015).
The majority of the worlds population inhabits regions affected by the infection. If the disease continues spreading, 154 countries will be at risk (Weaver & Lecuit, 2015).
Prevention of the Disease
Since the most significant risk factor is the mosquito vector breeding sites, prevention relies on decreasing the number of water-filled container habitats in order to stop breeding. However, this requires rapid mobilization of the infected communities, especially during outbreaks. Insecticides must be sprayed on all surfaces and around containers. It is also advised to put on clothes that fully cover the body in order to minimize the exposure to biting. Repellents (containing IR3535, DEET or icaridin) can also be applied to clothing. Good protection can be provided by mosquito nets (Juan et al., 2015). They are strongly recommended to those who sleep during the daytime. Indoor biting can be significantly reduced by insecticide vaporizers.
Tourists traveling to risk areas should also take precautionary measures including wearing long pants and sleeves, using repellents and fitting rooms with screens.
How to Treat the Disease
Currently, there is no antiviral drug treatment that can lead to full recovery of the patient. Neither is there any commercial vaccine. That is why the major goal of the treatment is to relieve joint and muscle pain. For this, anti-pyretics, fluids, and optimal analgesics are used (Juan et al., 2015).
References
Juan, M., Bayona, B., Viloria, S., Accini, J. L., San Juan-Vergara, H., & Viasus, D. (2015). Fatal cases of Chikungunya virus infection in Colombia: Diagnostic and treatment challenges. Journal of Clinical Virology, 69(1), 27-29.
Lanciotti, R. S., & Valadere, A. M. (2014). Transcontinental movement of Asian genotype chikungunya virus. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 20(8), 1400-1402.
Musso, D., & Gubler, D. J. (2015). Zika virus: Following the path of dengue and chikungunya? The Lancet, 386(9990), 243-244.
Weaver, S. C., & Lecuit, M. (2015). Chikungunya virus and the global spread of a mosquito-borne disease. New England Journal of Medicine, 372(13), 1231-1239.
In the past century, America has had great success in increasing life expectancy, since its achievement of the public health policies. Though there are over twenty public health achievements made over the century, the control of infectious diseases and tobacco use are the two critical achievements that seem to stand out. It is for these accomplishments that the health status of Americans has been improved, enhancing the quality of life.
A social habit that was once accepted in the United States is now the cause of millions of deaths, and has proved to be a long lasting problem. Smoking was accepted in the nineteenth century until in the twentieth century when lung cancer became an epidemic among cigarette smokers. Over the century, researchers have documented over 10000 articles that link smoking to cancer. After years of research, the Advisory Committee to the U.S. Surgeon General declared cigarette smoking as a cause of lung cancer in 1964.
It is only after the declaration of cigarette smoking as a health hazard in United States that efforts were made to control this habit. Passive smoking, which is usually as a result of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke, was also declared to have adverse health effects to the public. Even though the number of deaths associated with cigarette smoking has reduced, the habit is still on-going; thus, posing risk to the next generation (Prohaska et al., 2012).
On the other hand, the declaration made on the control of infectious diseases saw a massive drop of infant, and child mortality. In 1900, the mortality rate for children under the age of 5 was 34%, but with the changes made in the health sector, the number had decreased to 1.4% in 1997.
Before the discovery of micro-organisms as the cause of infectious diseases, the leading causes of deaths were tuberculosis, pneumonia, and diarrhea. Decades later, the discovery of antibiotics, implementation of childhood immunization programs, and improvement of hygiene and sanitation has considerably decreased child mortality (Tulchinsky & Varavikova, 2009).
Immigration due to industrialization in the beginning of the twentieth century was among the factors that caused the repeated outbreaks. Moreover, the efforts made by the local, state and federal government in improving public health are the reason behind disease prevention. This has been achieved through campaigns on water treatment, food safety, hand washing, and other hygienic practices that prevent infections.
Despite the efforts made in regulating cigarette smoking, the habit is still practiced, and the number of smokers is ever increasing. Conversely, the remedial actions that were taken to control infectious diseases have successfully been implemented, making this a better achievement.
Even though the number of lung cancer patients has reduced, people are still entangled with the habit of smoking, regardless of the health risks. Basically, the FDA has not done enough, apart from residing smoking zones for smokers, limiting the smoking age, and necessitating the need for cigarette companies to indicate that cigarettes are harmful, nothing much has been done.
With the infectious disease control, there has been cooperation between the people, the government and public health organizations. However, on the other hand the issue of tobacco use has for long been politicized because of the gains it brings in terms of creation of employment and generation of income to thousands of families. For this, there is the need for intervention so as to accelerate the efforts made in reducing tobacco use.
References
Prohaska, T. R., Anderson, L. A., & Binstock, R. H. (2012). Public health for an aging society. Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Tulchinsky, T. H., & Varavikova, E. (2009). The new public health. Amsterdam: Elsevier / Academic Press.
Researchers attempt to identify molecular changes that cause the development of liposarcomas. This knowledge is important for the prevention and treatment of this disease. An important characteristic of this sarcoma is the presence of giant rod chromosomes and supernumerary ring (Miettinen, 2010, p. 115). This attribute is particularly typical of well-differentiated liposarcoma (Miettinen, 2010, p. 115). Moreover, this chromosome includes different oncogenes such as HMGA2, MDM2, OS1, and some others. In particular, the amplification of MDM2 is associated with an increased risk of liposarcoma. In addition to that, CDK4 is also amplified during this disease (Conyers, Young, & Thomas 2011, p. 3). Researchers pay attention to the important role that this gene plays in the cell cycle. Overall, it is believed that well-differentiated liposarcoma can be trigged by different molecular mechanisms. This is one of the main challenges that have not been overcome yet.
Furthermore, it is possible to speak about myxoid liposarcoma that occurs primarily in deep soft tissues (Pfeifer 2006, p. 209). It is characterized by the fusion of the FUS-CHOP gene. Additionally, FUS can be fused with EBP protein. Researchers conjecture that these translocations also lead to the formation of oncogenes (Conyers, Young, & Thomas 2011, p. 3). One should note that mice that have fused FUS-CHOP gene can also have liposarcomas.
Currently, researchers rely on such as a technique as interphase FISH (fluorescence in situ hybridization) since it is useful for detecting possible translocations of genes (Pfeifer 2006, p. 209). Moreover, the patients, who have myxoid liposarcoma, have PIK3CA mutations (Conyers, Young, & Thomas 2011, p. 3). These are some of the main findings. Nevertheless, it is difficult to identify a single underlying cause of this disease.
Finally, one can speak about pleomorphic liposarcoma. This disorder is also accompanied by genetic modifications. In particular, it is possible to mention the loss of such chromosomes as 13p14 and 12p13 (Conyers, Young, & Thomas 2011, p. 5). However, the main limitation is that pleomorphic liposarcoma is not very widespread, and there are not many molecular studies of this disease. At present, researchers try to develop effective mouse models because such models can help them better understand the pathogenesis of this disease. On the whole, by understanding the molecular basis of liposarcomas, researchers can develop more effective treatments of this disease. For example, one can speak about MDM2 inhibitors. These are some of the main benefits that can be identified.
References
Conyers, R, Young, S & Thomas, D 2011, Liposarcoma: Molecular Genetics and Therapeutics, Sarcoma, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 1-13. Web.
Miettinen, M 2010, Modern Soft Tissue Pathology: Tumors and Non-Neoplastic Conditions, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Web.
Pfeifer, J 2006, Molecular Genetic Testing in Surgical Pathology, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, New York. Web.